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62-562: In 1947, the Iraqi monarchy entered into secret negotiations with the British government. The various political parties in Iraq were not informed of the negotiations and instead, heard about them on the radio or read about them in the newspapers the following day. Although the news on the treaty sparked the al-Wathbah protests, it soon became clear that there were elements of unrest that went beyond

124-469: A continued British presence, and anti-British politicians, such as Rashid Ali al-Gaylani , who demanded that remaining British influence in the country be removed. Various ethnic and religious factions tried to gain political accomplishments during this period, often resulting in violent revolts and a brutal suppression by the Iraqi military, led by Bakr Sidqi . In 1933, thousands of Assyrians were killed in

186-635: A figurehead from 1933 to 1939, when he was killed in a motor accident. Pressure from Arab nationalists and Iraqi nationalists demanded that the British leave Iraq, but their demands were ignored by the United Kingdom . Upon achieving official independence in October 1932, political tensions arose over the continued British presence in the new Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq, with Iraq's government and politicians split between those considered pro-British politicians, such as Nuri as-Said , who did not oppose

248-692: A new government. The Iraqi government blamed foreign agitators for the January uprisings. They pointed to the Saudi support for the Independence Party and the Soviet links to the Communist party. They claimed that the Communist party received major donations from Jewish communists. However, records indicate that the Communist party spent very little money in January 1948, which supports the idea that

310-406: A purge in government of Pro-Gaylani elements, banned the listening of axis-aligned radio, and various other procedures aimed at keeping security and order in the country. Despite all these security procedures, this did not satisfy the British who demanded the disbanding of the Iraqi army and arresting any who supported, joined, or was sympathetic to the 1941 coup. Midfaai's government was split over

372-562: A radio address that very night, Jabr asked that the people remain calm and stated that details of the treaty would soon be provided. Immediately, a great number of people went out on the streets. Many reported hearing machine-gun fire in the night. On January 27, the Central Committee of the Communist Party released and distributed a manifesto that called for continued protests. It claimed that imperialists had infiltrated

434-757: A work by architect Rifat Chadirji and sculptor Jawad Saleem is Baghdad's most iconic work, and is situated in Liberation Square . The sculpture of Shahriyar and Scheherazade by sculptor Mohammed Ghani Hikmat , situated on the banks of the Tigris River near Abu Nuwas Street, is another example of Iraqi art featured in the area. Neighbourhoods of Rusafa district include Bab Al-Moatham and Al-Sa'adoon . The Imam Ahmad Bin Hanbal Shrine ( Arabic : مَسْجِد ٱلْإِمَام أَحْمَد بِن حَنۢبَل , romanized :  Masjid Al-Imām Aḥmad Bin Ḥanbal )

496-619: Is stable but also politically integrated. The population estimate in 1920 was 3 million, with the largest ethnic groups being Arabs, Kurds, Assyrians, and Turkmens, with minorities of Persians , Yezidis, Jews, Mandaeans, Shabaks, Armenians, and Kawliyah. During the Iraqi Hashemite rule, Arab population began to expand at the expense of other ethnic groups both due to higher birth rates and government policies which preferred Arab Sunni minority over other ethnic and religious groups. In 1955, Iraqi population reached 6.5 million people. This

558-680: The 1953 Iraqi parliamentary election . King Faisal II reached his majority on 2 May 1953, ending the regency of Abd al-Ilah, who continued however to be influential in politics due to his influence on the young king. In 1955, to counter the influence of the Soviet Union on the Middle East, Iran , Iraq, Pakistan , Turkey and the United Kingdom signed the Baghdad Pact , with the United States being heavily involved in

620-613: The Al-Wathbah uprising , broke out across Baghdad as a popular demand against the government treaty with the British, and with communist party support. More protests continued in spring, but were interrupted in May, with the martial law, when Iraq entered the 1948 Arab–Israeli War along with other members of the Arab League. Various other protests against the government appeared, including the 1952 Iraqi Intifada which ended just before

682-805: The Futuwwa youth and Rashid Ali 's supporters, resulting in deaths of some 180 Jews and heavy damage to the Jewish community . After the Anglo-Iraqi War ended, Abd al-ilah returned as Regent with Jameel Al-Madfaai as Prime minister and dominated the politics of Iraq until the overthrow of the monarchy and the royal family's assassination in 1958. the Government pursued a largely pro- western policy during this period. al-Midfaai's government declared martial law in Baghdad and its surroundings, started

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744-608: The Independence Party held a secret meeting in its headquarters, planning a public protest against the government. On January 4, students from al-Karkh and Al Adhamiya secondary schools joined up to protest the statements of al-Jamālī. They marched toward the School of Law, with the intent on continuing on toward the Royal Palace. When they arrived in the vicinity of the School of Law, police attempted to break up

806-591: The Iraqi Army , known as the 14 July Revolution . King Faisal II along with members of the Royal Family were executed in the courtyard of the Rihab Palace in central Baghdad (the young King had not yet moved into the newly completed Royal Palace ). The coup brought Abd al-Karim Qasim to power. He withdrew from the Baghdad Pact and established friendly relations with the Soviet Union . Iraq under

868-591: The Mesopotamian campaign of the First World War . Although a League of Nations mandate was awarded to the United Kingdom in 1920, the 1920 Iraqi revolt resulted in the scrapping of the original mandate plan in favour of a formally sovereign Iraqi kingdom, but one that was under effective British administration. The plan was formally established by the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty . The role of

930-528: The Royal Iraqi Army established itself on the high ground to the south of the Habbaniyah air force base. An Iraqi envoy was sent to demand that no movements, either ground or air, were to take place from the base. The British refused the demand and then themselves demanded that the Iraqi army leave the area at once. After a further ultimatum given in the early hours of May 2 expired, at 0500 hours

992-581: The Simele massacre , in 1935–1936 a series of Shi'a uprisings were brutally suppressed in mid-Euphrates region of Iraq, and in parallel an anti-conscription Kurdish uprising in the north and a Yazidi revolt in Jabal Sinjar were crushed in 1935. Throughout the period political instability led to an exchange of numerous governments. Bakr Sidqi himself ascended to power in 1936, following a successful coup d'état against prime minister Yasin al-Hashimi but

1054-566: The Soviet Union . In 1945, during the final stages of World War II , Iraq joined the United Nations and became a founding member of the Arab League . In 1948, massive violent protests, known as the Al-Wathbah uprising , broke out across Baghdad as a popular demand against the government treaty with the British, and with support from the communists. More protests continued in the spring, but were interrupted in May, when martial law

1116-517: The Treaty of Sèvres . However, the 1920 Iraqi revolt resulted in the scrapping of the original mandate plan. Instead, the Kingdom of Iraq was recognised as a sovereign country under King Faisal I of Iraq . Not withstanding the formal sovereignty of the Iraqi king, a treaty of alliance was concluded between the Kingdom of Iraq and the United Kingdom in 1922 called the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty . It provided

1178-561: The United Kingdom in June 1930, whereby the United Kingdom would end its effective mandate on the condition that the Iraqi government would allow British advisers to take part in government affairs, allow British military bases to remain, and a requirement that Iraq assist the United Kingdom in wartime. Strong political tensions existed between Iraq and the United Kingdom even upon gaining independence. After gaining independence in 1932,

1240-685: The United Nations and became a founding member of the Arab League . The period following the end of the occupation was a time of the creation of various political parties opposed to or supportive of the government including the National Democratic Party led by Kamil Chadirji , the Constitutional Union Party led by Nuri Al-Said, and the Iraqi Independence Party led by Muhammad Mahdi Kubba . In 1948, massive violent protests, known as

1302-721: The first military coup took place in the Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq, as Bakr Sidqi succeeded in replacing the acting Prime Minister with his associate. Multiple coups followed in a period of political instability, peaking in 1941. During the Second World War , the Iraqi government of the Prince-Regent , Prince 'Abd al-Ilah , was overthrown in 1941 by the Golden Square officers, headed by Rashid Ali . The short-lived pro-Nazi government of Iraq

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1364-477: The British began bombing the Iraqi troops threatening the base, marking the beginning of the Anglo-Iraqi War . Hostilities lasted from May 2 to May 31, 1941, between Iraqis and the British and their indigenous Assyrian Levies . The British would continue to occupy Iraq for many years afterwards. In the aftermath of the Iraqi defeat, a bloody Farhud massacre broke out in Baghdad on June 2, initiated by

1426-557: The Iraqi government immediately declared that Kuwait was rightfully a territory of Iraq. Kuwait had loosely been under the authority of the Ottoman vilâyet of Basra for centuries until the British had formally severed it from the Ottoman influence after the First World War . It was on this basis the Iraqi government stated that Kuwait was a British imperialist invention. After Faisal died in September 1933, King Ghazi reigned as

1488-765: The Iraqi kingdom. With the signing in Baghdad of the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty on 30 June 1930 and the settling of the Mosul Question , Iraqi politics took on a new dynamic. The treaty came into force on 3 October 1932, when the Kingdom of Iraq officially became fully independent as the Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq . The emerging class of Sunni and Shia landowning tribal sheikhs vied for positions of power with wealthy and prestigious urban-based Sunni families and with Ottoman-trained army officers and bureaucrats. Because Iraq's newly established political institutions were

1550-550: The National Democrats called on a cease of protests. The Communists called on protesters to continue, seeing that they were close to overthrowing the government. On January 23, new demonstrations convened, combining students, members of the Independence Party, workers, and Scuffles broke out between members of the Independence party and Communists. On January 26, Jabr and Nūri returned to Baghdad from London. In

1612-459: The Regent and King. The coup failed however, as the training was suddenly stopped . In February 1958, King Hussein of Jordan and `Abd al-Ilāh proposed a union of Hāshimite monarchies to counter the recently formed Egyptian–Syrian union . The resulting Arab Federation was formed on 14 February 1958. The Hashemite monarchy lasted until 1958, when it was overthrown through a coup d'état by

1674-553: The Republic Bridge, and various markets and residential areas. and is home to a number of public squares housing important monumental artworks. This district is an older area on the eastern side of Baghdad; its central commercial area , a centre of markets considered one of the four old central business districts of Baghdad (Karkh, Rusafa, Adhamiyah and Kadhimiya ). It includes many urban features which have become landmarks including Firdos Square and Liberation Square ,

1736-601: The Schalchiyyah rail workers. In Al-Rasafa , the police opened fire on a group of Communists, killing four. Despite their losses, they kept marching forward and arriving in Amīn square, they were stopped by new police reinforcement. On the other side of the river, new clashes broke out between protesters. They moved onto the Ma’mūn Bridge and the police fired directly onto the crowd with machine-guns, killing scores. Many fell into

1798-479: The United Kingdom in the formal administration of the Kingdom of Iraq was ended in 1932, following the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty (1930) . Now officially a fully independent kingdom, officially named the Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq , it underwent a period of turbulence under its Hashemite rulers throughout its entire existence. Establishment of Sunni religious domination in Iraq was followed by Assyrian , Yazidi and Shi'a unrests, which were all brutally suppressed. In 1936,

1860-626: The United Kingdom with a role in the administration and governance of Iraq. King Faisal had previously been proclaimed King of Syria by a Syrian National Congress in Damascus in March 1920 but was ejected by the French in July of the same year. The British RAF retained certain military control. In this manner, Iraq remained under de facto British administration until 1932. Under King Faisal of Iraq,

1922-535: The al-Wathbah the Communist party's ideology was radicalized. One of the major issues that came to the fore was whether the party should cooperate strategically with the national bourgeoisie against the monarchy. However, in the spring of 1948 a number of protests and strikes took place. In May, the demonstrations were ended by the government's declaration of martial law , following the outbreak of war in Palestine. Although many different factions came together for

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1984-458: The authorities released the arrested students. The strike ceased. On January 16, it was announced that the Iraqi government had signed a treaty in Portsmouth, effectively renewing its alliance with Britain. At the announcement of the treaty a three-day strike of college students began during which they protested in the streets. On January 16, there were large-scale student protests. Although

2046-474: The beginning of the unrest, other social groups joined the students: The Schalchiyyah workers and the poor shantytown dwelling migrants from South-Eastern Iraq known as the Shargāwiyyīn. The police responded by firing directly at the demonstrators. The demonstrators, however, did not disperse. On January 21, the demonstrations escalated. The police fired on students who were transporting those who had been killed

2108-638: The biggest landmark in Baghdad and one of the most visited. It has also been home to a number of monumental artworks including the Monument to the Unknown Soldier (1959–2002) designed by local architect, Rifat Chadirji ; a statue of Saddam Hussein (2002–2003) by local sculptor Khalid Ezzat, which was replaced by Freedom by local sculptor Bassem Hamad al-Dawiri , all located in Firdos Square. The Freedom Monument ( Nasb al-Hurriyah ),

2170-517: The civil government of postwar Iraq was led by the High Commissioner , Sir Percy Cox , and his deputy, Colonel Arnold Wilson . British reprisals after the murder of a British officer in Najaf failed to restore order. British administration had yet to be established in the mountains of north Iraq. The most striking problem facing the British was the growing anger of the nationalists in

2232-508: The creation of a foreign power, and because the concept of democratic government had no precedent in Iraqi history, the politicians in Baghdad lacked legitimacy and never developed deeply rooted constituencies. Thus, despite a constitution and an elected assembly, Iraqi politics was more a shifting alliance of important personalities and cliques than a democracy in the Western sense. The absence of broadly based political institutions inhibited

2294-591: The creation of a republic. Kingdom of Iraq The Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq ( Arabic : المملكة العراقية الهاشمية , romanized :  al-Mamlakah al-ʿIrāqiyyah ʾal-Hāshimyyah , lit.   ' Iraqi Hashemite Kingdom ' ) was a state located in the Middle East from 1932 to 1958. It was founded on 23 August 1921 as the Kingdom of Iraq , following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in

2356-403: The day before. Members of the faculty at the School of pharmacy and medicine resigned from their posts. Protests spread in the streets including non-students and many Communists. “An atmosphere redolent of social revolution enveloped Baghdad.” That night, the king of Iraq annulled the treaty. The king's disavowal of the treaty split the opposition in two camps: those, like the Independence Party and

2418-436: The demonstrations and acted in such a way as to justify the government's violent intervention. The manifesto called on the protesters to continue their struggle until the government was toppled and a democratic government established in its wake. Students and workers, coming from the popular areas of Baghdad, gathered to protest. A large group attempted to cross the bridge into West Baghdad where they would meet with students and

2480-572: The demonstrations were spontaneous and enjoyed widespread popular support. The al-Wathbah uprising strengthened the Communist party. However, the new recruits were not trained and Fahd and 125 other senior communists were in the prison of Kut . The Communist Party more or less merged ideologically with the National Liberation Party and literally with the National Revolutionary Committee . After

2542-416: The early nationalist movement's ability to make deep inroads into Iraq's diverse social structure. The new Anglo-Iraqi Treaty was signed in June 1930. It provided for a "close alliance," for "full and frank consultations between the two countries in all matters of foreign policy ," and for mutual assistance in case of war. Iraq granted the British the use of air bases near Basra and at Al Habbaniyah and

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2604-456: The government to concede to army demands. The 1941 Iraqi coup d'état overthrew the pro-British Prime minister Taha al-Hashimi and placed Rashid Ali al-Gaylani as prime minister of a pro-Nazi government called "the National defense government", the Regent 'Abd al-Ilah fled the royal palace after learning of this and with British support went to Habbaniyah then to Basra , he would spend

2666-454: The head of a new government. Jameel al-Midfaai's government retired and Abd al-Ilah ordered Nuri to form a new government in 9 October. In 1943, the Kurdish leader Mustafa Barzani led a rebellion against the central government in Baghdad. After the failure of the uprising Barzani and his followers fled to the Soviet Union . In 1945, during the final stages of World War II , Iraq joined

2728-414: The monarchy faced two bare alternatives: either the country would have plunged into chaos or its population should become universally the clients and dependents of an omnipotent but capricious and unstable government. To these two alternatives the overthrow of the monarchy has not added a third. The task of the subsequent governments was to find that third alternative, mainly to establish a modern state that

2790-528: The monarchy. The territory of Iraq was under Ottoman dominance until the end of the First World War , becoming an occupied territory under the British military from 1918. In order to transform the region to civil rule, Mandatory Mesopotamia was proposed as a League of Nations Class A mandate under Article 22 and entrusted to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland , when the former territories of that Ottoman Empire were divided in August 1920 by

2852-496: The negotiations to form it. Major protest and opposition followed the pact, as many did not approve of an alliance led by the west. In September 1956, a planned coup was discussed during spring training by a military faction known as the free officers (inspired by the Egyptian Free Officers Movement ) which planned to launch the coup after training by controlling strategic sites in Baghdad and arresting

2914-515: The opposition to the treaty. The participants in the demonstrations included workers, students, and the urban poor, living on the outskirts of Baghdad. Many of the protests were orchestrated by the Iraqi Communist Party . The al-Wathbah “sprang from the same conditions of existence that had since the first years of the forties been making for the advance of communism.” The rigid boundaries of class in Iraqi society, widespread poverty in

2976-508: The protest. Students from the School of Law left their classrooms to join the protest (548). The police used clubs and fired shots to disperse the protest. Many students were wounded and thirty-nine were arrested (six of whom were members of the Iraqi Communist Party or the related party The National Liberation Party), and the School of Law was closed down. On January 6, students from all colleges went on strike. On January 8,

3038-599: The protests were somewhat spontaneous in nature, they coalesced through the organizing of several political organizations: The communist “Student Cooperation Committee,” the Progressive Democrats, the Populists, the Kurdish Democrats , and the student wings of the National Democratic Party and the Independence Party. On January 20 there was a large-scale student march. For the first time since

3100-514: The protests, and the Liberal and National Democrats cooperated with the Communist party, there was no further collaboration on their respective opposition to the monarchy. By the end of 1948, the Communist party was in shambles, many of its leaders in prison. It was ideologically discredited after it had followed the Soviet line of accepting the partition of Palestine and the establishment of Israel in

3162-633: The rest of the following months in Jordan and the Mandate of Palestine . His fleeing caused a constitutional crisis upon the new government. Rashid Ali did not abolish the monarchy, but installed ٍSharif Sharaf bin Rajeh as a more compliant Regent instead, and attempted to restrict the rights of the British under the treaty from 1930. Rashid Ali attempted to secure control over Iraq asking assistance of Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and Imperial Japan. On April 20

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3224-449: The right to move troops across the country. The treaty, of twenty-five years' duration, was to come into force upon Iraq's admission to the League of Nations. This occurred on October 3, 1932. In 1932, the Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq was granted full independence under King Faisal I . However, the British retained military bases in the country. Iraq was granted official independence on 3 October 1932 in accordance with an agreement signed by

3286-414: The river. Meanwhile, demonstrations in Amīn square escalated and again, police fired directly onto the crowds. While the demonstrators regrouped in various locations, the police withdrew. It is estimated that 300 – 400 demonstrators were killed. On the evening of January 26, Salih Jabr fled to England. The king entrusted a Shi’ī religious scholar who had been involved in the 1920 uprisings with forming

3348-403: The summer. However, another effect of the al-Wathbah was that "the opposition parties responsible for organizing the demonstrations were discovering new, immediate forms of power, denied to them both by their small numbers and by the rigging of the parliamentary system. The al-Wathbah uprising helped pave the way for the 1952 Intifada , the overthrow of the monarchy in the 14 July Revolution , and

3410-428: The urban centers, a growing student population, all these factors contributed to the events of January 1948. In addition the purchasing power of workers was at a historic low, thus contributing to growing frustrations among salaried workers. On January 3, the Iraqi foreign minister, Fāḍil al-Jamālī , was reported to have said that the Iraqi people were “sensitive to the merits” of the 1930 Anglo-Iraqi Treaty. That night,

3472-427: The usage of force to cleanse the country of Pro-Gaylani elements, and some ministers were not amused of having to ally with Britain, neither did the Prime minister Himself entertain the idea of creating so many arrests. This policy outraged both the British and the regent, who saw his policy of empathy as indirectly supporting opposition and radical movements. The minister of Finance, Ibrahim Kamal al-Ghuthunfiri [ar] ,

3534-411: The west side of which is Al- Karkh ). It is one of the old quarters of Baghdad, situated in the heart of the city, The Rasafa side is one of the main parts of the city of Baghdad, the capital of Iraq. Along with Karkh, it forms the essential components of the city, with the Tigris River flowing between them. The Rasafa side is known for its numerous cultural and historical landmarks, including the Old City,

3596-401: Was after the Iraqi Kingdom lost the most of its Jewish population following Operation Ezra and Nehemiah (some 130 thousand people) in 1951–1952. Al-Rusafa, Iraq Rusafa or Al-Rasafa ( Arabic : ٱلرُّصَافَة \ رَّصَافَة , romanized :  Ruṣāfah / Ar-Raṣāfah ) is one of the nine administrative districts in Baghdad , Iraq , on the eastern side of the River Tigris (on

3658-425: Was at the top of the politicians who wanted a change to al-Midfaai's policy, and believed in the usage of harsher measures to keep security in the country, he submitted his resignation on 2 September 1941. The resignation of Ibrahim Kamal weakened Midfaai's government, and the retired minister began calling for some politician to prepare the formation of a new government, and paved the way for Nuri al-Said to become

3720-402: Was defeated in May 1941 by the Allied forces in the Anglo-Iraqi War . Iraq was later used as a base for Allied attacks on the Vichy-French-held Mandate of Syria and support for the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran . At the same time, the Kurdish leader Mustafa Barzani led a rebellion against the central government in Baghdad. After the failure of the uprising, Barzani and his followers fled to

3782-431: Was imposed after Iraq entered the 1948 Arab–Israeli War along with other members of the Arab League. In February 1958, King Hussein of Jordan and Prince `Abd al-Ilāh proposed a union of Hāshimite monarchies to counter the recently formed Egyptian–Syrian union . The resulting Arab Federation , formed on 14 February 1958, was short-lived and ended the same year with a military coup led by Abdul-Karim Qasim deposing

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3844-409: Was later assassinated in 1937 during a visit to Mosul, followed by the death of King Ghazi in a car crash in 1939 suspected to have been planned by the British, causing a regency under Prince 'Abd al-Ilah over the 4 year old king Faisal II of Iraq lasting until 1953. From 1917 to 1946, five coups by the Iraqi Army occurred, led by the chief officers of the army against the government to pressure

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