Johannes Althusius (1563 – August 12, 1638) was a German–French jurist and Calvinist political philosopher .
79-513: He is best known for his 1603 work "Politica Methodice Digesta, Atque Exemplis Sacris et Profanis Illustrata" which revised editions were published in 1610 and 1614. The ideas expressed therein relate to the early development of federalism in the 16th and 17th centuries and the construction of subsidiarity . Johannes Althusius was born in 1563 to a family of modest means in Diedenshausen , County Sayn-Wittgenstein ( Siegen-Wittgenstein ),
158-539: A confederacy and a unitary state . The U.S. Constitution was written as a replacement for the Articles of Confederation , under which the United States was a loose confederation with a weak central government. In contrast, Europe has a greater history of unitary states than North America, thus European "federalism" argues for a weaker central government, relative to a unitary state. The modern American usage of
237-767: A confederation , (see "pathway" graphic re regional integration or regional separation). Federalism may encompass as few as two or three internal divisions, as is the case in Belgium or Bosnia and Herzegovina . In Canada , federalism typically implies opposition to sovereignty movements—most commonly the question of Quebec separatism . In 1999, the Government of Canada established the Forum of Federations as an international network for exchange of best practices among federal and federalizing countries. Headquartered in Ottawa ,
316-670: A Calvinist County in what is now the state of North Rhine Westphalia (but was then the seat of an independent Grafschaft or County). Under the patronage of a local count, he attended the Gymnasium Philippinum in Marburg from 1577 and began his studies in 1581, concentrating in law and philosophy. He first studied Aristotle in Cologne , then studied law around 1585/86 under Denis Godefroy at Basel . In 1586, Althusius received his doctorate in civil and canon law from
395-612: A condition originally granted in exchange for the Kingdom of Bavaria 's agreement to join the German Empire in 1871. The constitutions of Germany and the United States provide that all powers not specifically granted to the federal government are retained by the states. The Constitution of some countries, like Canada and India , state that powers not explicitly granted to the provincial/state governments are retained by
474-540: A country's national and provincial/state governments. However, the term federalist comprises various political practices that differ in important details among the (so-called) federalist nations—some of which are democratic in name only (e.g., modern Russia )—leaving the terms "federalist", "federalism", "federation", etc., dependent on context. And, because the term federalization also proclaims distinctive political processes, its use also depends on context. Typically, political theory today discusses two main types of
553-640: A federal political system out of political associations that were grounded in the free initiative of citizens. Althusius relied on the neo-Platonian idea of a universal brotherhood, thus he combined the Greco-Roman ideal of an association that was governed by reciprocal relationships with the Catholic Christian principled of subsidiarity . Althusius' teachings presented an alternative to the theories of his contemporary Jean Bodin on sovereignty . According to Althusus, natural law gave citizens
632-528: A federation is formed at two levels: the central government and the regions (states, provinces, territories), and little to nothing is said about second or third level administrative political entities. Brazil is an exception, because the 1988 Constitution included the municipalities as autonomous political entities making the federation tripartite, encompassing the Union, the States, and the municipalities. Each state
711-402: A federation, the division of power between federal and regional governments is usually outlined in the constitution . Almost every country allows some degree of regional self-government, but in federations the right to self-government of the component states is constitutionally entrenched. Component states often also possess their own constitutions which they may amend as they see fit, although in
790-406: A majority of the states or cantons. In Australia, this latter requirement is known as a double majority . Some federal constitutions also provide that certain constitutional amendments cannot occur without the unanimous consent of all states or of a particular state. The US constitution provides that no state may be deprived of equal representation in the senate without its consent. In Australia, if
869-438: A mechanism (a safeguard) against the possibilities of rebellion or war—or the rise of repressive government via a would-be dictator or a centralized oligarchy . Proponents of federal systems have historically argued that the structures of checks-and-balances and power-sharing that are inherent in a federal system reduces threats—both foreign and domestic. And federalism enables a state to be both large and diverse , by mitigating
SECTION 10
#1732775350098948-563: A multi-state setting—with the concept termed a "federal union of states", as situated on the pathway (sprectrum) of regional-integration or regional-separation . Examples of federalism today, i.e., the federation of a central/federal government with regional sub-unit governments, include: Argentina , Australia , Austria , Belgium , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Brazil , Canada , Ethiopia , Germany , India , Iraq , Malaysia , Mexico , Micronesia , Nepal , Nigeria , Pakistan , Russia , Somalia , South Sudan , Sudan , Switzerland ,
1027-661: A particular region or regions. In Spain, the Basques and Catalans , as well as the Galicians , spearheaded a historic movement to have their national specificity recognized, crystallizing in the "historical communities" such as Navarre , Galicia , Catalonia , and the Basque Country . They have more powers than the later expanded arrangement for other Spanish regions, or the Spain of the autonomous communities (called also
1106-436: A plurality or realistic harmony of interests. Pluralism recognizes that certain conditions may make good-faith negotiation impossible, and therefore also focuses on what institutional structures can best modify or prevent such a situation. Pluralism advocates institutional design in keeping with a form of pragmatic realism here, with the preliminary adoption of suitable existing socio-historical structures where necessary. One of
1185-523: A proposed amendment will specifically impact one or more states, then it must be endorsed in the referendum held in each of those states. Any amendment to the Canadian constitution that would modify the role of the monarchy would require unanimous consent of the provinces. The German Basic Law provides that no amendment is admissible at all that would abolish the federal system. It has been argued that federalism and other forms of territorial autonomy are
1264-532: A state and provides only limited regional sovereignty, anarchist federalism as envisioned by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon is stateless, providing every autonomy with absolute sovereignty and distinct individuality. The Swiss constitution , in its support of indivisibility and nationhood and its view that its cantons are mere territorial divisions rather than sovereign constituencies, is incompatible with anarchist federalism and its principles of free association , decentralization and autonomy . Anarchist federalism
1343-530: A stronger central government. When the U.S. Constitution was being drafted, the Federalist Party supported a stronger central government, while " Anti-Federalists " wanted a weaker central government. This is very different from the modern usage of "federalism" in Europe and the United States. The distinction stems from the fact that "federalism" is situated in the middle of the political spectrum between
1422-613: A timely theory on procedural federalism. In 1871 most German states unified to form the German Empire under Bismarck's imperial constitution . Gierke's book on Althusian federalism went on to become a source of inspiration for pluralism in Britain, with John Neville Figgis and Harold Laski adapting Gierke. In 1932 the German–American professor Carl Joachim Friedrich published a new, slightly abridged edition of Althusius' Politica . After World War II Friedrich helped to draft
1501-422: A union of guilds , a province was a union of towns, a state was a union of provinces, and an empire was a union of states . Althusius' understanding of society as a community of communities informed his views on the nature of politics and federalism ( consociatio symbiotica ). For Althusius the purpose of politics was the "science of those matters which pertain to the living together" and federations perfectly put
1580-492: A useful way to structure political systems in order to prevent violence among different groups within countries because it allows certain groups to legislate at the subnational level. Some scholars have suggested, however, that federalism can divide countries and result in state collapse because it creates proto-states. Still others have shown that federalism is only divisive when it lacks mechanisms that encourage political parties to compete across regional boundaries. Federalism
1659-401: A wider readership. In 1968 Althusisus was credited as "the real father of modern federalism" by Daniel J. Elazar . Johannes Althusius saw confederations as feasible and successful cooperative constitutional orders. In his view, a confederation could be built on successive levels of political community where each community pursues common interests. A village was a union of families, a town was
SECTION 20
#17327753500981738-453: Is "the will of God for men." Althusius contended that terms such as "common law" and "moral law" were other names for natural law. To know the true dictates of natural law, he argued, we must carefully study Scripture and tradition, as well as revelation and reason. Johannes Althusius died on August 12, 1638, in Emden. After his death Althusius remained a controversial thinker. His Politica
1817-412: Is a gradual movement of power from the component states to the centre, as the federal government acquires additional powers, sometimes to deal with unforeseen circumstances. The acquisition of new powers by a federal government may occur through formal constitutional amendment or simply through a broadening of the interpretation of a government's existing constitutional powers given by the courts. Usually,
1896-440: Is a rejection of the statism and nationalism present in modern federations, and instead provides an alternative system of federative organization founded on stateless individuality and autonomy . For anarchists, republican federalism is as oppressive as a centralized, unitary state , for all it is perceived to accomplish is delegate and transfer the perceived oppression of a state to local levels and jurisdictions . In
1975-478: Is divided into municipalities ( municípios ) with their own legislative council ( câmara de vereadores ) and a mayor ( prefeito ), which are partly autonomous from both Federal and State Government. Each municipality has a "little constitution", called "organic law" ( lei orgânica ). Mexico is an intermediate case, in that municipalities are granted full-autonomy by the federal constitution and their existence as autonomous entities ( municipio libre , "free municipality")
2054-497: Is established by the federal government and cannot be revoked by the states' constitutions. Moreover, the federal constitution determines which powers and competencies belong exclusively to the municipalities and not to the constituent states . However, municipalities do not have an elected legislative assembly. Federations often employ the paradox of being a union of states, while still being states (or having aspects of statehood ) in themselves. For example, James Madison (author of
2133-489: Is federated, vs. only part of their territory is federated. Some systems are national while others, like the European Union , are supra-national. Two extremes of federalism are notable: 1) at one extreme, the strong federal state is almost completely unitary, with few powers reserved to local governments; 2) at the opposite extreme, the national government may be a federation in name-only, while actually operating as
2212-642: Is often viewed as the most fair and effective way to moderate between discrete values. Political theorist Isaiah Berlin , a strong supporter of pluralism, wrote: "let us have the courage of our admitted ignorance, of our doubts and uncertainties. At least we can try to discover what others ... require, by ... making it possible for ourselves to know men as they truly are, by listening to them carefully and sympathetically, and understanding them and their lives and their needs... ." Pluralism thus tries to encourage members of society to accommodate their differences by avoiding extremism (adhering solely to one value, or at
2291-491: Is represented by an equal number of senators irrespective of the size of its population. Alternatively, or in addition to this practice, the members of an upper house may be indirectly elected by the government or legislature of the component states, as occurred in the United States prior to 1913 , or be actual members or delegates of the state governments, as, for example, is the case in the German Bundesrat and in
2370-516: Is sometimes viewed in the context of international negotiation as "the best system for integrating diverse nations, ethnic groups, or combatant parties, all of whom may have cause to fear control by an overly powerful center." However, those skeptical of federal prescriptions sometimes believe that increased regional autonomy can lead to secession or dissolution of the nation. In Syria , for example, federalization proposals have failed in part because "Syrians fear that these borders could turn out to be
2449-410: Is the notion that a single vision or ideological schema, whether Marxism or unbridled neoliberalism , is likely too simplistic and rigid to advocate human beings' natural plurality of values. Pluralists likewise reject historicism and utopian thinking. While some, like John N. Gray , repudiate historical progress altogether, others, like Edmund Burke , indicate that human progress has occurred, as
Johannes Althusius - Misplaced Pages Continue
2528-442: Is to directly represent the governments of component states in federal political institutions. Where a federation has a bicameral legislature the upper house is often used to represent the component states while the lower house represents the people of the nation as a whole. A federal upper house may be based on a special scheme of apportionment , as is the case in the senates of the United States and Australia, where each state
2607-477: The Articles of Confederation as the general level of government of the original Thirteen Colonies ; and, later in the United States, the Confederate States of America ). And federalism also differs from the unitary state , where the regional level is subordinate to the central/federal government, even after a devolution of powers—and is notable for regional-integration of governing powers , (e.g.,
2686-535: The Council of the European Union . The lower house of a federal legislature is usually directly elected, with apportionment in proportion to population, although states may sometimes still be guaranteed a certain minimum number of seats. In Canada, the provincial governments represent regional interests and negotiate directly with the central government. A First Ministers conference of the prime minister and
2765-472: The European Union , ultimately leading to the United States of Europe . Although there are medieval and early modern examples of European states which used confederal and federal systems, contemporary European federalism originated in post-war Europe; one of the more important initiatives was Winston Churchill 's speech in Zürich in 1946. In the United States , federalism originally referred to belief in
2844-649: The Latin language using fashionable Ramist logic. As time passed, his political canon was read less and the barriers to interpreting Althusian politics increased. In the second half of the 19th century Althusius was rediscovered when Otto von Gierke published research on Politica . In Germany, an academic society was founded to research Althusius and his times. At a time when Otto von Bismarck worked towards unifying Germany Gierke promoted Althusius' preoccupation with political order based on majority decisions , traditional European relationships, and negotiated agreements as
2923-479: The United Arab Emirates , the United States , and Venezuela . The terms "federalism" and "confederalism" share a root in the Latin word foedus , meaning " treaty , pact or covenant ". Until the late eighteenth century their two early meanings were essentially the same: a simple league among sovereign states , based on a treaty; (thus, initially the two were synonyms). It
3002-465: The United Kingdom ). Federalism is at the midpoint of variations on the pathway (or spectrum) of regional-integration or regional-separation . It is bordered on the increasing-separation side by confederalism, and on the increasing-integration side by devolution within a unitary state; (see "pathway" graphic). Some characterize the European Union as a pioneering example of federalism in
3081-689: The United Provinces of the Netherlands (1579–1795); the German Bund (1815–66); the first American union, known as the Confederation of the United States of America (1781–89); and the second American union, formed as the United States of America (1789-present). Modern federalism is a political system that (nominally) is based upon operating under democratic rules and institutions; and where governing powers are shared between
3160-775: The United States Constitution ) wrote in Federalist Paper No. 39 that the US Constitution "is in strictness neither a national nor a federal constitution; but a composition of both. In its foundation, it is federal, not national; in the sources from which the ordinary powers of the Government are drawn, it is partly federal, and partly national..." This stems from the fact that states in the US maintain all sovereignty that they do not yield to
3239-899: The University of Basel . While studying at Basel, Althusius lived with Johannes Grynaeus for a period of time, with whom he studied theology. After completing his studies in 1586, Althusius became the first professor of law at the Protestant-Calvinist Herborn Academy of Nassau County. From 1592 to 1596, he taught at the Calvinist Academy in Burgsteinfurt/Westphalia. He was married in 1596 in Siegen to Margarethe Neurath (born 1574), with whom he had at least six children. In 1599 he
Johannes Althusius - Misplaced Pages Continue
3318-572: The economy . Consequently, anarchist federalism, promoting widespread, common ownership over the means of production , detests the centralized and unequal nature of capitalism , and the hierarchy of its companies and corporations : an anarchist federalist society would envisage widespread, federalized wealth distribution . Comparing republican and anarchist federalism, James Guillaume states that Switzerland 's federative cantonal system , despite its direct democracy , differs significantly from anarchist federalism: while Swiss federalism retains
3397-491: The polis bringing villages together, and in cities themselves forming confederations . In the modern era Federalism was first adopted by a union of the states of the Old Swiss Confederacy as of the mid-14th century. Federalism differs from confederalism , where the central government is created subordinate to the regional states—and is notable for its regional-separation of governing powers, (e.g.,
3476-407: The "coffee for everyone" arrangement), partly to deal with their separate identity and to appease peripheral nationalist leanings, partly out of respect to specific rights they had held earlier in history. However, strictly speaking Spain is not a federation, but a system of asymmetric devolved government within a unitary state. It is common that during the historical evolution of a federation there
3555-577: The Forum of Federations partner governments include Australia, Brazil, Ethiopia, Germany, India, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan and Switzerland. The governments of Argentina , Australia , Brazil , India , and Mexico , among others, are organized along federalist principles. In Europe , "federalist" is sometimes used to describe those who favor a common federal government, with distributed power at regional, national and supranational levels. The Union of European Federalists advocates for this development within
3634-665: The German Holy Roman Empire as a commonwealth were the majority could decide matters for all. In reference to Aristotle , Althusius examined the confederate institutions of the Holy Roman Empire and established a theory of federalism where power is shared among autonomous smaller and larger political communities. Althusius was Calvinist and did not hold Thomas Aquinas 's theory on the commonwealth in high regard. In 1603 Althusius published Politica Methodice Digesta , setting out his theory on building
3713-726: The German constitution, known as Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany , while working as adviser in Allied-occupied Germany . Friedrich praised Althusius for having written the first "full-bodied concept of federalism" and so generated renewed interest in Althusius on both sides of the Atlantic. In 1964 Frederick Smith Carney published an abridged English translation of Politica , exposing Althusius to
3792-508: The Senate ), was overlaid upon the pre-existing regional governments of the thirteen independent States. With each level of government allocated a defined sphere of powers, under a written constitution and the rule of law (that is, subject to the independent third-party arbitration of a supreme court in competence disputes), the two levels were thus brought into a coordinate relationship for the first time. In 1946, Kenneth Wheare observed that
3871-473: The Union and the Member States as concurrent powers are retained by the constituent States. Where every component state of a federation possesses the same powers, we are said to find 'symmetric federalism'. Asymmetric federalism exists where states are granted different powers, or some possess greater autonomy than others do. This is often done in recognition of the existence of a distinct culture in
3950-679: The United States, President Dwight Eisenhower 's "middle way" was arguably motivated by a belief in political pluralism. While advocated by many pluralists, pluralism need not embrace social democracy given it does not a priori assume a desirable political system. Rather, pluralists advocate one based on the pre-existing traditions and cognizable interests of a given society, and the political structure most likely to harmonize these factors. Thus, pluralists have also included Michael Oakeshott and John Kekes , proponents of something close to liberal conservatism (although will often reject such political labels). What pluralists certainly do have in common
4029-537: The United States, the meaning of federalism shifted, now referring uniquely to the novel compound-political form established at the Philadelphia Constitution Convention —while the meaning of confederalism remained as a league of states. In a narrow sense, federalism refers to the mode in which the body politic of a state is organized internally—and this is the meaning most often used in modern times. Political scientists, however, use
SECTION 50
#17327753500984108-463: The basis of a federal society, constituent entities of an anarchist federation are ideally autonomous and self-determining, collaborating equally, freely and mutually within the federation through the values of solidarity and autonomy . Unlike a republican federation, federalism, in anarchy, is not simply a form of political division or devolution , but rather, federative principles apply to all aspects of society, including social relations and
4187-432: The bottom-up, from the periphery to the centre. Higher-order units are merely the direct expression of lower-order units delegating, combining and coordinating. Though there is no central government or administration, higher-order committees and councils , composed of delegates from federal constituencies, may convene under a popular, revocable mandate . Embracing the principle of free and voluntary association as
4266-445: The constitution of the United States must be ratified by three-quarters of either the state legislatures, or of constitutional conventions specially elected in each of the states, before it can come into effect. In referendums to amend the constitutions of Australia and Switzerland it is required that a proposal be endorsed not just by an overall majority of the electorate in the nation as a whole, but also by separate majorities in each of
4345-488: The contemporary political philosophy of such a view include Isaiah Berlin , Stuart Hampshire and Bernard Williams . An earlier version of political pluralism was a strong current in the formation of modern social democracy (to balance socialist and capitalist ideals), with theorists such as the early Harold Laski and G. D. H. Cole , as well as other leading members of the British Fabian Society . In
4424-586: The creation of an entirely new system of government that provided for democratic representation at two governing levels simultaneously, which was implemented in the US Constitution . In the United States implementation of federalism, a bicameral general government, consisting of a chamber of popular representation proportional to population ( the House of Representatives ), and a chamber of equal State-based representation consisting of two delegates per State (
4503-487: The emergence of new interests, identities, values, and differences raising claims to representation not currently legible within the existing pluralist imaginary. Pluralism is connected with the hope that this process of conflict and dialogue will result in a quasi- common good . This common good is not an abstract value or set in stone, however, but an attempt at balancing competing social interests and will thus constantly shift given present social conditions. Proponents in
4582-461: The event of conflict the federal constitution usually takes precedence. In almost all federations the central government enjoys the powers of foreign policy and national defense as exclusive federal powers . Were this not the case a federation would not be a single sovereign state, per the UN definition. Notably, the states of Germany retain the right to act on their own behalf at an international level,
4661-731: The federal government. Much like the US system, the Australian Constitution allocates to the Federal government (the Commonwealth of Australia) the power to make laws about certain specified matters which were considered too difficult for the States to manage, so that the States retain all other areas of responsibility. Under the division of powers of the European Union in the Lisbon Treaty , powers which are not either exclusively of Union competence or shared between
4740-438: The federalization process: According to Daniel Ziblatt , there are four competing theoretical explanations for adopting a federal system: Immanuel Kant noted that "the problem of setting up a state can be solved even by a nation of devils" — if they possess a constitution that pits opposing factions against each other with a durable system of binding checks and balances . Essentially, particular states may use federation as
4819-615: The federation by their own consent. This was reaffirmed by the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution , which reserves all powers and rights that are not delegated to the Federal Government as left to the States and to the people. The structures of most federal governments incorporate mechanisms to protect the rights of component states. One method, known as ' intrastate federalism ',
SECTION 60
#17327753500984898-510: The micro and macro level. Essentially, he has shifted the theory from a conservative theory of order, to a progressive theory of democratic contestation and engagement. Connolly introduces the distinction between pluralism and pluralization . Pluralism, whether the interest-group pluralism of Robert A. Dahl or political liberalism's "reasonable" pluralism, is oriented towards existing diversity of groups, values, and identities competing for political representation. Pluralization, by contrast, names
4977-550: The new American republic and devotes this paper to questioning how best to avoid such an occurrence. He posits that to avoid factionalism, it is best to allow many competing factions (advocating different primary principles) to prevent any one from dominating the political system . This relies, to a degree, on a series of disturbances changing the influences of groups so as to avoid institutional dominance and ensure competition. Like Edmund Burke , this view concerns itself with balance, and subordinating any single abstract principle to
5056-735: The powers of governing between the two levels of governments. Two illustrative examples of federated countries—one of the world's oldest federations, and one recently organized—are Australia and the Federated States of Micronesia , (Micronesia). Johannes Althusius (1563-1638), is considered the father of modern federalism, along with Montesquieu . In 1603, Althusius first described the bases of this political philosophy in his Politica Methodice Digesta, Atque Exemplis Sacris et Profanis Illustrata . By 1748, in his treatise The Spirit of Law , Montesquieu (1689-1755) observed various examples of federalist governments: in corporate societies, in
5135-451: The problems plaguing any discussion of pluralism is that it is a multi-faceted concept. There are at least four distinct ways in which the term pluralism has been used. William E. Connolly challenges older theories of pluralism by arguing for pluralization as a goal rather than as a state of affairs. Connolly's argument for the "multiplication of factions" follows James Madison 's logic in engaging groups, constituencies, and voters at both
5214-407: The provincial premiers is the de facto highest political forum in the land, although it is not mentioned in the constitution. Federations often have special procedures for amendment of the federal constitution. As well as reflecting the federal structure of the state this may guarantee that the self-governing status of the component states cannot be abolished without their consent. An amendment to
5293-542: The purpose of politics into practice. Althusius's federalism did not involve the surrendering of power , instead it rested on responsibly sharing power. Althusius became one of the principal European thinkers on federalism at the start of the 17th century while the European continent was ravaged by religious wars . Against the backdrop of the Reformation and the rise of absolutist monarchies , Althusius identified
5372-473: The right to resist tyrannical government and sovereignty rested with the community, not the ruler. Therefore Althusius maintained that legitimate political authority was founded on smaller communities. Federalism Federalism is a mode of government that combines a general level of government (a central or federal government) with a regional level of sub-unit governments (e.g., provinces , states , cantons , territories , etc.), while dividing
5451-727: The risk of a central government turning tyrannical. Countries around the world have implemented federal systems using variations of central and regional sovereignty for their governments. For convenience of studying these governments, they may be divided according to several catagories, such as: minimalistic federations, which consist of only two sub-federal units (subunits); as compared to multi-regional federations, consisting of three or more regional governments (subunits). Or, based on their body polity type: emirate, provincial, state, republicanism or constitutional monarchy , democratic—or democratic in-name-only . And, federal systems may be differentiated between those whose entire territory
5530-429: The same as the ones that the fighting parties have currently carved out." Pluralism (political philosophy) Pluralism as a political philosophy is the diversity within a political body, which is seen to permit the peaceful coexistence of different interests, convictions, and lifestyles. While not all political pluralists advocate for a pluralist democracy , this is the most common stance, because democracy
5609-687: The term federalism in a much broader sense, referring instead to a "multi-layer or pluralistic concept of social and political life." The first forms of federalism took place in ancient times, in the form of alliances between city states. Some examples from the seventh to second century BC were the Archaic League , the Aetolic League , the Peloponnesian League , and the Delian League . An early ancestor of federalism
5688-415: The two levels of government in the US were "co-equally supreme". In this, he echoed the perspective of American founding father James Madison who saw the several States as forming "distinct and independent portions of the supremacy" in relation to the general government. In anarchism , federalism is a horizontalist and decentralized organizational doctrine which holds that society should be built from
5767-474: The very least refusing to recognize others as legitimate) and engaging in good faith dialogue. Pluralists also seek the construction or reform of social institutions in order to reflect and balance competing principles. One of the more famous arguments for institutional pluralism came from James Madison in The Federalist paper number 10 . Madison feared that factionalism would lead to in-fighting in
5846-598: The word is much closer to the European sense. As the power of the U.S. federal government has increased, some people have perceived a much more unitary state than they believe the Founding Fathers intended. Most people politically advocating "federalism" in the United States argue in favor of limiting the powers of the federal government, especially the judiciary (see Federalist Society , New Federalism ). The contemporary concept of federalism came about with
5925-572: Was appointed president of the Nassau College in its temporary location in Siegen , returning with it to Herborn in 1602. At the same time he began his political career by serving as a member of the Nassau (Germany) county council. For the next several years Althusius was involved in several colleges in the area, variously serving as their president and lecturing on law and philosophy. In 1603 he
6004-401: Was attacked by Henning Arnisaeus and Hugo Grotius during the 17th century for its defense of local autonomies against the rise of territorial absolutism and proponents of the modern united nation state . Interest in Althusius' theories continued into the second half of the 17th century, but Althusius was forgotten once the European wars of religion had ended. Althusius had published in
6083-465: Was elected as a municipal trustee of the city of Emden , in East Frisia , where he ultimately made his fame. He became a city Syndic in 1604, which placed him at the helm of Emden's governance until his death. In 1617 Althusius published his principal judicial work, Dicaeologicae . In this work, he categorized laws into two main types: natural laws and positive laws, and argued that natural law
6162-400: Was in this sense that James Madison referred to the new US Constitution as "neither a national nor a federal Constitution, but a composition of both"—i.e., constituting neither a single large unitary state nor a league/confederation among several small states, but a hybrid of the two forms—according to Madison; "The Federalist No. 39" . Notably, in the course of the nineteenth century in
6241-653: Was the Achaean League in Hellenistic Greece . Unlike the Greek city states of Classical Greece , each of which insisted on keeping its complete independence, changing conditions in the Hellenistic period drove city states to band together even at the cost of surrendering part of their sovereignty. Subsequent unions of states included the first and second Swiss Confederations (1291–1798 and 1815–48);
#97902