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62-464: The Alutiiq (pronounced / ə ˈ l uː t ɪ k / ə- LOO -tik in English; from Promyshlenniki Russian Алеутъ, " Aleut "; plural often "Alutiit"), also called by their ancestral name Sugpiaq ( / ˈ s ʊ ɡ ˌ b j ɑː k / SUUG -byahk or / ˈ s ʊ ɡ p i ˌ æ k / SUUG -pee- AK ; plural often "Sugpiat"), as well as Pacific Eskimo or Pacific Yupik , are

124-553: A Yupik peoples , one of eight groups of Alaska Natives that inhabit the southern-central coast of the region. Their traditional homelands date back to over 7,500 years ago, and include areas such as Prince William Sound and outer Kenai Peninsula ( Chugach Sugpiaq ), the Kodiak Archipelago and the Alaska Peninsula ( Koniag Alutiiq ). In the early 1800s there were more than 60 Alutiiq villages in

186-532: A coastal lifestyle, subsisting primarily on ocean resources that were supplemented with rich land resources, such as berries and land mammals. The exact methods of subsistence would change throughout the seasons. Ugnerkaq , or spring, was often regarded as the most difficult season to survive in due to the winter's limiting of resources. During this time, the Alutiiq would turn to the shore, collecting shellfish , hunting octopuses , and pick greens during low tide. As

248-645: A formal system of writing. In 2010 the high school in Kodiak responded to requests from Alutiiq students and agreed to teach the Alutiiq language . It is one of the Eskaleut languages , belonging to the Yup'ik branch of these languages. The Kodiak dialect of the language was being spoken by only about 50 persons, all of them elderly, and the dialect was in danger of being lost entirely. Promyshlenniki Initially,

310-519: A part of the regional fur trade , the opportunities offered by this newly available luxury product drew many Russians eager to make a profit in newly conquered territories. Service-men that arrived, rarely able to receive a stable salary from the state. Merchants began to visit the Russian settlements, interested in selling the gathered furs at various markets. The promyshlenniki were free men who made their living any way they could. When petitioning

372-401: A protective measure against predators. Alongside the use of protective measures, the tusks were used during the mating season to be used for dominance, as their antlers were smaller back then compared to now. Evolution made the antlers bigger and the use of their tusks diminished as antlers grew, making them nothing more than teeth in their mouths. These teeth have the same chemical compound as

434-483: A range of items from ivory carvings to false teeth , piano keys , fans , and dominoes . Elephant ivory is the most important source, but ivory from mammoth , walrus , hippopotamus , sperm whale , orca , narwhal and warthog are used as well. Elk also have two ivory teeth, which are believed to be the remnants of tusks from their ancestors. The national and international trade in natural ivory of threatened species such as African and Asian elephants

496-549: A rock crusher. The Wildlife Conservation Society has pointed out that the global ivory trade leads to the slaughter of up to 35,000 elephants a year in Africa. In June 2018, Conservative MEPs' Deputy Leader Jacqueline Foster MEP urged the EU to follow the UK's lead and introduce a tougher ivory ban across Europe. China was the biggest market for poached ivory but announced they would phase out

558-503: A strong anisotropy to ivory's mechanical characteristics. Separate hardness measurements on three orthogonal tusk directions indicated that circumferential planes of tusk had up to 25% greater hardness than radial planes of the same specimen. During hardness testing, inelastic and elastic recovery was observed on circumferential planes while the radial planes displayed plastic deformation. This implies that ivory has directional viscoelasticity . These anisotropic properties can be explained by

620-460: A variety of other work. An example of an important RAC employee who was born into serfdom near Kursk , sold to the RAC, called a promyshlennik by the RAC, and played a key role in RAC expansion into California, was Timofei Nikitich Tarakanov . The promyshlenniki were adept at hunting on land but they lacked the skills to hunt on water, where sea otters lived. The promyshlenniki then turned to

682-517: Is illegal. The word ivory ultimately derives from the ancient Egyptian âb, âbu ('elephant'), through the Latin ebor- or ebur . Both the Greek and Roman civilizations practiced ivory carving to make large quantities of high value works of art, precious religious objects, and decorative boxes for costly objects. Ivory was often used to form the white of the eyes of statues. There

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744-641: Is some evidence of either whale or walrus ivory used by the ancient Irish. Solinus , a Roman writer in the 3rd century claimed that the Celtic peoples in Ireland would decorate their sword-hilts with the 'teeth of beasts that swim in the sea'. Adomnan of Iona wrote a story about St Columba giving a sword decorated with carved ivory as a gift that a penitent would bring to his master so he could redeem himself from slavery. The Syrian and North African elephant populations were reduced to extinction, probably due to

806-702: Is used today to make handcrafted knives and similar implements. Mammoth ivory is rare and costly because mammoths have been extinct for millennia, and scientists are hesitant to sell museum-worthy specimens in pieces. Some estimates suggest that 10 or more million mammoths are still buried in Siberia. Fossil walrus ivory from animals that died before 1972 is legal to buy and sell in the United States, unlike many other types of ivory. The ancestors of elk had teeth, also known as elk ivory, that protruded outwards, similar to animals that have tusks, they were used as

868-555: The "Accra Declaration" calling for a total ivory trade ban, and twenty range states attended a meeting in Kenya calling for a 20-year moratorium in 2007. Methods of obtaining ivory can be divided into: The use and trade of elephant ivory have become controversial because they have contributed to seriously declining elephant populations in many countries. It is estimated that consumption in Great Britain alone in 1831 amounted to

930-678: The Aleutians by killing sea cows of the Commander Islands to extinction. The Sea otters of the Aleutians were progressively exploited by Russians, until by 1759 the Fox Islands were visited by Russian trappers. As these early trappers had "no knowledge of navigation", they consequently "took no observations, made no surveys..." and greatly limited geographical information for outsiders. The Lebedev-Lastochkin Company sent

992-523: The Indian elephant in their annual tribute caravans to China. Chinese craftsmen carved ivory to make everything from images of deities to the pipe stems and end pieces of opium pipes . In Japan, ivory carvings became popular in the 17th century during the Edo period , and many netsuke and kiseru , on which animals and legendary creatures were carved, and inro , on which ivory was inlaid, were made. From

1054-516: The Kodiak archipelago, with an estimated population of 13,000 people. Today more than 4,000 Alutiiq live in Alaska . At present, the most commonly used title is Alutiiq (singular), Alutiik (dual), Alutiit (plural). These terms derive from the names ( Алеутъ , Aleut ) that the promyshlenniki ( indigenous Siberian and Russian fur traders and settlers) gave to the native people in

1116-689: The Philippines, ivory was also used to craft the faces and hands of Catholic icons and images of saints prevalent in the Santero culture. Tooth and tusk ivory can be carved into a vast variety of shapes and objects. Examples of modern carved ivory objects are okimono , netsukes , jewelry, flatware handles, furniture inlays, and piano keys. Additionally, warthog tusks, and teeth from sperm whales , orcas and hippos can also be scrimshawed or superficially carved, thus retaining their morphologically recognizable shapes. As trade with Africa expanded during

1178-593: The Qing border into what became Russian Manchuria by the 1730s to pursue sable populations residing there. Russian officials were aware of these operations, but "tolerated any breach of the Russian-Chinese treaties which might occur." The Great Northern Expedition expanded Russian geographical knowledge to many of the Aleutian Islands and the mainland of Alaska from the Alaska Peninsula to near

1240-530: The Russian promyshlenniki took Aleut partners, had children, and adopted a native lifestyle during their time in the Aleutian Islands . In 1794, with direct authorization from Catherine II, the Siberian governor Ivan Pil sent instructions that managers of Shelikhov-Golikov Company at Kodiak Island should "encourage" single Russian men to marry native women. While the Vancouver Expedition

1302-686: The Russians in Russian America were Siberian fur-hunters, river-merchants, and mercenaries, although many later worked as sailors , carpenters , artisans , and craftsmen. The promyshlenniki formed the backbone of Russian trading-operations in Russian Alaska . Some of them worked on preliminary request contracts, including for the Russian-American Company , and their duties and activities became less involved in

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1364-492: The ban, disallowing any sales of ivory on eBay. A more recent sale in 2008 of 108 tonnes from the three countries and South Africa took place to Japan and China. The inclusion of China as an "approved" importing country created enormous controversy, despite being supported by CITES, the World Wide Fund for Nature and Traffic . They argued that China had controls in place and the sale might depress prices. However,

1426-606: The company's fur-gathering activities. Initially, the phenomenon arose in the Novgorod Republic . In the Novgorod dialect , they are called povolnik ( Russian : повольник ), a person who is not bound by constant obligations with any guild, principality, city, monastery, diocese or boyar. Their region of activity was Perm, the Irtysh River, and Northwestern Siberia. Following the Russian conquest of Siberia, as

1488-686: The deaths of nearly 4,000 elephants. In 1975, the Asian elephant was placed on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species ( CITES ), which prevents international trade between member states of species that are threatened by trade. The African elephant was placed on Appendix I in January 1990. Since then, some southern African countries have had their populations of elephants "downlisted" to Appendix II, allowing

1550-669: The demand for ivory in the Classical world . The Chinese have long valued ivory for both art and utilitarian objects. Early reference to the Chinese export of ivory is recorded after the Chinese explorer Zhang Qian ventured to the west to form alliances to enable the eventual free movement of Chinese goods to the west; as early as the first century BC, ivory was moved along the Northern Silk Road for consumption by western nations. Southeast Asian kingdoms included tusks of

1612-514: The desired form. Other applications, such as ivory piano keys, introduce repeated wear and surface handling of the material. It is therefore essential to consider the mechanical properties of ivory when designing alternatives. Elephant tusks are the animal's incisors, so the composition of ivory is unsurprisingly similar to that of teeth in several other mammals. It is composed of dentine, a biomineral composite constructed from collagen fibers mineralized with hydroxyapatite . This composite lends ivory

1674-603: The domestic trade of non-ivory items; there have also been two "one off" sales of ivory stockpiles. In June 2015, more than a ton of confiscated ivory was crushed in New York City 's Times Square by the Wildlife Conservation Society to send a message that the illegal trade will not be tolerated. The ivory, confiscated in New York and Philadelphia , was sent up a conveyor belt into

1736-473: The first Russian promyshlennik to investigate the resources of the lower Yukon River in 1790. The party, led by the hunter Ivanov, traveled from Iliamna Lake to the Kuskokwim and Yukon rivers. Ivanov reported on the extensive fish and game resources and the many people inhabiting the region. At first the traders returned to Kamchatka after every season but eventually trading posts were established in

1798-586: The first half of the 20th century, Kenyan elephant herds were devastated because of demand for ivory, to be used for piano keys. During the Art Deco era from 1912 to 1940, dozens (if not hundreds) of European artists used ivory in the production of chryselephantine statues. Two of the most frequent users of ivory in their sculptured artworks were Ferdinand Preiss and Claire Colinet . While many uses of ivory are purely ornamental in nature, it often must be carved and manipulated into different shapes to achieve

1860-535: The first part of the 1800s, ivory became readily available. Up to 90 percent of the ivory imported into the United States was processed, at one time, in Connecticut where Deep River and Ivoryton in 1860s became the centers of ivory milling, in particular, due to the demand for ivory piano keys. Ivory usage in the last thirty years has moved towards mass production of souvenirs and jewelry. In Japan,

1922-418: The harvest, and ancestors Before contact with Russian fur traders, they lived in semi-subterranean homes called ciqlluaq . Today, in the 21st century, the Alutiiq live in coastal fishing communities in more modern housing. They work in all aspects of the modern economy, while also maintaining the cultural value of subsistence. Traditional Alutiiq art are sources of pride for many as they typically highlight

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1984-599: The importance of ancestors, the endurance and preservation of tradition, and the beauty of the natural world that sustain Alutiiq life. Physical medians of expression include pinguat –beads (made from shell, bone, ivory, amber, coal, shale, slate and fish vertebrae), woodcarvings in relation to Alutiiq religion , skin sown articles of clothing for celebratory and traditional use, and grass weaving of both artistic expression and functional application. During festivals, story telling, singing and dancing were all important means of passing down history through generations as Alutiiq lacked

2046-612: The impressive mechanical properties—high stiffness, strength, hardness, and toughness—required for its use in the animal's day-to-day activities. Ivory has a measured hardness of 35 on the Vickers scale , exceeding that of bone. It also has a flexural modulus of 14 GPa, a flexural strength of 378 MPa a fracture toughness of 2.05 MPam . These measured values indicate that ivory mechanically outperforms most of its most common alternatives, including celluloid plastic and polyethylene terephthalate . Ivory's mechanical properties result from

2108-527: The increase in wealth sparked consumption of solid ivory hanko – name seals – which before this time had been made of wood. These hanko can be carved out in a matter of seconds using machinery and were partly responsible for massive African elephant decline in the 1980s, when the African elephant population went from 1.3 million to around 600,000 in ten years. Before plastics were introduced, ivory had many ornamental and practical uses, mainly because of

2170-423: The ivory found in the highly used and poached elephant tusks, making it another good alternative when it comes to taking ivory as the teeth can be possibly removed without harming the elk themselves. Among Indian tribes, elk teeth has major significance when it comes to jewelry. Among women, men wore them as well. Either through bracelets, earrings, and chokers, there was deeper meaning for both men and women within

2232-615: The later site of New Archangel . News of the many Sea otter populations along these lands quickly drew the attention of many Siberia-based promyshlenniki . Few had naval experience, though many began to travel the Bering Sea on kochs made from timber adjacent to the Sea of Okhotsk . The first Russian promyshlennik to travel east was Emelian Basov, who sailed to Bering Island in 1743. Promyshlenniki based out of Okhotsk or Petropavlovsk , made provisions for their yearly operations in

2294-490: The legal domestic manufacture and sale of ivory products in May 2015. In September of the same year, China and the U.S. announced they would "enact a nearly complete ban on the import and export of ivory." The Chinese market has a high degree of influence on the elephant population. Trade in the ivory from the tusks of dead woolly mammoths frozen in the tundra has occurred for 300 years and continues to be legal . Mammoth ivory

2356-541: The microstructure of the dentine tissue. It is thought that the structural arrangement of mineralized collagen fibers could contribute to the checkerboard-like Schreger pattern observed in polished ivory samples. This is often used as an attribute in ivory identification. As well as being an optical feature, the Schreger pattern could point towards a micropattern well-designed to prevent crack propagation by dispersing stresses. Additionally, this intricate microstructure lends

2418-553: The mid-1800s, the new Meiji government's policy of promoting and exporting arts and crafts led to the frequent display of elaborate ivory crafts at World's fair . Among them, the best works were admired because they were purchased by Western museums, wealthy people, and the Japanese Imperial Family . The Buddhist cultures of Southeast Asia , including Myanmar , Thailand , Laos and Cambodia , traditionally harvested ivory from their domesticated elephants. Ivory

2480-404: The native Aleut and Alutiiq men to do their hunting for them. These Alaska Natives were trained at a young age to hunt sea otters. The Russians took the women and children hostage and forced the men to hunt for them to ensure the safety of their families. The offspring of Russian men and Native women gave rise to a small but influential population of Alaskan Creoles . As time passed many of

2542-411: The natives of mainland Alaska for materials such as antler, ivory , caribou pelts, and glassy stone, not available on Kodiak. During Uksuaq , or fall, much of the work that was done was in preparation for winter. They pick berries sweetened by the first frosts; harvest large quantities of salmon spawning in local streams; hunt fat bears headed for hibernation, and shoot ducks migrating south for

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2604-579: The overexploitation of sable populations, continually forcing them to go further east. With the decline of European demand for sable furs at the end of the 17th century, so did its price; making many promyshlenniki partake in caravans headed to the Qing Empire , or selling their furs the border town of Kyakhta . Promyshlovik began to gather sable pelts located in the Amur basin during the early 17th century. Trappers based out of Nerchinsk regularly crossed

2666-524: The oversight by the officials, as they now had to "bring all his catch or his purchase to the town in proper season, submit his furs to the tsar's agents for sorting, appraisal, and taxation (usually, as we noted, 10 per cent). He must not trade with natives except in the town and then only in certain seasons; he must not ply natives with liquor; he must return his remaining furs to European Russia along approved routes and submit them to continual inspection." The fierce competition between promyshlenniki led to

2728-454: The piano industry abandoned ivory as a key covering material in the 1970s. Ivory can be taken from dead animals – however, most ivory came from elephants that were killed for their tusks. For example, in 1930 to acquire 40 tons of ivory required the killing of approximately 700 elephants. Other animals which are now endangered were also preyed upon, for example, hippos, which have very hard white ivory prized for making artificial teeth. In

2790-567: The price of ivory in China has skyrocketed. Some believe this may be due to deliberate price fixing by those who bought the stockpile, echoing the warnings from the Japan Wildlife Conservation Society on price-fixing after sales to Japan in 1997, and monopoly given to traders who bought stockpiles from Burundi and Singapore in the 1980s. A 2019 peer-reviewed study reported that the rate of African elephant poaching

2852-515: The region have advocated use of the terms that the people themselves use to describe their people and language: Sugpiaq (singular), Sugpiak (dual), Sugpiat (plural) — to identify the people (meaning "the real people"), and Sugstun, Sugcestun, Sugt'stun , or Sugtestun to refer to the language. All three names (Alutiiq, Aleut, and Sugpiaq) are used now, according to personal preference. Over time, many other ethnonyms were used to refer to this people. The people traditionally lived

2914-518: The region. Russian occupation began in 1784, following the Awa'uq Massacre by Grigory Shelikhov , a fur trader , of hundreds of Sugpiat at Refuge Rock ( Awa'uq ) just off the coast of Sitkalidak Island near the present-day village of Old Harbor ( Nuniaq ). Given the violence underlying the colonial period, and confusion because the Sugpiaq term for Aleut is Alutiiq , some Alaska Natives from

2976-449: The reinforcement of collagen fibers in the composite oriented along the circumference. Owing to the rapid decline in the populations of the animals that produce it, the importation and sale of ivory in many countries is banned or severely restricted. In the ten years preceding a decision in 1989 by CITES to ban international trade in African elephant ivory, the population of African elephants declined from 1.3 million to around 600,000. It

3038-652: The retrieval of the material from animals. Tagua nuts can also be carved like ivory. The trade of finished goods of ivory products has its origins in the Indus Valley . Ivory is a main product that is seen in abundance and was used for trading in Harappan civilization . Finished ivory products that were seen in Harappan sites include kohl sticks, pins , awls, hooks , toggles, combs , game pieces, dice , inlay and other personal ornaments. Ivory has been valued since ancient times in art or manufacturing for making

3100-654: The sale of 49 tonnes of ivory from Zimbabwe, Namibia and Botswana in 1997 to Japan. In 2007, under pressure from the International Fund for Animal Welfare , eBay banned all international sales of elephant-ivory products. The decision came after several mass slaughters of African elephants, most notably the 2006 Zakouma elephant slaughter in Chad . The IFAW found that up to 90% of the elephant-ivory transactions on eBay violated their own wildlife policies and could potentially be illegal. In October 2008, eBay expanded

3162-450: The same fashion, and using the same materials for their apparel, and differing from them in their exterior appearance only by the want of paint on their faces, and by their not wearing any of the Indian ornaments. Ivory Ivory is a hard, white material from the tusks (traditionally from elephants ) and teeth of animals, that consists mainly of dentine , one of the physical structures of teeth and tusks. The chemical structure of

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3224-716: The season furthered, fish and sea mammals would gradually move closer to shore to feed. Alutiiq would then hook cod and halibut , collect herring eggs , and hunt for seals. As Kiak , or summer, approached, activity increased out on the open ocean. Fishing for halibut and cod would continue to remain prevalent, along with the hunting and harvest at seal and sea lion haulouts, and bird rookeries even common feeding grounds for humpback whales . Trees and shrubs such as cedar ( Qar’usiq ; Qasrulek , Thuja plicata , Callitropsis nootkatensis ), Kenai birch , Sitka spruce ( Napaq ), and other were harvested for their medical and nutritional value. During this time trade would emerge with

3286-508: The teeth and tusks of mammals is the same, regardless of the species of origin, but ivory contains structures of mineralised collagen . The trade in certain teeth and tusks other than elephant is well established and widespread; therefore, "ivory" can correctly be used to describe any mammalian teeth or tusks of commercial interest which are large enough to be carved or scrimshawed . Besides natural ivory, ivory can also be produced synthetically, hence (unlike natural ivory) not requiring

3348-596: The territory. These posts began in the Aleutians and moved eastward toward the Alaska Peninsula rather than north to the Yukon delta and Bering Strait . Many promyshlenniki became employees of the Russian-American Company (RAC) after it was established in 1799. Under the RAC promyshlenniki performed tasks such as hunting, supervision of sea otter hunting parties, carpentry, shipbuilding, farming and ranching at Fort Ross, California , guard duty, and

3410-399: The tribes. For the women, it was believed that it would bring in good luck and good health. As for the men, it was seen that they were a good hunter. Ivory can also be produced synthetically. A species of hard nut is gaining popularity as a replacement for ivory, although its size limits its usability. It is sometimes called vegetable ivory , or tagua, and is the seed endosperm of

3472-614: The tsar, a service-man would call himself 'your Kholop ' and a promyshlennik 'your orphan'. These people were often called Cossacks, because they did not pay any personal taxes to the state. They paid only the trading tariff, and were required to participate in wars with their weapons and ammunition, food and fodder, similarly to American rangers. As the Russian Empire expanded its bureaucratic network into Siberia, Russian colonists were able to be placed under Imperial regulations. Fur operations ran by promyshlenniki were altered with

3534-402: The white color it presents when processed. It was formerly used to make cutlery handles, billiard balls , piano keys , Scottish bagpipes , buttons and a wide range of ornamental items. Synthetic substitutes for ivory in the use of most of these items have been developed since 1800: the billiard industry challenged inventors to come up with an alternative material that could be manufactured ;

3596-452: The winter. Much of their harvest would be preserved for winter. This was done a variety of ways: from drying, smoking, storing in oil, or freezing foods. During the harsh storms of Uksuq , or winter, most of the season would be spent insides, with occasional breaks in the storms allowing for the trapping of foxes and ermine, hunting ducks, or fishing through lake or river ice. While inside, celebrations and festivals would be held in honor of

3658-483: Was exploring the northern Pacific, the explorers visited several Russian fur posts. Joseph Whidbey visited a Lebedev-Lastochkin Company station at Tyonek , with Vancouver describing the promyshlenniki located there as: [The Promyshlenniki appeared to be perfectly content to live after the manner of the Native indians of the country; partaking with equal relish and appetite their gros [sic] and nauseous food, adopting

3720-857: Was found by investigators from the Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA) that CITES sales of stockpiles from Singapore and Burundi (270 tonnes and 89.5 tonnes respectively) had created a system that increased the value of ivory on the international market, thus rewarding international smugglers and giving them the ability to control the trade and continue smuggling new ivory. Since the ivory ban, some Southern African countries have claimed their elephant populations are stable or increasing, and argued that ivory sales would support their conservation efforts. Other African countries oppose this position, stating that renewed ivory trading puts their own elephant populations under greater threat from poachers reacting to demand. CITES allowed

3782-595: Was in decline, with the annual poaching mortality rate peaking at over 10% in 2011 and falling to below 4% by 2017. The study found that the "annual poaching rates in 53 sites strongly correlate with proxies of ivory demand in the main Chinese markets, whereas between-country and between-site variation is strongly associated with indicators of corruption and poverty." Based on these findings, the study authors recommended action to both reduce demand for ivory in China and other main markets and to decrease corruption and poverty in Africa. In 2006, nineteen African countries signed

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3844-482: Was prized for containers due to its ability to keep an airtight seal. It was also commonly carved into elaborate seals utilized by officials to "sign" documents and decrees by stamping them with their unique official seal. In Southeast Asian countries, where Muslim Malay peoples live, such as Malaysia , Indonesia and the Philippines , ivory was the material of choice for making the handles of kris daggers. In

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