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131-683: The exact origins of the Akhdam are uncertain, with some believing that they are the descendants of African slaves or 6th-century soldiers from the Kingdom of Aksum . The popular belief holds that they are the descendants of Ethiopian Aksumites during the latter's occupation of Yemen in pre-Islamic Yemen . Once these troops were finally expelled at the start of the Muslim era, some of the Ethiopian migrants are said to have remained behind, giving birth to

262-493: A long terminal repeat (LTR). Regions in the LTR act as switches to control production of new viruses and can be triggered by proteins from either HIV or the host cell. The Psi element is involved in viral genome packaging and recognized by gag and rev proteins. The SLIP element ( TTTTTT ) is involved in the frameshift in the gag - pol reading frame required to make functional pol . The term viral tropism refers to

393-778: A Saudi Arabian visa. When they arrive in Saudi Arabia without a visa they are arrested and put into prison for a few days and then handed over to licensed slave dealers. In addition, raids are made in Baluchistan and the Sheikdoms of the Persian Gulf and people are captured and carried off by land and sea, taken to small Saudi Arabian ports and sold in slave markets. In 1962, Yemen was one of the last countries worldwide to abolish slavery. The 1962 revolution in Yemen lead to

524-535: A cell by a virion can be called "cell-free spread" to distinguish it from a more recently recognized process called "cell-to-cell spread". In cell-free spread (see figure), virus particles bud from an infected T cell, enter the blood or extracellular fluid and then infect another T cell following a chance encounter. HIV can also disseminate by direct transmission from one cell to another by a process of cell-to-cell spread, for which two pathways have been described. Firstly, an infected T cell can transmit virus directly to

655-481: A cell surface. The unusual processing and high density means that almost all broadly neutralising antibodies that have so far been identified (from a subset of patients that have been infected for many months to years) bind to, or are adapted to cope with, these envelope glycans. The molecular structure of the viral spike has now been determined by X-ray crystallography and cryogenic electron microscopy . These advances in structural biology were made possible due to

786-454: A certain number of practices to respect in order to be considered pious in the eyes of society. These practices are, among others, a certain behavior to be respected such as wearing the veil or a way of socializing and maintaining relationships. Women from the elite are linked to power and contribute to reproducing the relations of dominance that are exercised towards the Akhdams. In the eyes of

917-705: A condition in which progressive failure of the immune system allows life-threatening opportunistic infections and cancers to thrive. Without treatment, the average survival time after infection with HIV is estimated to be 9 to 11 years, depending on the HIV subtype . In most cases, HIV is a sexually transmitted infection and occurs by contact with or transfer of blood , pre-ejaculate , semen , and vaginal fluids . Non-sexual transmission can occur from an infected mother to her infant during pregnancy , during childbirth by exposure to her blood or vaginal fluid, and through breast milk . Within these bodily fluids, HIV

1048-414: A few tested specimens might provide inconclusive results because of a low quantity specimen. In these situations, a second specimen is collected and tested for HIV infection. Modern HIV testing is extremely accurate, when the window period is taken into consideration. A single screening test is correct more than 99% of the time. The chance of a false-positive result in a standard two-step testing protocol

1179-539: A historical disdain for the Akhdam among conventional Yemeni society, insist that there is no official discrimination. The Yemeni government has occasionally built shelters for the Akhdam, although it is reported that 30% of Akhdam who received such state housing sold it, choosing instead to return to their original neighborhoods. Despite the supposed absence of official discrimination, many Akhdam claim that officials often block their attempts to seek state services at schools and hospitals. The search for rights and recognition

1310-451: A human host cell when the newly formed virus particle buds from the cell. The viral envelope contains proteins from the host cell and relatively few copies of the HIV envelope protein, which consists of a cap made of three molecules known as glycoprotein (gp) 120 , and a stem consisting of three gp41 molecules that anchor the structure into the viral envelope. The envelope protein, encoded by

1441-574: A key step in the progression to AIDS. A number of studies with subtype B-infected individuals have determined that between 40 and 50 percent of AIDS patients can harbour viruses of the SI and, it is presumed, the X4 phenotypes. HIV-2 is much less pathogenic than HIV-1 and is restricted in its worldwide distribution to West Africa . The adoption of "accessory genes" by HIV-2 and its more promiscuous pattern of co-receptor usage (including CD4-independence) may assist

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1572-417: A life of slavery, and also children are often forced to work for minimal, or even no pay, in the agricultural sector . The legal age for children to begin work in Yemen is 14, and the minimum age they can begin work that is considered to be hazardous is 18. However, in 2012, it was found that 13.6% of children aged 5 to 14 were working across several sectors, though the most predominant sector involving children

1703-560: A male audience, and were essentially prostituted by way of frequently being sold from one male client to the next. Many of the Imams of Yemen were the sons of slave-girls, and this custom continued until the 20th-century. In the 1960s, the King and Imam of Yemen, Ahmad bin Yahya (r. 1948-1962) were reported to have had a harem of 100 slave women. Eunuchs were the most expensive slaves. In

1834-446: A member of the team investigating slavery in Yemen, suggested that because of the levels of poverty, affected people may enable themselves to be controlled by wealthy people in order to have a better quality of life than what they can provide for themselves. Another possible factor in the existence of slavery in Yemen is government corruption , as slavery is easy to get away with and no steps are taken to put an end to it. Besides this,

1965-613: A more stable conformation following the NC binding, in which both the DIS and the U5:AUG regions of the gRNA participate in extensive base pairing. RNA can also be processed to produce mature messenger RNAs (mRNAs). In most cases, this processing involves RNA splicing to produce mRNAs that are shorter than the full-length genome. Which part of the RNA is removed during RNA splicing determines which of

2096-474: A new, more cohesive Yemen. Many had hoped that the revolt would help end the cycle of racism that has placed them at the bottom of the social ladder. The Akhdam are associated with a number of stereotypes. They are considered immoral because men let their wives interact with other men, ignorant of the Islamic religion, lenient towards theft and alcohol, or they are nomads without any property. The emergence of

2227-416: A number of domestic household chores, while women owned by men were exploited sexually and used as both sex slaves (concubines) as well as entertainers. In the early middle ages, there were also a minority of slave girls who were trained to become qiyan artist courtesans or slave singing girls. This custom was still ongoing in the 12th-century, when the female slave artists performed in public in front of

2358-447: A number of mechanisms, including pyroptosis of abortively infected T cells, apoptosis of uninfected bystander cells, direct viral killing of infected cells, and killing of infected CD4 T cells by CD8 cytotoxic lymphocytes that recognize infected cells. When CD4 T cell numbers decline below a critical level, cell-mediated immunity is lost, and the body becomes progressively more susceptible to opportunistic infections, leading to

2489-453: A slave, they must fit into one of the following four categories: 1) Be threatened, either physically or mentally, to work. 2) Controlled or owned by another person, through either threats, or abuse that is physical or mental. 3) Treated as a chattel, bought or sold as property, dehumanised. 4) Restrained physically, or has limitations on freedom of movement. It has been reported that two main types of slavery currently exist in Yemen. The first

2620-464: A strain of SIV found in sooty mangabees. Since HIV-1 is derived from SIVcpz, and HIV-2 from SIVsm, the genetic sequence of HIV-2 is only partially homologous to HIV-1 and more closely resembles that of SIVsm. Many HIV-positive people are unaware that they are infected with the virus. For example, in 2001 less than 1% of the sexually active urban population in Africa had been tested, and this proportion

2751-558: A target T cell via a virological synapse . Secondly, an antigen-presenting cell (APC), such as a macrophage or dendritic cell, can transmit HIV to T cells by a process that either involves productive infection (in the case of macrophages) or capture and transfer of virions in trans (in the case of dendritic cells). Whichever pathway is used, infection by cell-to-cell transfer is reported to be much more efficient than cell-free virus spread. A number of factors contribute to this increased efficiency, including polarised virus budding towards

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2882-510: A year, about half were children under the age of 5, a quarter of whom were in the first month of life. Studies by Al-Serouri et al. further report a poorer understanding of HIV risks amongst the Al-Akhdam community. Accordingly, group members also have higher reported rates and risks of contracting HIV infections. Many NGOs and charitable organizations from other countries such as CARE International are reportedly working toward improving

3013-399: Is a daily task for the Akhdams. This daily struggle for survival further reinforces the stereotypes that other social classes have about the Akhdam community. To change this, many petitions and letters are being written asking the state for welfare and other assistance. This way of negotiating without violence and insurgency is due to the fact that the Akhdam community does not take the state as

3144-557: Is about 11% out of the total population of Yemen. Most Akhdam live in segregated slums on the outskirts of Yemen's main urban centers. Many of them reside in the capital Sana'a , and others can also be found in Aden , Ta'izz , Lahij , Abyan , Al Hudaydah and Mukalla . Several Yemeni authors have written about the Akhdam and their marginalization: Slavery in Yemen Slavery in Yemen ( Arabic : العبودية في اليمن )

3275-460: Is an adaptation for repair of genome damage, and that recombinational variation is a byproduct that may provide a separate benefit. The final step of the viral cycle, assembly of new HIV-1 virions, begins at the plasma membrane of the host cell. The Env polyprotein (gp160) goes through the endoplasmic reticulum and is transported to the Golgi apparatus where it is cleaved by furin resulting in

3406-516: Is bound with the CD4 protein, the envelope complex undergoes a structural change, exposing the chemokine receptor binding domains of gp120 and allowing them to interact with the target chemokine receptor. This allows for a more stable two-pronged attachment, which allows the N-terminal fusion peptide gp41 to penetrate the cell membrane. Repeat sequences in gp41, HR1, and HR2 then interact, causing

3537-424: Is even lower in rural populations. Furthermore, in 2001 only 0.5% of pregnant women attending urban health facilities were counselled, tested or received their test results. Again, this proportion is even lower in rural health facilities. Since donors may therefore be unaware of their infection, donor blood and blood products used in medicine and medical research are routinely screened for HIV. HIV-1 testing

3668-405: Is expressed by a traditional Yemeni proverb: "Clean your plate if it is touched by a dog, but break it if it's touched by a Khadem.″ Though their social conditions have improved somewhat in modern times, the Akhdam are still stereotyped by mainstream Yemeni society: they have been called lowly, dirty, and immoral. Intermarriages between non-Akhdam and Akhdam are taboo and virtually prohibited, as

3799-580: Is general human trafficking , which can be defined as adults or children lured into a situation that results in their exploitation, by way of threats, violence or deliberate misrepresentation, and then forced to perform certain jobs. The second type is those who are not subject to trafficking, but instead still endure slavery and abuse. Such abuse has been reported to be depriving slaves of a basic right of access to water , unless their owner permits it. Children are extremely vulnerable to slavery in Yemen, as any children of existing slaves are also destined for

3930-464: Is high as the glycans shield the underlying viral protein from neutralisation by antibodies. This is one of the most densely glycosylated molecules known and the density is sufficiently high to prevent the normal maturation process of glycans during biogenesis in the endoplasmic and Golgi apparatus. The majority of the glycans are therefore stalled as immature 'high-mannose' glycans not normally present on human glycoproteins that are secreted or present on

4061-399: Is initially done using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to detect antibodies to HIV-1. Specimens with a non-reactive result from the initial ELISA are considered HIV-negative, unless new exposure to an infected partner or partner of unknown HIV status has occurred. Specimens with a reactive ELISA result are retested in duplicate. If the result of either duplicate test is reactive,

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4192-447: Is largely confined to West Africa . HIV is similar in structure to other retroviruses. It is roughly spherical with a diameter of about 120  nm , around 100,000 times smaller in volume than a red blood cell . It is composed of two copies of positive- sense single-stranded RNA that codes for the virus' nine genes enclosed by a conical capsid composed of 2,000 copies of the viral protein p24 . The single-stranded RNA

4323-612: Is more likely, leading to immunodeficiency. Three groups of HIV-1 have been identified on the basis of differences in the envelope ( env ) region: M, N, and O. Group M is the most prevalent and is subdivided into eight subtypes (or clades ), based on the whole genome, which are geographically distinct. The most prevalent are subtypes B (found mainly in North America and Europe), A and D (found mainly in Africa), and C (found mainly in Africa and Asia); these subtypes form branches in

4454-561: Is present as both free virus particles and virus within infected immune cells . Research has shown (for both same-sex and opposite-sex couples) that HIV is not contagious during sexual intercourse without a condom if the HIV-positive partner has a consistently undetectable viral load . HIV infects vital cells in the human immune system, such as helper T cells (specifically CD4 T cells), macrophages , and dendritic cells . HIV infection leads to low levels of CD4 T cells through

4585-581: Is the Haber el Jahleh, who possess the sea-ports from Seyareh to the ruined village of Rukudah, and as far as the town of Heis. Of these towns, Kurrum is the most important, from its possessing a tolerable harbour, and from its being the nearest point from Aden, the course to which place is N.N.W., consequently the wind is fair, and the boats laden with sheep for the Aden market pass but one night at sea, whilst those from Berbera are generally three. What greatly enhances

4716-412: Is tightly bound to nucleocapsid proteins, p7, and enzymes needed for the development of the virion such as reverse transcriptase , proteases , ribonuclease and integrase . A matrix composed of the viral protein p17 surrounds the capsid ensuring the integrity of the virion particle. This is, in turn, surrounded by the viral envelope , that is composed of the lipid bilayer taken from the membrane of

4847-534: Is unknown how often such mixed packaging occurs under natural conditions. Bonhoeffer et al. suggested that template switching by reverse transcriptase acts as a repair process to deal with breaks in the single-stranded RNA genome. In addition, Hu and Temin suggested that recombination is an adaptation for repair of damage in the RNA genomes. Strand switching (copy-choice recombination) by reverse transcriptase could generate an undamaged copy of genomic DNA from two damaged single-stranded RNA genome copies. This view of

4978-598: The 1926 Slavery Convention , was obliged to fight slavery and slave trade in all land under direct or indirect control of the British Empire. However, the British control of Yemen was not complete even in the part of Yemen which was nominally controlled by them. The Aden Protectorate was divided into an Eastern Protectorate and a Western Protectorate. Those were further divided into 23 sultanates and emirates, and several independent tribes that had no relationships with

5109-638: The African green monkey (SIVagm) and sooty mangabey (SIVsmm) are thought to have a long evolutionary history with their hosts. These hosts have adapted to the presence of the virus, which is present at high levels in the host's blood, but evokes only a mild immune response, does not cause the development of simian AIDS, and does not undergo the extensive mutation and recombination typical of HIV infection in humans. In contrast, when these strains infect species that have not adapted to SIV ("heterologous" or similar hosts such as rhesus or cynomologus macaques ),

5240-544: The CCR5-Δ32 mutation are resistant to infection by the R5 virus, as the mutation leaves HIV unable to bind to this co-receptor, reducing its ability to infect target cells. Sexual intercourse is the major mode of HIV transmission. Both X4 and R5 HIV are present in the seminal fluid , which enables the virus to be transmitted from a male to his sexual partner . The virions can then infect numerous cellular targets and disseminate into

5371-648: The Temporary Slavery Commission (TSC), and a convention was drawn up to hasten the total abolition of slavery and the slave trade. Aden admitted in their report to the Temporary Slavery Commission (TSC) of 1924-1926 that there was still chattel slavery in Yemen. The 1926 Slavery Convention , which was founded upon the investigation of the TSC of the League of Nations , was a turning point in banning global slavery. The British Empire, having signed

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5502-729: The United Nations Charter . All member states of the United Nations are legally obliged to comply with the United Nations Charter. Besides this, the 1926 Slavery Convention also exists, which at its creation aimed to prevent slavery, and the slave trade. It specifically defined what slavery and the slave trade were, and all participants agreed to prevent, and gradually eliminate all slavery that existed within their country, and also to create penalties for anyone found to be slave trading, or involved in

5633-662: The Ziyadid dynasty (818-981). From the 9th-century onward they were a permanent institution in Yemen; initially the Mamluk soldiers were of Ethiopian, Nubian and Turkish origin, but during the Rasulid dynasty (1229-1454) onward they appear to have been of primarily Turkish ethnicity thus provided from the Bukhara slave trade . Part of Yemen was controlled by the British Empire in the 19th- and 20th-century. The city of Aden formed

5764-445: The adsorption of glycoproteins on its surface to receptors on the target cell followed by fusion of the viral envelope with the target cell membrane and the release of the HIV capsid into the cell. Entry to the cell begins through interaction of the trimeric envelope complex ( gp160 spike) on the HIV viral envelope and both CD4 and a chemokine co-receptor (generally either CCR5 or CXCR4 , but others are known to interact) on

5895-421: The gag polyproteins still need to be cleaved into the actual matrix, capsid and nucleocapsid proteins. This cleavage is mediated by the packaged viral protease and can be inhibited by antiretroviral drugs of the protease inhibitor class. The various structural components then assemble to produce a mature HIV virion. Only mature virions are then able to infect another cell. The classical process of infection of

6026-514: The microtubule -based transport to the nucleus, the viral single-strand RNA genome is transcribed into double-strand DNA, which is then integrated into a host chromosome. HIV can infect dendritic cells (DCs) by this CD4-CCR5 route, but another route using mannose-specific C-type lectin receptors such as DC-SIGN can also be used. DCs are one of the first cells encountered by the virus during sexual transmission. They are currently thought to play an important role by transmitting HIV to T cells when

6157-403: The phylogenetic tree representing the lineage of the M group of HIV-1. Co-infection with distinct subtypes gives rise to circulating recombinant forms (CRFs). In 2000, the last year in which an analysis of global subtype prevalence was made, 47.2% of infections worldwide were of subtype C, 26.7% were of subtype A/CRF02_AG, 12.3% were of subtype B, 5.3% were of subtype D, 3.2% were of CRF_AE, and

6288-635: The steamer 'Lady Canning' implored the Makahil elders to surrender the slaves. Upon their refusal the Lady Canning would open fire shooting deliberately near the important fort of Siyara. This act of intimidation led the elders to oblige and free the slaves held in the area. The port town was later on described as being under the possession of the Habr Je'lo: The last branch of the Western tribes

6419-438: The α -chemokine receptor, CXCR4 , for entry. Dual-tropic HIV-1 strains are thought to be transitional strains of HIV-1 and thus are able to use both CCR5 and CXCR4 as co-receptors for viral entry. The α -chemokine SDF-1 , a ligand for CXCR4, suppresses replication of T-tropic HIV-1 isolates. It does this by down-regulating the expression of CXCR4 on the surface of HIV target cells. M-tropic HIV-1 isolates that use only

6550-427: The β -chemokine receptor, CCR5 , for entry and are thus able to replicate in both macrophages and CD4 T cells. This CCR5 co-receptor is used by almost all primary HIV-1 isolates regardless of viral genetic subtype. Indeed, macrophages play a key role in several critical aspects of HIV infection. They appear to be the first cells infected by HIV and perhaps the source of HIV production when CD4 cells become depleted in

6681-429: The 13th-century Indian boys, as well Indian women and girls intended for sex slavery, were trafficked from India to Arabia and to Egypt via Aden. In the 13th-century, Ibn al-Mujāwir , traveler in Yemen, recorded a graphic description of the procedures on the slave market of Aden: The slave girl is fumigated with an aromatic smoke, perfumed, adorned and a waist-wrapper fastened round her middle. The seller takes her by

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6812-667: The 1950s, in connection to the Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery and the Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery , Barnett Janner described Saudi Arabia and Yemen as the only remaining states were slavery was still a legal institution: The shipping of slaves occurs in only one particular area of the world, in the seas around Arabia. The warships most likely to search such slavers would be British, and I feel sure that there would not be any abuse of

6943-718: The Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258). The Red Sea slave trade appears to have been established at least in the 1st-century , when enslaved Africans from the Horn of Africa were trafficked across the Red Sea to Arabia and Yemen . In the Middle Ages, the majority of slaves appeared to have been of African origin, but there were also enslaved people of other origins, such as Indians, Europeans and Turkish people, as well as an illegal enslavement of Muslim Arabs despite

7074-684: The Aden Settlement (1839–1932), Province (1932-1937), and Colony (1937–1963), while the hinterland formed the Aden Protectorate (1872-1963), Federation of the Emirates of South Arabia (1959-1962), Federation of South Arabia (1962-1967), and Protectorate of South Arabia (1963-1967); Aden joined the Federation in 1963. When the League of Nations was founded, they conducted an international investigation of slavery via

7205-483: The Akhdam. Anthropologists such as Vombruck postulate that Yemen's history and social hierarchy that developed under various regimes, including the Zaydi Imamate , had created a hereditary, caste-like society. Today, the Akhdam people still occupy the very bottom of Yemen's social strata. In the mid-20th century, the Akhdam people who lived in the vicinity of al-Gades (an exclusively Jewish village) were given

7336-457: The Al-Akhdam are deemed as untouchables . Men who do marry into the community risk banishment by their families. Today, in Yemen, children born from mixed Akhdam and Yemeni parentage are called muwāldedīn , and are often still discriminated against in society. The social inequality of the Akhdam is also analysed by Anne Meneley from a gendered perspective. Indeed, in Yemeni society, women have

7467-538: The Arabian Peninsula, which was a crime against the 1926 Slavery Convention , and demanded that the UN form a committee to handle the issue. The UN formed the Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery in 1950, which resulted in the introduction of the Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery . The Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery filed a report on the chattel slavery in Yemen during the 1950-1951 investigation. In

7598-812: The British left in 1967. Yemen is in Southwest Asia, and is a mostly Arab country. Yemen is considered a developing country , and has been in a state of political crisis since 2011. It was reported that at least 85,000 people were enslaved in Yemen in 2022, and due to the impossibility of conducting further surveys in the midst of the ongoing civil war , this number may be underestimated. The Houthi movement have been accused of restoring slavery to Yemen. Not unlike previous times, slaves are inherited by their owners through family, as well as being bought and sold. The slaves are under complete control of their owners, an example of this being that although sometimes

7729-587: The CCR5 receptor are termed R5; those that use only CXCR4 are termed X4, and those that use both, X4R5. However, the use of co-receptors alone does not explain viral tropism, as not all R5 viruses are able to use CCR5 on macrophages for a productive infection and HIV can also infect a subtype of myeloid dendritic cells , which probably constitute a reservoir that maintains infection when CD4 T cell numbers have declined to extremely low levels. Some people are resistant to certain strains of HIV. For example, people with

7860-405: The DIS (dimerization initiation signal) hairpin is exposed. The formation of the gRNA dimer is mediated by a 'kissing' interaction between the DIS hairpin loops of the gRNA monomers. At the same time, certain guanosine residues in the gRNA are made available for binding of the nucleocapsid (NC) protein leading to the subsequent virion assembly. The labile gRNA dimer has been also reported to achieve

7991-419: The HIV env gene, allows the virus to attach to target cells and fuse the viral envelope with the target cell's membrane releasing the viral contents into the cell and initiating the infectious cycle. As the sole viral protein on the surface of the virus, the envelope protein is a major target for HIV vaccine efforts. Over half of the mass of the trimeric envelope spike is N-linked glycans . The density

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8122-441: The HIV protein-coding sequences is translated. Mature HIV mRNAs are exported from the nucleus into the cytoplasm , where they are translated to produce HIV proteins, including Rev . As the newly produced Rev protein is produced it moves to the nucleus, where it binds to full-length, unspliced copies of virus RNAs and allows them to leave the nucleus. Some of these full-length RNAs function as mRNAs that are translated to produce

8253-570: The HIV virological synapse in vivo . The many dissemination mechanisms available to HIV contribute to the virus' ongoing replication in spite of anti-retroviral therapies. HIV differs from many viruses in that it has very high genetic variability . This diversity is a result of its fast replication cycle , with the generation of about 10 virions every day, coupled with a high mutation rate of approximately 3 x 10 per nucleotide base per cycle of replication and recombinogenic properties of reverse transcriptase. This complex scenario leads to

8384-526: The LTR promoter acting by binding the TAR RNA element. The TAR may also be processed into microRNAs that regulate the apoptosis genes ERCC1 and IER3 . The rev protein (p19) is involved in shuttling RNAs from the nucleus and the cytoplasm by binding to the RRE RNA element. The vif protein (p23) prevents the action of APOBEC3G (a cellular protein that deaminates cytidine to uridine in

8515-588: The Middle Ages they mainly came from Africa and underwent the dangerous operation in Ethiopia before being imported to Yemen. Eunuchs were bought by aristocrats and royalty and could be given a number of different assignments: as administrators and agents of the affairs of the harem and royal women, as teachers and caretakers of children, and as supervisors of the rest of the slaves. Male slaves who were not eunuchs were employed as laborers or as slave soldiers (Mamluks). Mamluk soldiers were introduced in Yemen during

8646-433: The U.S.: Although IFA can be used to confirm infection in these ambiguous cases, this assay is not widely used. In general, a second specimen should be collected more than a month later and retested for persons with indeterminate western blot results. Although much less commonly available, nucleic acid testing (e.g., viral RNA or proviral DNA amplification method) can also help diagnosis in certain situations. In addition,

8777-519: The UDHR, which specifically says in Article 4, that "No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms. " This declaration outlines basic rights that all human beings are entitled to. The rights outlined in the declaration become legally enforceable, since they define the terms 'fundamental freedoms' and 'human rights', which themselves feature in

8908-623: The abolition of slavery by the government in (North) Yemen, but in British South Yemen the British colonial authorities continued to avoid interfering in the issue of slavery, and slavery in South Yemen was instead abolished by the socialist National Liberation Front (NFL) who took over when the British left in 1967. Yemen is also a member state of the United Nations . All United Nations member states are subject to

9039-409: The adaptive benefit of recombination in HIV could explain why each HIV particle contains two complete genomes, rather than one. Furthermore, the view that recombination is a repair process implies that the benefit of repair can occur at each replication cycle, and that this benefit can be realized whether or not the two genomes differ genetically. On the view that recombination in HIV is a repair process,

9170-423: The advent of AIDS. HIV-positive patients acquire an enormously broad spectrum of opportunistic infections, which was particularly problematic prior to the onset of HAART therapies; however, the same infections are reported among HIV-infected patients examined post-mortem following the onset of antiretroviral therapies. Thus, during the course of infection, viral adaptation to the use of CXCR4 instead of CCR5 may be

9301-403: The animals develop AIDS and the virus generates genetic diversity similar to what is seen in human HIV infection. Chimpanzee SIV (SIVcpz), the closest genetic relative of HIV-1, is associated with increased mortality and AIDS-like symptoms in its natural host. SIVcpz appears to have been transmitted relatively recently to chimpanzee and human populations, so their hosts have not yet adapted to

9432-592: The cell as new virus particles that will begin the replication cycle anew. Two types of HIV have been characterized: HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is the virus that was initially discovered and termed both lymphadenopathy associated virus (LAV) and human T-lymphotropic virus 3 (HTLV-III). HIV-1 is more virulent and more infective than HIV-2, and is the cause of the majority of HIV infections globally. The lower infectivity of HIV-2, compared to HIV-1, implies that fewer of those exposed to HIV-2 will be infected per exposure. Due to its relatively poor capacity for transmission, HIV-2

9563-470: The cell types a virus infects. HIV can infect a variety of immune cells such as CD4 T cells , macrophages , and microglial cells . HIV-1 entry to macrophages and CD4 T cells is mediated through interaction of the virion envelope glycoproteins (gp120) with the CD4 molecule on the target cells' membrane and also with chemokine co-receptors . Macrophage-tropic (M-tropic) strains of HIV-1, or non- syncytia -inducing strains (NSI; now called R5 viruses ) use

9694-465: The coastal local rulers of the Aden Protectorate to sign an agreement to ban the slave trade, but by January 1939, few had done so. The British, obliged by the 1926 Slavery Convention to abolish all practice of slavery in the British Empire, did not abolish the slavery as an institution in Yemen, but managed to free many slaves by buying them, manumitting them, and relocating them within the British Empire. The worldwide abolition of slavery began in

9825-459: The collapse of the extracellular portion of gp41 into a hairpin shape. This loop structure brings the virus and cell membranes close together, allowing fusion of the membranes and subsequent entry of the viral capsid. After HIV has bound to the target cell, the HIV RNA and various enzymes, including reverse transcriptase, integrase, ribonuclease, and protease, are injected into the cell. During

9956-434: The color of their skin to denounce the marginalization of their people. This amplifies their international visibility. According to official estimates, the Akhdam numbered around 500,000 individuals in 2004. An organisation called "Yemen’s Sawa’a Organisation for Anti-Discrimination" said while official figures put them at about 1.5 million, their in field estimates put the number at more than 3 million residents in 2013, which

10087-450: The control of a slave. As of 1987, Yemen became a party to this convention, meaning they agreed with the aim of it, and agreed to the obligations it imposed upon parties. While not all slaves in Yemen were of African origin, there developed racist stereotypes in Yemen associating black skin with slavery, and this contributed to a discrimination of people with African origin also after the abolition of slavery. For someone to be considered

10218-447: The development of AIDS. HIV is a member of the genus Lentivirus , part of the family Retroviridae . Lentiviruses have many morphologies and biological properties in common. Many species are infected by lentiviruses, which are characteristically responsible for long-duration illnesses with a long incubation period . Lentiviruses are transmitted as single-stranded , positive- sense , enveloped RNA viruses . Upon entry into

10349-577: The development of stable recombinant forms of the viral spike by the introduction of an intersubunit disulphide bond and an isoleucine to proline mutation ( radical replacement of an amino acid) in gp41. The so-called SOSIP trimers not only reproduce the antigenic properties of the native viral spike, but also display the same degree of immature glycans as presented on the native virus. Recombinant trimeric viral spikes are promising vaccine candidates as they display less non-neutralising epitopes than recombinant monomeric gp120, which act to suppress

10480-400: The elite, Akhdam women are not respectable because they do not have acceptable moral behavior. They do not wear the hijab but, instead, they wear colorful gowns with wide sleeves and they go to the suq to sell goods even though the suq is supposed to be a place for men only. All these inappropriate behaviors, according to the dominant class, accentuate the domination of this class by opposing

10611-414: The enemy but as the one that has to defend the weakest citizens. These requests and petitions rarely succeed. A significant step forward was achieved with the formation of a political party to represent them and possibly alleviate their conditions. The Yemeni revolt in 2011 had also roused many Akhdam people to participate in the uprising by appearing regularly in the demonstrations and sit-ins that filled

10742-511: The fact that Islamic rules banned the enslavement of other Muslims. A tribute of 1000 slaves were annually sent from the Dahlak Archipelago to Yemen, made up of what appeared to have been Nubian or Ethiopian slaves. In the 12th-century, Muhammad al-Idrisi trafficked African children from present day Kenya to Arabia, and a slave trade is confirmed to have taken place from present day Somalia to Aden in Yemen at that point. During

10873-506: The fact that all Yemeni civil servants are supposed to be granted contracts after six months. They receive no benefits, and almost no time off. The Akhdam reside in slum districts that are generally isolated from the rest of Yemeni society. It is hardly possible for the Akhdam people to afford shelter with even the most basic amenities such as electricity, running water and sewage disposal. Accordingly, Akhdam generally live in small huts haphazardly built of wood and cloth. Due to poverty and

11004-431: The generation of many variants of HIV in a single infected patient in the course of one day. This variability is compounded when a single cell is simultaneously infected by two or more different strains of HIV. When simultaneous infection occurs, the genome of progeny virions may be composed of RNA strands from two different strains. This hybrid virion then infects a new cell where it undergoes replication. As this happens,

11135-576: The generation of recombinational variation would be a consequence, but not the cause of, the evolution of template switching. HIV-1 infection causes chronic inflammation and production of reactive oxygen species . Thus, the HIV genome may be vulnerable to oxidative damage , including breaks in the single-stranded RNA. For HIV, as well as for viruses in general, successful infection depends on overcoming host defense strategies that often include production of genome-damaging reactive oxygen species. Thus, Michod et al. suggested that recombination by viruses

11266-552: The genetic information that is transmitted from parental to progeny genomes. Viral recombination produces genetic variation that likely contributes to the evolution of resistance to anti-retroviral therapy . Recombination may also contribute, in principle, to overcoming the immune defenses of the host. Yet, for the adaptive advantages of genetic variation to be realized, the two viral genomes packaged in individual infecting virus particles need to have arisen from separate progenitor parental viruses of differing genetic constitution. It

11397-527: The hand and walks around the souk [market] with her; he calls out that she is for sale. The wicked merchants appear, examining her hands, feet, calves, thighs, navel, chest and breasts. He examines her back and measures her buttocks in spans. He examines her tongue, teeth, hair and spares no effort. If she is wearing clothes, he takes them off; he examines and looks. Finally, he casts a direct eye over her vagina and anus, without her having on any covering or veil. When he has examined, expressed his approval and bought

11528-415: The immune response to target epitopes. The RNA genome consists of at least seven structural landmarks ( LTR , TAR , RRE , PE, SLIP, CRS, and INS), and nine genes ( gag , pol , and env , tat , rev , nef , vif , vpr , vpu , and sometimes a tenth tev , which is a fusion of tat , env and rev ), encoding 19 proteins. Three of these genes, gag , pol , and env , contain information needed to make

11659-521: The integrated DNA provirus is transcribed into RNA. The full-length genomic RNAs (gRNA) can be packaged into new viral particles in a pseudodiploid form. The selectivity in the packaging is explained by the structural properties of the dimeric conformer of the gRNA. The gRNA dimer is characterized by a tandem three-way junction within the gRNA monomer, in which the SD and AUG hairpins , responsible for splicing and translation respectively, are sequestered and

11790-414: The living circumstances of the Akhdam. Such initiatives include the building of a chicken farm, sanitation projects, the provision of electricity and classes aimed at eradicating illiteracy. The extent of these efforts, however, is disputed, most notably by Huda Sief . Government corruption also means that monetary aid intended for the Akhdam is often misused or stolen. Government officials, while admitting

11921-409: The mains squares of the capital city Sanaa and Taiz. This popular uprising was taking place that called for egalitarian citizenship and recognition of the diversity of identities within Yemeni society. By egalitarian citizenship, the Yemeni people mean that every Yemeni on the street is equal. This uprising led to a transition period, running from March 2012 to February 2014, which was supposed to lead to

12052-411: The name "Kano" by Jews . While a Shafi'i lowland Muslim would eat from the same dish as a Jew, he would break a vessel touched by one of the Akhdam. Jewish women, however, still sang the songs of Ahkhdam women, who were often hired as farmhands. The Akhdam community suffers from extreme discrimination, persecution, and social exclusion from mainstream Yemeni society. The contempt for the Akhdam people

12183-544: The native states. The deal between the native states and Britain detailed protection and complete control of foreign relations by the British. This limited their actual power to do something about slavery. In 1932, the League of Nations asked all member countries to include anti-slavery commitment in any treaties they made with all Arab states. In 1932 the League formed the Committee of Experts on Slavery (CES) to review

12314-587: The notion of race and racism in contemporary Yemen is linked to the emergence of the European racial configuration in the 1930s and then in Egypt following the revolution of 1952 . In the Middle East, it is the "'unsuriyya" term that will spread. The notion of “'unsuriyya” or racism emerged in public discourse in Yemen in the 1950s as a critique of Hashemite privilege. Akhdam activists and politicians rely on

12445-410: The patient. Macrophages and microglial cells are the cells infected by HIV in the central nervous system . In the tonsils and adenoids of HIV-infected patients, macrophages fuse into multinucleated giant cells that produce huge amounts of virus. T-tropic strains of HIV-1, or syncytia -inducing strains (SI; now called X4 viruses ) replicate in primary CD4 T cells as well as in macrophages and use

12576-406: The remaining 5.3% were composed of other subtypes and CRFs. Most HIV-1 research is focused on subtype B; few laboratories focus on the other subtypes. The existence of a fourth group, "P", has been hypothesised based on a virus isolated in 2009. The strain is apparently derived from gorilla SIV (SIVgor), first isolated from western lowland gorillas in 2006. HIV-2's closest relative is SIVsm,

12707-541: The respectable and pious elite and the Akhdams women who do not wear the veil and are morally inferior. In the face of extreme societal discrimination, the Al-Akhdam people are effectively forced to work in menial and undesirable jobs such as sweeping, shoe-making, and the cleaning of latrines. Those who are unemployed, most of whom are women, usually resort to begging. Even the Akhdam people who are employed are not spared from discrimination. Akhdam street sweepers are rarely granted contracts even after decades of work, despite

12838-481: The result and enforcement of the 1926 Slavery Convention, which resulted in a new international investigation under the first permanent slavery committee, the Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery (ACE) in 1934-1939. In 1936, the British authorities in Aden filed a report about the slavery in Yemen. The British report told of 5,000 to 10,000 slaves in a population of three million. The majority of

12969-425: The reverse transcriptase, by jumping back and forth between the two different RNA templates, will generate a newly synthesized retroviral DNA sequence that is a recombinant between the two parental genomes. This recombination is most obvious when it occurs between subtypes. The closely related simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) has evolved into many strains, classified by the natural host species. SIV strains of

13100-461: The right to search. I am sorry that we gave up the fight for that right. As far as I know, Saudi Arabia and Yemen are the only States in the world where chattel slavery is still a legal institution. Only a year or so ago a French Deputy—the person, I assume, to whom my hon. Friend referred—investigated the situation and found that every year ignorant Africans are lured on by agents to make a pilgrimage to Mecca. They are not told, of course, that they need

13231-705: The same as their parents – that they are not entitled to freedom and they must do as they are told by their owners. In 2019, during the Yemeni Civil War , there were allegations of the Houthis supporting the restoration of slavery with the families of Houthi leaders holding more than 1,800 citizens as slaves and servants in their residences and places of work HIV The human immunodeficiency viruses ( HIV ) are two species of Lentivirus (a subgroup of retrovirus ) that infect humans. Over time, they cause acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS),

13362-609: The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, when the Declaration of the Rights of Man was adopted in 1789, and stated "men are born and remain free and equal in rights." By the nineteenth century, an increasing number of countries such as The Netherlands were banning participation with the African Slave Trade, and soon after abolished slavery in all of its colonies, along with France. By the 1900s, abolition of slavery

13493-519: The single-stranded viral DNA and/or interferes with reverse transcription ). The vpr protein (p14) arrests cell division at G2/M . The nef protein (p27) down-regulates CD4 (the major viral receptor), as well as the MHC class I and class II molecules. Nef also interacts with SH3 domains . The vpu protein (p16) influences the release of new virus particles from infected cells. The ends of each strand of HIV RNA contain an RNA sequence called

13624-412: The site of cell-to-cell contact, close apposition of cells, which minimizes fluid-phase diffusion of virions, and clustering of HIV entry receptors on the target cell towards the contact zone. Cell-to-cell spread is thought to be particularly important in lymphoid tissues , where CD4 T cells are densely packed and likely to interact frequently. Intravital imaging studies have supported the concept of

13755-402: The slave girl, she remains with him for about ten days. When [the buyer] has taken care of her, had his fill, become bored and tired of her and got what he wanted from her, his lust is at an end. Zayd, the buyer, says to ʿAmr, the vendor, "Indeed, sir, we have a case to settle in court!" So they attend in front of the judge and one makes a claim against the other, [suggesting there is] a defect [in

13886-766: The slave girl]. In the 1760s the Yemeni Hadhrami Arab Syarif Abdurrahman Alkadrie mass enslaved other Muslims while raiding coastal Borneo in violation of sharia, before he founded the Pontianak Sultanate . In 1869 the Royal Navy was enforcing a ban on slave trading in the Gulf of Aden and intercepted over 100 Galla slaves that were illegally shipped to Aden from Berbera. Soon after more slaves were discovered at Siyara and Lieutenant Colonel Playfair with

14017-499: The slavery cycle is difficult to get out of when there is no government intervention, or real awareness by the public and other countries as to what is going on, which is part of the cause of slavery in Yemen. If people are not aware of what is happening, they cannot do anything about it. The slavery cycle has been described as poverty, followed by slavery, then as a result lack of education, and therefore no kind of freedom at all. This means any children of existing slaves are led to believe

14148-453: The slaves are allowed to marry one another, they are not allowed a ceremony, and are only allowed to see each other during an emergency or at night when their owner does not require them. In a sense, slavery has been formally recognised in Yemen, through a judge in the Courts confirming the transfer of a slave from one owner to another. This caused an outcry by the community and the media, which

14279-402: The slaves were either trafficked from Africa, or born to enslaved Africans in Yemen, and a small minority of the slaves were Caucasian. Most of the male slaves were Africans, occupied in agricultural work or as soldiers. Egypt and Hejaz were also the recipients of Indian women trafficked via Aden and Goa. Since Britain banned the slave trade in its colonies, 19th century British ruled Aden

14410-673: The specimen is reported as repeatedly reactive and undergoes confirmatory testing with a more specific supplemental test (e.g., a polymerase chain reaction (PCR), western blot or, less commonly, an immunofluorescence assay (IFA)). Only specimens that are repeatedly reactive by ELISA and positive by IFA or PCR or reactive by western blot are considered HIV-positive and indicative of HIV infection. Specimens that are repeatedly ELISA-reactive occasionally provide an indeterminate western blot result, which may be either an incomplete antibody response to HIV in an infected person or nonspecific reactions in an uninfected person. HIV deaths in 2014 excluding

14541-556: The structural proteins Gag and Env. Gag proteins bind to copies of the virus RNA genome to package them into new virus particles. HIV-1 and HIV-2 appear to package their RNA differently. HIV-1 will bind to any appropriate RNA. HIV-2 will preferentially bind to the mRNA that was used to create the Gag protein itself. Two RNA genomes are encapsidated in each HIV-1 particle (see Structure and genome of HIV ). Upon infection and replication catalyzed by reverse transcriptase, recombination between

14672-496: The structural proteins for new virus particles. For example, env codes for a protein called gp160 that is cut in two by a cellular protease to form gp120 and gp41. The six remaining genes, tat , rev , nef , vif , vpr , and vpu (or vpx in the case of HIV-2), are regulatory genes for proteins that control the ability of HIV to infect cells, produce new copies of virus (replicate), or cause disease. The two tat proteins (p16 and p14) are transcriptional transactivators for

14803-427: The target cell surface. Gp120 binds to integrin α 4 β 7 activating LFA-1 , the central integrin involved in the establishment of virological synapses , which facilitate efficient cell-to-cell spreading of HIV-1. The gp160 spike contains binding domains for both CD4 and chemokine receptors. The first step in fusion involves the high-affinity attachment of the CD4 binding domains of gp120 to CD4. Once gp120

14934-413: The target cell, the viral RNA genome is converted (reverse transcribed) into double-stranded DNA by a virally encoded enzyme, reverse transcriptase , that is transported along with the viral genome in the virus particle. The resulting viral DNA is then imported into the cell nucleus and integrated into the cellular DNA by a virally encoded enzyme, integrase , and host co-factors . Once integrated,

15065-414: The two HIV envelope glycoproteins, gp41 and gp120 . These are transported to the plasma membrane of the host cell where gp41 anchors gp120 to the membrane of the infected cell. The Gag (p55) and Gag-Pol (p160) polyproteins also associate with the inner surface of the plasma membrane along with the HIV genomic RNA as the forming virion begins to bud from the host cell. The budded virion is still immature as

15196-484: The two genomes can occur. Recombination occurs as the single-strand, positive-sense RNA genomes are reverse transcribed to form DNA. During reverse transcription, the nascent DNA can switch multiple times between the two copies of the viral RNA. This form of recombination is known as copy-choice. Recombination events may occur throughout the genome. Anywhere from two to 20 recombination events per genome may occur at each replication cycle, and these events can rapidly shuffle

15327-443: The unsanitary living conditions, the Akhdam people are vulnerable to preventable diseases. The death rates from preventable diseases are worse than the nationwide average in Yemen. Many Al-Akhdam children suffer from diseases such as dyspnoea , malaria and polio , and the death rate is high. The reported infant mortality rate is also described as "appalling" by Robert F. Worth . Out of the deaths reported in an Akhdam shantytown over

15458-496: The value of Kurrum however is its proximity to the country of the Dulbahanta, who approach within four days of Kurrum, and who therefore naturally have their chief trade through that port. The function of slavery differed depending on if the enslaved person was male, female or a eunuch. Women were primarily enslaved as harem concubines (sex slaves) or as domestic house slaves. The female slaves owned by women could be used for

15589-570: The viral DNA into the host cell's genome is carried out by another viral enzyme called integrase . The integrated viral DNA may then lie dormant, in the latent stage of HIV infection. To actively produce the virus, certain cellular transcription factors need to be present, the most important of which is NF- κ B (nuclear factor kappa B), which is upregulated when T cells become activated. This means that those cells most likely to be targeted, entered and subsequently killed by HIV are those actively fighting infection. During viral replication,

15720-536: The virus in its adaptation to avoid innate restriction factors present in host cells. Adaptation to use normal cellular machinery to enable transmission and productive infection has also aided the establishment of HIV-2 replication in humans. A survival strategy for any infectious agent is not to kill its host, but ultimately become a commensal organism. Having achieved a low pathogenicity, over time, variants that are more successful at transmission will be selected. The HIV virion enters macrophages and CD4 T cells by

15851-425: The virus is captured in the mucosa by DCs. The presence of FEZ-1 , which occurs naturally in neurons , is believed to prevent the infection of cells by HIV. HIV-1 entry, as well as entry of many other retroviruses, has long been believed to occur exclusively at the plasma membrane. More recently, however, productive infection by pH -independent, clathrin-mediated endocytosis of HIV-1 has also been reported and

15982-463: The virus may become latent , allowing the virus and its host cell to avoid detection by the immune system, for an indeterminate amount of time. The virus can remain dormant in the human body for up to ten years after primary infection; during this period the virus does not cause symptoms. Alternatively, the integrated viral DNA may be transcribed , producing new RNA genomes and viral proteins, using host cell resources, that are packaged and released from

16113-403: The virus to evade the body's immune system. The reverse transcriptase also has ribonuclease activity that degrades the viral RNA during the synthesis of cDNA, as well as DNA-dependent DNA polymerase activity that creates a sense DNA from the antisense cDNA. Together, the cDNA and its complement form a double-stranded viral DNA that is then transported into the cell nucleus . The integration of

16244-540: The virus. This virus has also lost a function of the nef gene that is present in most SIVs. For non-pathogenic SIV variants, nef suppresses T cell activation through the CD3 marker. Nef 's function in non-pathogenic forms of SIV is to downregulate expression of inflammatory cytokines , MHC-1 , and signals that affect T cell trafficking. In HIV-1 and SIVcpz, nef does not inhibit T-cell activation and it has lost this function. Without this function, T cell depletion

16375-475: The whole organism. However, a selection process leads to a predominant transmission of the R5 virus through this pathway. In patients infected with subtype B HIV-1, there is often a co-receptor switch in late-stage disease and T-tropic variants that can infect a variety of T cells through CXCR4. These variants then replicate more aggressively with heightened virulence that causes rapid T cell depletion, immune system collapse, and opportunistic infections that mark

16506-545: Was allegedly quickly hushed up by the government. Yemeni slave owners have admitted to selling slaves to countries such as Brazil and Saudi Arabia for significant amounts of money. Historically, the institution of slavery in the region of the later Yemen was reflected in the institution of slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate (632–661) slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), and slavery in

16637-471: Was formally abolished in the 1960s. However, it has been reported that enslavement still occurred in the 21st-century. Chattel slavery in Yemen was abolished in two stages between 1962 and 1967. The 1962 revolution in Yemen lead to the abolition of slavery by the government in North Yemen, but slavery in South Yemen was not abolished until the socialist National Liberation Front (NFL) took power when

16768-452: Was found to be the agricultural sector, which incidentally is also one of the most hazardous sectors. As well as child slavery , it has been discovered that there are also adult slaves who are controlled by their owners, who work in private homes, made to perform certain tasks. A likely cause of the existing slavery in Yemen with regards to the illegality of it, is the extent of the poverty within certain communities. Abdulhadi Al-Azazi,

16899-562: Was no longer officially a recipient of slaves and the slaves sent from Ethiopia to Arabia were shipped to Hejaz instead. Slavery in Yemen were given attention in the Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery (ACE). The report to ACE about Hadhramaut described the existence of Chinese girls ( Mui tsai ) trafficked from Singapore for enslavement as concubines, Indian women trafficked to Hadrhamaut to be sold by their husbands, and Indian children officially taken there for religious studies, only to be sold upon arrival. The British tried to convince

17030-448: Was recently suggested to constitute the only route of productive entry. Shortly after the viral capsid enters the cell, an enzyme called reverse transcriptase liberates the positive-sense single-stranded RNA genome from the attached viral proteins and copies it into a complementary DNA (cDNA) molecule. The process of reverse transcription is extremely error-prone, and the resulting mutations may cause drug resistance or allow

17161-608: Was spreading globally, with countries such as Burma and Sierra Leone following the movement. After World War II , there was a growing international pressure from the United Nations to end the slave trade in the Arabian Peninsula. In 1948, the United Nations declared slavery to be a crime against humanity in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (DHR), after which the Anti-Slavery Society pointed out that there were about one million slaves in

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