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38-732: The collection is located in a section of the Hôtel de la Marine which formerly displayed tapestries from the French Royal Collection. It displays at one time one hundred-twenty works, out of a total of more than five thousand works in the collection. It presents objects from ancient civilizations in Europe, Asia, Africa, the Americas, and the Middle East, related by theme. The exposition was designed by Tsuyoshi Tane. The first of

76-421: A body of text, not to either its origin or its prevalence in speech. It thus differs from a nonce word , which may never be recorded, may find currency and may be widely recorded, or may appear several times in the work which coins it, and so on. Hapax legomena in ancient texts are usually difficult to decipher, since it is easier to infer meaning from multiple contexts than from just one. For example, many of

114-445: A brown background; iris agate shows exceptional iridescence when light (especially pinpointed light) is shone through the stone. Landscape agate is chalcedony with a number of different mineral impurities making the stone resemble landscapes. Carnelian (also spelled cornelian) is a clear-to-translucent reddish-brown variety of chalcedony. Its hue may vary from a pale orange to an intense almost-black coloration. Similar to carnelian

152-465: A type of hapax legomenon . For example, the Classic of Poetry ( c.  1000 BC ) uses the character 篪 exactly once in the verse 「伯氏吹塤, 仲氏吹篪」 , and it was only through the discovery of a description by Guo Pu (276–324 AD) that the character could be associated with a specific type of ancient flute. It is fairly common for authors to "coin" new words to convey a particular meaning or for

190-577: A wide range of colors, but those most commonly seen are white to gray, grayish-blue or a shade of brown ranging from pale to nearly black. The color of chalcedony sold commercially is often enhanced by dyeing or heating. The name chalcedony comes from the Latin chalcedonius (alternatively spelled calchedonius ) and is probably derived from the town of Chalcedon in Turkey . The name appears in Pliny

228-404: A wide range of measures to look for patterns rather than relying upon single measurements. In the fields of computational linguistics and natural language processing (NLP), esp. corpus linguistics and machine-learned NLP, it is common to disregard hapax legomena (and sometimes other infrequent words), as they are likely to have little value for computational techniques. This disregard has

266-418: Is sard , which is brown rather than red. Chrysoprase (also spelled chrysophrase) is a green variety of chalcedony, which has been colored by nickel oxide . (The darker varieties of chrysoprase are also referred to as prase. However, the term prase is also used to describe green quartz and to a certain extent is a color-descriptor, rather than a rigorously defined mineral variety.) Blue-colored chalcedony

304-448: Is a cryptocrystalline form of silica , composed of very fine intergrowths of quartz and moganite . These are both silica minerals , but they differ in that quartz has a trigonal crystal structure, while moganite is monoclinic . Chalcedony's standard chemical structure (based on the chemical structure of quartz) is SiO 2 ( silicon dioxide ). Chalcedony has a waxy luster, and may be semitransparent or translucent. It can assume

342-417: Is a green variety of chalcedony, containing red inclusions of iron oxide that resemble drops of blood , giving heliotrope its alternative name of bloodstone. In a similar variety, the spots are yellow instead, known as plasma. Moss agate contains green filament-like inclusions, giving it the superficial appearance of moss or blue cheese . There is also tree agate which is similar to moss agate except it

380-606: Is a variant of agate with black and white banding. Similarly, agate with brown, orange, red and white banding is known as sardonyx . In Greenland , white to greyish chalcedony is known from volcanic strata of the Paleocene , in the Disko-Nuussuaq area (West Greenland) and from the Scoresby Sound area (East Greenland). A light blue variety of chalcedony is known from Illorsuit , formed in the volcanic rocks along

418-501: Is carved of red jasper , and depicts either Queen Hatshepsut or King Thutmosis III, from the 18th dynasty, a high point in Egyptian civilisation. It is believed to originally have had a crown of blue faience. The collection also contains a gold pendant from 4500-3500 BC, considered a notably early example of worked gold; a Mughal decorative bird made of gold, lacquer, rubies, and emeralds; A bear-shaped gilded bronze carpet weight from

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456-530: Is solid white with green filaments whereas moss agate usually has a transparent background, so the "moss" appears in 3D. It is not a true form of agate, as it lacks agate's defining feature of concentric banding. Chrome chalcedony is a green variety of chalcedony, which is colored by chromium compounds. It is also known as "mtorolite" when found in Zimbabwe and "chiquitanita" when found in Bolivia . Onyx

494-427: Is sometimes referred to as "blue chrysoprase" if the color is sufficiently rich, though it derives its color from the presence of copper and is largely unrelated to nickel-bearing chrysoprase. Fire agate is a variety of chalcedony with inclusions of goethite or limonite causing an iridescent effect. It can display a wide range of iridescent colors including red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and purple. Heliotrope

532-472: Is sometimes used to refer to green translucent chalcedony. Chalcedony occurs in a wide range of varieties. Many semi-precious gemstones are in fact forms of chalcedony. The more notable varieties of chalcedony are as follows: Agate is a variety of chalcedony characterized by either transparency or color patterns, such as multi-colored curved or angular banding. Opaque varieties are sometimes referred to as jasper . Fire agate shows iridescent phenomena on

570-501: The Central Asian trade routes used various forms of chalcedony, including carnelian , to carve intaglios , ring bezels (the upper faceted portion of a gem projecting from the ring setting), and beads that show strong Greco-Roman influence. Fine examples of first century objects made from chalcedony, possibly Kushan , were found in recent years at Tillya-tepe in north-western Afghanistan . Hot wax would not stick to it so it

608-688: The Han Dynasty in China (202-220 AD; as well as sabres, textiles, and illuminated texts of the Koran . Another object on display is a 16th-century tunic covered with citations from the Koran, which was worn as protection against harm under a suit of armour. It is accompanied by two sabers, made of Damascus steel, which are marked with the name of the Emperor. The collection displays a jade wine cup made for

646-465: The Hebrew Bible , only about 400 are not obviously related to other attested word forms. A final difficulty with the use of hapax legomena for authorship determination is that there is considerable variation among works known to be by a single author, and disparate authors often show similar values. In other words, hapax legomena are not a reliable indicator. Authorship studies now usually use

684-552: The International Mineralogical Association . Chalcedony is more soluble than quartz under low-temperature conditions, despite the two minerals being chemically identical. Possible reasons include the existence of the moganite component, defects caused by Brazil twinning, and small crystal size. This table gives equilibrium concentrations of total dissolved silicon as calculated by PHREEQC (PH REdox EQuilibrium (in C language, USGS)) using

722-552: The Breastplate, with inscribed gems representing the twelve tribes of Israel.) The Breastplate supposedly included jasper , chrysoprase and sardonyx , and there is some debate as to whether other agates were also used. In the 19th century, Idar-Oberstein , Germany, became the world's largest chalcedony processing center, working mostly on agates. Most of these agates were from Latin America, in particular Brazil. Originally

760-632: The Elder 's Naturalis Historia as a term for a translucent kind of jaspis . Another reference to a gem by the name of khalkedón ( χαλκηδών ) is found in the Book of Revelation (21:19); however, it is a hapax legomenon , found nowhere else in the Bible, so it is hard to tell whether the precious gem mentioned in Revelation is the same as the mineral known by this name today. The term plasma

798-713: The Pastoral Epistles, all of these variables are quite different from those in the rest of the Pauline corpus, and hapax legomena are no longer widely accepted as strong indicators of authorship; those who reject Pauline authorship of the Pastorals rely on other arguments. There are also subjective questions over whether two forms amount to "the same word": dog vs. dogs, clue vs. clueless, sign vs. signature; many other gray cases also arise. The Jewish Encyclopedia points out that, although there are 1,500 hapaxes in

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836-607: The added benefit of significantly reducing the memory use of an application, since, by Zipf's law , many words are hapax legomena. The following are some examples of hapax legomena in languages or corpora . In the Qurʾān : Classical Chinese and Japanese literature contains many Chinese characters that feature only once in the corpus, and their meaning and pronunciation has often been lost. Known in Japanese as kogo ( 孤語 ) , literally "lonely characters", these can be considered

874-668: The agate carving industry around Idar and Oberstein was driven by local deposits that were mined in the 15th century. Several factors contributed to the re-emergence of Idar-Oberstein as agate center of the world: ships brought agate nodules back as ballast, thus providing extremely cheap transport. In addition, cheap labor and a superior knowledge of chemistry allowed them to dye the agates in any color with processes that were kept secret. Each mill in Idar-Oberstein had four or five grindstones. These were of red sandstone, obtained from Zweibrücken; and two men ordinarily worked together at

912-551: The emperor, reworked in the 13th century at the court of the Holy Roman Emperor Frederic II, and then moved two centuries later to Venice, where it was set upon shoulders in armor made of gilded enamel, precious stones, and pearls. Another notable work is a quartzite bust of a Princess of the Amarna Period , Egyptian New Empire, XVIII Dynasty (1351-1334 BC), Another notable head of a royal figure

950-474: The four galleries is called "A Window on World Civilisations", with seven objects from different cultures. The second gallery has eleven showcases, by theme. The third is reserved for temporary exhibitions. The fourth, 18 meters long, offers a tour of objects from different ancient treasuries. One notable object is a bust carved of chalcedony of the Roman Emperor Hadrian , made at the time of

988-487: The fourth of the Mughal emperors , Jahangir in 1607-1608, the only known dated object specifically connected with an Emperor's name. The Persian text on the cup contains quotations from the Koran, and notes that it is the personal cup of the Emperor, with a date. Chalcedony Chalcedony ( / k æ l ˈ s ɛ d ə n i / kal- SED -ə-nee , or / ˈ k æ l s ə ˌ d oʊ n i / KAL -sə-doh-nee )

1026-482: The frequency of any word in a corpus is inversely proportional to its rank in the frequency table. For large corpora, about 40% to 60% of the words are hapax legomena , and another 10% to 15% are dis legomena . Thus, in the Brown Corpus of American English, about half of the 50,000 distinct words are hapax legomena within that corpus. Hapax legomenon refers to the appearance of a word or an expression in

1064-557: The last three totals (for the Pastoral Epistles) are not out of line with the others. To take account of the varying length of the epistles, Workman also calculated the average number of hapax legomena per page of the Greek text , which ranged from 3.6 to 13, as summarized in the diagram on the right. Although the Pastoral Epistles have more hapax legomena per page, Workman found the differences to be moderate in comparison to

1102-442: The llnl.dat database. Hapax legomenon In corpus linguistics , a hapax legomenon ( / ˈ h æ p ə k s l ɪ ˈ ɡ ɒ m ɪ n ɒ n / also / ˈ h æ p æ k s / or / ˈ h eɪ p æ k s / ; pl. hapax legomena ; sometimes abbreviated to hapax , plural hapaxes ) is a word or an expression that occurs only once within a context: either in the written record of an entire language , in

1140-583: The remaining undeciphered Mayan glyphs are hapax legomena , and Biblical (particularly Hebrew ; see § Hebrew ) hapax legomena sometimes pose problems in translation. Hapax legomena also pose challenges in natural language processing . Some scholars consider Hapax legomena useful in determining the authorship of written works. P. N. Harrison , in The Problem of the Pastoral Epistles (1921) made hapax legomena popular among Bible scholars , when he argued that there are considerably more of them in

1178-515: The sake of entertainment, without any suggestion that they are "proper" words. For example, P.G. Wodehouse and Lewis Carroll frequently coined novel words. Indexy , below, appears to be an example of this. According to classical scholar Clyde Pharr , "the Iliad has 1097 hapax legomena , while the Odyssey has 868". Others have defined the term differently, however, and count as few as 303 in

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1216-426: The same stone. Chalcedony was once thought to be a fibrous variety of cryptocrystalline quartz . More recently however, it has been shown to also contain a monoclinic polymorph of quartz, known as moganite . The fraction, by mass, of moganite within a typical chalcedony sample may vary from less than 5% to over 20%. The existence of moganite was once regarded as dubious, but it is now officially recognised by

1254-565: The southern coast of the island. Because of its bluish, ice-like colour, it has the local name chalcedony "ice-blue". Chalcedony was used in tool making as early as 32,000 BP in Central Australia where archaeological studies at sites in the Cleland Hills uncovered flakes from stone brought in from quarries many kilometres away. Pre-contact uses described in the twentieth century included ceremonial stone knives. Chalcedony

1292-457: The three Pastoral Epistles than in other Pauline Epistles . He argued that the number of hapax legomena in a putative author's corpus indicates his or her vocabulary and is characteristic of the author as an individual. Harrison's theory has faded in significance due to a number of problems raised by other scholars. For example, in 1896, W. P. Workman found the following numbers of hapax legomena in each Pauline Epistle : At first glance,

1330-405: The variation among other Epistles. This was reinforced when Workman looked at several plays by Shakespeare , which showed similar variations (from 3.4 to 10.4 per page of Irving's one-volume edition), as summarized in the second diagram on the right. Apart from author identity, there are several other factors that can explain the number of hapax legomena in a work: In the particular case of

1368-637: The works of an author, or in a single text. The term is sometimes incorrectly used to describe a word that occurs in just one of an author's works but more than once in that particular work. Hapax legomenon is a transliteration of Greek ἅπαξ λεγόμενον , meaning "said once". The related terms dis legomenon , tris legomenon , and tetrakis legomenon respectively ( / ˈ d ɪ s / , / ˈ t r ɪ s / , / ˈ t ɛ t r ə k ɪ s / ) refer to double, triple, or quadruple occurrences, but are far less commonly used. Hapax legomena are quite common, as predicted by Zipf's law , which states that

1406-581: Was often used to make seal impressions. The term chalcedony is derived from the name of the ancient Greek town Chalkedon in Asia Minor , in modern English usually spelled Chalcedon , today the Kadıköy district of Istanbul . According to tradition, at least three varieties of chalcedony were used in the Jewish High Priest's Breastplate. (Jewish tradition states that Moses' brother Aaron wore

1444-665: Was used for green and yellow color in prehistoric cave paintings, for example at the Bhimbetka rock shelters . The chalcedony was ground to powder form then mixed with water and animal fat or tree resin or gum. In the Bronze Age chalcedony was in use in the Mediterranean region; for example, on Minoan Crete at the Palace of Knossos , chalcedony seals have been recovered dating to circa 1800 BC . People living along

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