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196-703: In 2024, there were 224,000 counted people of Albanian descent living in the United States , mostly in the Northeast and the Great Lakes region . This is a major increase since 1990, when there were only 47,710 Albanians in the U.S. The figure includes all people affiliated with United States who claim Albanian ancestry, both those born in the country and naturalized citizens, as well as those with dual citizenship who affiliate themselves with both cultures. People of Albanian descent are often concentrated in

392-577: A lower house based on population; and the Senate , an upper house based on equal representation for each state. Federalism provides substantial autonomy to the 50 states, while the country's political culture promotes liberty , equality , individualism , personal autonomy , and limited government . One of the world's most developed countries , the United States has had the largest nominal GDP since about 1890 and accounted for over 15% of

588-810: A memorandum and sent delegates in Greece and in European allies. After three years activity, the organization did not manage, neither to re-allocate Chams in Chameria , nor to internationalize the Cham issue . They were given new homes in parts of southern Albania by the People's Republic of Albania regime, thus diluting the local Greek element. At December 1945 the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration approved 1,45 Million U.S. dollars for

784-580: A " Special Relationship " with the United Kingdom and strong ties with Canada , Australia , New Zealand , the Philippines , Japan , South Korea , Israel , and several European Union countries ( France , Italy , Germany , Spain , and Poland ). The U.S. works closely with its NATO allies on military and national security issues, and with countries in the Americas through

980-506: A combined Cham-German garrison, the town was finally under Allied command. Soon after, violent reprisals were carried out against the town's Muslim community, which was considered responsible for the massacre of September 1943. The advance was carried out in two phases: in July and August with the participation of EDES Tenth Division and the local Greek peasants , eager to gain revenge for the burning of their own homes. On 27 June 1944, during

1176-542: A coordinated, continent-wide military effort. Finally, deteriorating relations between the British military establishment and the colonists, relations that were already less than positive, set the stage for further distrust and dislike of British troops. Following their victory in the French and Indian War, Britain began to assert greater control over local colonial affairs, resulting in colonial political resistance ; one of

1372-534: A decentralized government that operated until 1789. After the British surrender at the siege of Yorktown in 1781 American sovereignty was internationally recognized by the Treaty of Paris (1783), through which the U.S. gained territory stretching west to the Mississippi River, north to present-day Canada, and south to Spanish Florida . The Northwest Ordinance (1787) established the precedent by which

1568-895: A few Arbëreshë mixed with them. Arbëreshë Americans, therefore, are often indistinguishable from Italian Americans due to being assimilated into the greater Italian American community. The top 10 cities in the United States that have the most Albanian Americans. Albanians tend to live in the Upper South, the Midwest, and the Northeast. The Albanian community is generally concentrated in the Northeast, with populations mostly in New York City , Yonkers area, Waterbury, Connecticut area, Philadelphia , Boston and nearby Quincy . There are some Albanian communities in Florida, mainly in

1764-407: A few prominent industrialists , largely by their formation of trusts and monopolies to prevent competition. Tycoons led the nation's expansion in the railroad , petroleum , and steel industries. The United States emerged as a pioneer of the automotive industry . These changes were accompanied by significant increases in economic inequality , slum conditions , and social unrest , creating

1960-638: A founding member of the World Bank , Organization of American States , NATO , and the United Nations , as well as a permanent member of the UN Security Council . The first documented use of the phrase "United States of America" is a letter from January 2, 1776. Stephen Moylan , a Continental Army aide to General George Washington , wrote to Joseph Reed , Washington's aide-de-camp , seeking to go "with full and ample powers from

2156-609: A higher percentage of males than non-Albanian Americans with 52.1% of the community being male versus the American national average of 49.2%. Albanian-born population in the U.S. since 2010 (excludes Albanians born in Kosovo, North Macedonia, Montenegro): New York City Public Schools started teaching Albanian language in the late 2010s; the language was offered to PS 105 in Morris Park, Bronx. Starting in 2024, Albanian language

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2352-533: A lesser extent Turkey, is unknown. Mark Mazower and Victor Roudometof state that they numbered about 18,000 in 1944 and 4,000–5,000 in 1945. while Miranda Vickers says that they were 35,000 that fled into Albania and Turkey. Chameria Association claims that Cham Albanians that left were 35,000, from whom, 28,000 left to Albania and the rest to Turkey. Today, most Chams live in Turkey as well as in Albania. Those of

2548-648: A number of fellow resistance fighters in the process. Indeed, atrocities were not encouraged by the EDES leadership and the British mission, but both were unable to prevent this turn of events, as a great number of low rank officers and civilians were eager to take revenge. Elements of the left wing ELAS resistance were also involved in killings against Muslim Chams, in one occasion ELAS officer Thanasis Giohalas arrested and executed 40 Muslims in Parga. The remaining women and children were saved after EDES fighters managed to scatter

2744-611: A part of the Muslim Cham population collaborated with the Axis troops , with the degree being a matter of academic debate. They did so either by providing indirect support (guides, local connections, informants etc.) or by being recruited as Axis troops and armed irregulars. The latter cases were responsible for atrocities against the local Greek populace. Overall, the Muslim Chams were sympathetic to Axis forces during

2940-543: A period of heightened, overt racism following Reconstruction, a time often called the nadir of American race relations . A series of Supreme Court decisions, including Plessy v. Ferguson , emptied the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments of their force, allowing Jim Crow laws in the South to remain unchecked, sundown towns in the Midwest, and segregation in communities across the country , which would be reinforced by

3136-611: A place of worship for the Pinellas County Albanian Muslim community since 1996. Nearby St. Petersburg has 500 Albanians, Spring Hill has 400, Gainesville has 400, Egypt Lake-Leto has 350, and Palm Harbor has 300. South Florida has an Albanian community, although it is rather very small in Miami and Miami Beach , with the 2020s estimated data showing that not even a total of 100 ethnic Albanians live in those two cities combined. 30 miles from Miami

3332-488: A prominent leader in the early 1960s. The Great Society plan of President Lyndon Johnson 's administration resulted in groundbreaking and broad-reaching laws, policies and a constitutional amendment to counteract some of the worst effects of lingering institutional racism . The counterculture movement in the U.S. brought significant social changes, including the liberalization of attitudes toward recreational drug use and sexuality . It also encouraged open defiance of

3528-603: A result of the ELAS victory, in January – February 1945, about four to five thousand Albanians returned to their homes from Albania, mainly in the border areas of Filiates and Sagiada. But after the final defeat of ELAS during the battle of Athens and its capitulation (see Varkiza Agreement ), EDES quickly regained control of the region, eager to take revenge for the Cham's participation in the attack against its forces. The expulsion of

3724-655: A role in the disguise of the case. After the Albanian communist government gave compulsory Albanian citizenship to the Chams, the Greek government confiscated their properties (both of those who collaborated with the Nazis and those who did not) and permitted Greeks to settle in the area. After the war, only 117 Muslim Cham Albanians were left in Greece. The exact number of Cham Albanians who were expelled mainly to Albania, and to

3920-526: A sense of manifest destiny . The Missouri Compromise attempted to balance the desire of northern states to prevent the expansion of slavery into new territories with that of southern states to extend it, admitting Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state. It further prohibited slavery in all other lands of the Louisiana Purchase north of the 36°30′ parallel . As Americans expanded further into land inhabited by Native Americans,

4116-614: A sense of American identity as well. Men who otherwise never left their own colony now traveled across the continent to fight alongside men from decidedly different backgrounds but who were no less "American". British officers trained American officers for battle, most notably George Washington ; these officers would lend their skills and expertise to the colonists' cause during the American Revolutionary War to come. In addition, colonial legislatures and officials found it necessary to cooperate intensively in pursuit of

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4312-573: A series of anti-guerrilla sweeps in Thesprotia and within four days (in August 1943), 150 people were murdered, while hundreds more were taken hostage and transported to prison camps in Ioannina. The operations continued well into the autumn when several villages were burned by a joint Cham-German force, culminating in the executions of 49 notables of Paramithia as reprisals for a guerrilla attack. By

4508-632: A status solidified after its involvement in World War I . After Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the U.S. entered World War II . Its aftermath left the U.S. and the Soviet Union as the world's two superpowers and led to the Cold War , during which both countries struggled for ideological dominance and international influence . Following the Soviet Union's collapse and

4704-401: A year). Juvenile correctional facilities are operated by local or state governments and serve as longer-term placements for any minor adjudicated as delinquent and ordered by a judge to be confined. As of January 2023, the United States has the sixth-highest per capita incarceration rate in the world—531 people per 100,000 inhabitants—and the largest prison and jail population in

4900-544: Is Oakland Park , which has 800 Albanians, two percent of the city's population, and 350 live in Pompano Beach . Orlando and nearby communities do not have many Albanians, although Sanford , 20 miles away, has 300 Albanian residents. Within the Dallas-Fort Worth metropolitan area, Plano has a large community in addition to the metropolitan area's two aforementioned cities. The zip code of 75075, west of

5096-888: Is 3% ethnically Albanian. There are 5,000 Albanians in Macomb County , and several thousand in Wayne County . While few live in the Detroit city proper, many live also in the suburbs such as St. Clair Shores and Farmington Hills . (See History of the Albanian Americans in Metro Detroit ). Chicago has a large population of Albanians; the state of Illinois has over 15,000 Albanians, and 3,000 reside in Chicago proper. Exurban communities like Minooka have abundant Albanian populations. Jacksonville has

5292-655: Is 4% Albanian. There are 1,200 Albanians in St. Louis County . There is an Albanian presence in the Nashville area. While much smaller in other parts of Tennessee , such as Memphis and Knoxville where both cities have less than 50 Albanians live in said cities proper, over 1,000 Albanians live in Nashville. There is an Albanian-language Christian monastery that is adjoined with a community center there. In addition to New York, Connecticut, Florida and Michigan having most of

5488-580: Is a country primarily located in North America . It is a federal union of 50 states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 contiguous states border Canada to the north and Mexico to the south, with the states of Alaska to the northwest and the archipelagic Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean . The United States also asserts sovereignty over five major island territories and various uninhabited islands . The country has

5684-591: Is believed to be the first widespread culture in the Americas. Over time, indigenous North American cultures grew increasingly sophisticated, and some, such as the Mississippian culture , developed agriculture , architecture , and complex societies . In the post-archaic period , the Mississippian cultures were located in the midwestern , eastern , and southern regions, and the Algonquian in

5880-496: Is distinguishable from other Albanian Americans due to their Italianized names, as well as their Albanian Greek Catholic religion. Nevertheless, Arbëreshë have a strong sense of identity, and are unique in that they speak an archaic dialect of Tosk Albanian called Arbëresh , which does not have any Ottoman influence. Greater New Orleans has a history of an Arbëreshë community, mostly descended from 19th century Sicilian immigrants. Oftentimes, wherever there are Italians, there are

6076-498: Is known as the presidential system , in contrast to the parliamentary system , where the executive is part of the legislative body. Many countries around the world imitated this aspect of the 1789 Constitution of the United States , especially in the Americas. The Constitution is silent on political parties. However, they developed independently in the 18th century with the Federalist and Anti-Federalist parties. Since then,

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6272-438: Is now the United States experienced conflicts with Native Americans, they also engaged in trade, exchanging European tools for food and animal pelts. Relations ranged from close cooperation to warfare and massacres. The colonial authorities often pursued policies that forced Native Americans to adopt European lifestyles, including conversion to Christianity. Along the eastern seaboard, settlers trafficked African slaves through

6468-684: Is rife with Albanian-descended persons. Philadelphia city proper, as well as the suburbs of Progress and Berwyn are over 2% Albanian ethnically, and Philadelphia has over 5,000 Albanians in residence; 0.3% of the city's population. The DMV area encompassing D.C., Virginia, and Maryland, has several thousand Albanians: many reside in Fairfax County, Virginia (1,000; 120 in Dulles Town Center; 100 Floris; 100 in Oakton, and several dozen in other various cities and communities within

6664-518: Is taught at an Albanian and Montenegrin American cultural center to roughly 60 children in Ridgewood, Queens , NYC, entitled the "Fol Shqip School," and Mercy College is the only college known to be teaching Albanian courses in New York City. Selected people : United States The United States of America ( USA ), commonly known as the United States ( U.S. ) or America ,

6860-552: Is the federal agency charged with addressing most environmental-related issues . The idea of wilderness has shaped the management of public lands since 1964, with the Wilderness Act . The Endangered Species Act of 1973 provides a way to protect threatened and endangered species and their habitats. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service implements and enforces the Act. In 2024, the U.S. ranked 34th among 180 countries in

7056-743: The Albanian language as their mother tongue in 1920 was around 6,000. After World War II the Albanians who emigrated to the U.S. were mostly political emigrants, and by 1970 the figure rose to around 17,000. Following the Expulsion of Cham Albanians from Greece in the aftermath of World War II, many of them migrated to the United States, asserting that the Communist government in Albania discriminated against and persecuted them. They managed to retain their traditions and language, and created in 1973

7252-603: The Allies of World War I , helping to turn the tide against the Central Powers . In 1920, a constitutional amendment granted nationwide women's suffrage . During the 1920s and '30s, radio for mass communication and the invention of early television transformed communications nationwide. The Wall Street Crash of 1929 triggered the Great Depression , which President Franklin D. Roosevelt responded to with

7448-553: The Atlantic slave trade . The original Thirteen Colonies that would later found the United States were administered as possessions of Great Britain , and had local governments with elections open to most white male property owners . The colonial population grew rapidly, eclipsing Native American populations; by the 1770s, the natural increase of the population was such that only a small minority of Americans had been born overseas. The colonies' distance from Britain allowed for

7644-549: The Chameria Human Rights Association which later merged and became Albanian American Organization Chameria which aimed to protect their rights. (see Cham Albanians ). Allowing for the families that had abandoned their mother tongue, it is estimated that around 70,000 US citizens with an Albanian background lived in the US in 1980. In the 1990s, many Albanians from Albania , Montenegro , Serbia , and

7840-677: The Communist regime of Enver Hoxha . These refugees came from all regions of Albania and settled mainly in New York. Albanians would also be instrumental in the pizzeria and restaurant industry in New York, Boston, Chicago, and other metropolises. In 1912, Albanians began arriving in the Detroit area. At the time there were groups in east Detroit, northwest Detroit, and Grosse Pointe . The early settlers originated from southern Albania, but they were recorded as being from Greece, Turkey, or from

8036-549: The Environmental Performance Index . The country joined the Paris Agreement on climate change in 2016 and has many other environmental commitments. The United States is a federal republic of 50 states and a separate federal capital district, Washington, D.C. It also asserts sovereignty over five unincorporated territories and several uninhabited island possessions . The U.S. is

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8232-500: The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the U.S. Marshals Service have national jurisdiction and specialized duties, such as protecting civil rights , national security and enforcing U.S. federal courts ' rulings and federal laws. State courts conduct most civil and criminal trials, and federal courts handle designated crimes and appeals of state court decisions . There is no unified "criminal justice system" in

8428-605: The Great Lakes , Mississippi River and Gulf of Mexico . British colonization of the East Coast began with the Virginia Colony (1607) and Plymouth Colony (1620). The Mayflower Compact and the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut established precedents for representative self-governance and constitutionalism that would develop throughout the American colonies. While European settlers in what

8624-543: The Great Lakes region and along the Eastern Seaboard , while the Hohokam culture and Ancestral Puebloans inhabited the southwest . Native population estimates of what is now the United States before the arrival of European immigrants range from around 500,000 to nearly 10 million. Christopher Columbus began exploring the Caribbean for Spain in 1492, leading to Spanish-speaking settlements and missions from Puerto Rico and Florida to New Mexico and California . France established its own settlements along

8820-504: The Greater Philadelphia , Greater Boston , Metro Detroit , Chicagoland , Tampa and Jacksonville, Florida ; New York City , and Waterbury, Connecticut areas. About three-quarters of the Albanian American population lives in the aforementioned Eastern U.S. states (52,000 in New York State , 30,000 in Michigan , 21,000 in Massachusetts , 16,000 in Florida , 15,000 in Illinois , 15,000 in New Jersey , and 12,000 in Connecticut ). There are also smaller, yet sizable communities within

9016-418: The Greater Phoenix area, has about 2-3,000 ethnic Albanians, and an Albanian cafe in Phoenix . A small yet sizable Albanian community can be found in Washington state , including Mercer Island and within the Seattle area . Albanian-Americans are on average younger than non-Albanian Americans, having an average age of 33.5 in comparison to the American national average of 37.7. Albanian-Americans also have

9212-401: The Italian military forces launching an invasion of Greece from Albanian territory. The invasion force included several hundred native Albanian and Chams in blackshirt battalions attached to the Italian army. Their performance however was distinctly lackluster, as most Albanians, poorly motivated, either deserted or defected. Indeed, the Italian commanders, including Mussolini, would later use

9408-400: The Jacksonville area. The main other Albanian communities are in the Midwest, such as in Metro Detroit , Michigan, and Chicagoland . There are few Albanian communities elsewhere, with a small population in California and a slightly higher proportion in Texas, especially Dallas . With over 60,000 Albanian-Americans, the largest community is in New York which serves as an important pillar of

9604-458: The League of Nations , however the Cham demands were ignored and the Greek positions were accepted instead. The League of Nations also rejected Albanian demands about property issues and the recognition of the Cham minority as a distinct minority. During the 1930s Albanian and Italian irredentist efforts were intensified for the incorporation of the region into Albania. In April 1939 a committee of Cham representative called Fascist Italy to annex

9800-426: The Midwest . At the same time, about one million French Canadians migrated from Quebec to New England . During the Great Migration , millions of African Americans left the rural South for urban areas in the North. Alaska was purchased from Russia in 1867. The Compromise of 1877 effectively ended Reconstruction and white supremacists took local control of Southern politics . African Americans endured

9996-553: The National Park Service and other agencies. About 28% of the country's land is publicly owned and federally managed, primarily in the Western States . Most of this land is protected , though some is leased for commercial use, and less than one percent is used for military purposes. Environmental issues in the United States include debates on non-renewable resources and nuclear energy , air and water pollution , biodiversity , logging and deforestation , and climate change . The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

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10192-437: The New Deal , a series of sweeping programs and public works projects combined with financial reforms and regulations . All were intended to protect against future economic depressions. Initially neutral during World War II , the U.S. began supplying war materiel to the Allies of World War II in March 1941 and entered the war in December after the Empire of Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor . The U.S. developed

10388-508: The Organization of American States and the United States–Mexico–Canada Free Trade Agreement . In South America, Colombia is traditionally considered to be the closest ally of the United States. The U.S. exercises full international defense authority and responsibility for Micronesia , the Marshall Islands , and Palau through the Compact of Free Association . It has increasingly conducted strategic cooperation with India , but its ties with China have steadily deteriorated. Since 2014,

10584-539: The Pentium microprocessor in accordance with Moore's law , rechargeable lithium-ion batteries , the first gene therapy trial, and cloning either emerged in the U.S. or were improved upon there. The Human Genome Project was formally launched in 1990, while Nasdaq became the first stock market in the United States to trade online in 1998. In the Gulf War of 1991, an American-led international coalition of states expelled an Iraqi invasion force that had occupied neighboring Kuwait . The September 11 attacks on

10780-462: The Republic of North Macedonia emigrated to the United States as refugees of war. Another Albanian American ( Kosovan-Americans ) community in the Riverside / San Bernardino area of California includes Kosovars who entered the United States at the March Joint Air Reserve Base in Riverside. A wave of mass immigration came in 1992 with the breakup of Yugoslavia and it continued in the 1990s. Some Catholic ethnic Albanians from Montenegro entered

10976-431: The Second World War to Albania , at the hands of elements of the Greek Resistance : the National Republican Greek League (EDES) (1944) and EDES veteran resistance fighters (1945). The causes of the expulsion remain a matter of debate among historians. The estimated number of Cham Albanians expelled from Epirus mostly to Albania varies from 14,000 to 30,000. Cham reports raise this to c. 35,000. In

11172-399: The Spanish–American War . (The Philippines was granted full independence from the U.S. on July 4, 1946, following World War II. Puerto Rico and Guam have remained U.S. territories.) American Samoa was acquired by the United States in 1900 after the Second Samoan Civil War . The U.S. Virgin Islands were purchased from Denmark in 1917. The United States entered World War I alongside

11368-432: The communist DSE army in its second armed confrontation to win the country's control, concluding that no crimes took place. At this time, Col. Zotos himself was part of the Epiros High Command of the Army, something that apparently played a role to the resulted decision. The active involvement of Albania in the internal affairs in Greece in that period (see Greek civil war ) and the anomalous political situation also played

11564-399: The cotton gin made the institution increasingly profitable for Southern elites . This sectional conflict regarding slavery culminated in the American Civil War (1861–1865). Eleven slave states seceded and formed the Confederate States of America , while the other states remained in the Union . War broke out in April 1861 after the Confederates bombarded Fort Sumter . After

11760-416: The end of the Cold War in 1991, the U.S. emerged as the world's sole superpower , wielding significant geopolitical influence globally . The U.S. national government is a presidential constitutional federal republic and liberal democracy with three separate branches : legislative , executive , and judicial . It has a bicameral national legislature composed of the House of Representatives ,

11956-413: The fall of communism and the collapse of the Soviet Union , which marked the end of the Cold War and left the United States as the world's sole superpower . The 1990s saw the longest recorded economic expansion in American history , a dramatic decline in U.S. crime rates , and advances in technology . Throughout this decade, technological innovations such as the World Wide Web , the evolution of

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12152-400: The global economy in 2023. It possesses by far the largest amount of wealth of any country and has the highest disposable household income per capita among OECD countries. The U.S. ranks among the world's highest in economic competitiveness , productivity , innovation , human rights , and higher education . Its hard power and cultural influence have a global reach. The U.S. is

12348-435: The late Ottoman period , tensions between the Muslim Chams and the local Greek Orthodox Christian population emerged through communal conflicts . The Cham Albanians were originally Christian Orthodox by religion, but converted to Islam during the latter years of the Ottoman occupation. These tensions continued during the Balkan Wars , when the region, then under Ottoman rule , became part of Greece . Before and during

12544-406: The 1775 Battles of Lexington and Concord , igniting the American Revolutionary War . At the Second Continental Congress , the colonies appointed George Washington commander-in-chief of the Continental Army , and created a committee that named Thomas Jefferson to draft the Declaration of Independence . Two days after passing the Lee Resolution to create an independent nation the Declaration

12740-466: The 2010s, political polarization in the country increased between liberal and conservative factions. This polarization was capitalized upon in the January 2021 Capitol attack , when a mob of insurrectionists entered the U.S. Capitol and sought to prevent the peaceful transfer of power in an attempted self-coup d'état . The United States is the world's third-largest country by total area behind Russia and Canada. The 48 contiguous states and

12936-499: The Albania state became a serious concern for the Greek state, and consequently, every pro-Albanian movement within Chameria had to be eliminated by all means. Nevertheless, nationalist ideologies were adopted only by a minority of the Cham community. Even this minority was divided between pro-republicans and pro-royalist. During and immediately after World War I, Muslim Albanians were pressured to leave Chameria through various intimidation tactics, both subtle and violent. The population

13132-649: The Albanian community. 0.3% of New York State reports Albanian ancestry, and about 0.5% of NYC residents report Albanian ancestry. There is a concentrated Albanian community around the Bronx, especially around Belmont , Bedford Park , Morris Park , as well as also in Staten Island , which is nearly one percent Albanian. Parts of Westchester County such as Yonkers and White Plains are rife with Albanian people, both having over 2,000 and 1,000 Albanians each, respectively. The New Jersey cities of Garfield , Clifton , Elmwood Park , and Lodi all bear over 500 Albanians each. The Greater Philadelphia Area of Pennsylvania

13328-414: The Albanian population, pockets of sizable Albanians are found in San Diego County , which has roughly up towards 1,000 Albanians, many residing in Santee , or in the East San Diego County area. There are also several hundred Albanian Americans in the Sacramento Valley , especially in and around Carmichael . Pasadena , in Los Angeles , also has several hundred Albanians. Scottsdale, Arizona , as well as

13524-434: The Albanian side of the border. There were also moderate elements within the Muslim Cham community who opposed hatred of their Greek neighbors, including Albanian beys and religious leaders. A limited number of Muslim Chams enlisted in Albanian and Greek resistance units in the last stages of World War II . Collaboration with the Axis fueled resentment by the Greek side and in the aftermath of World War II , despite

13720-402: The Albanians as scapegoats for the Italian failure. During 28 October – 14 November while the Italian army made a short advance and briefly took brief control of part of Thesprotia, bands of Cham Albanians raided several villages and burned a number of towns, including Paramythia , Filiates , Sagiada and Igoumenitsa , while local Greek notables have been killed. In the case of Filiates

13916-492: The Albanians of Chameria but it has not received any international recognition. In post-communist Albania, Chams have been also presented as victims in another genocide: an exhibition in the National Museum in Tirana, bore the controversial title Genocide and Communist Terror in Albania 1944–1944 and considered the Cham as victims of a cleansing campaign of the P. R. of Albanian authorities. In general puplications in post-socialist Albania tend to favor an interpretation in which

14112-652: The American West have an alpine climate . The climate is arid in the Southwest, Mediterranean in coastal California , and oceanic in coastal Oregon , Washington , and southern Alaska . Most of Alaska is subarctic or polar . Hawaii , the southern tip of Florida and U.S. territories in the Caribbean and Pacific are tropical . States bordering the Gulf of Mexico are prone to hurricanes, and most of

14308-764: The Central Expressway in Plano, is 1.5% Albanian; 500-600 residents. There is a Balkan/Albanian restaurant, cultural center in Lewisville , and one to two thousand Albanians reside in the Dallas area. There is a sizable Albanian population in Missouri , especially in Greater St. Louis ; the town of Bella Villa , which also has a large population of another Southern European ethnic group ( Bosnian Americans ),

14504-489: The Cham Albanian history was nearly non-existent, today's history taught in Albanian school mentions that "Greek chauvinist bands terrorized the Albanian population... in order to perpetuate the annexation of Albanian-inhabited lands." The issue of Chameria was firmly placed in the context of Albanian nationalism . For the Greek state, the expulsion of Muslim Chams was a closed case. The atrocities committed against

14700-609: The Cham Albanians are drawn as collective victims of an 'ethnically' motivated persecution. On 10 December 2012, the leader of the nationalist Party for Justice, Integration and Unity (PDIU) presented to the Parliament of Albania a resolution where PDIU asked from the Greek government reparations in the amount of 10 Billion Euros for the Expulsion of Cham Albanians. Similarly, while in the official schoolbooks in Albania

14896-475: The Cham BK. The fact the Cham Albanians collaborated with the Axis worried the two major resistance organizations in the region, the right wing National Republican Greek League (EDES) and the left Greek People's Liberation Army (EAM). Cham units engaged in combat operations against both organizations and especially against the EDES. From March 1943 the ELAS bands invited various Muslim Cham villages to join

15092-694: The Cham community in 1943, and ordered local EDES commanders to avoid provoking the Chams: we [EDES] are currently trying to disrupt the collaboration between the Italian and the Muslims whose morale has completely plummeted and are currently pleading for an alliance with us... it is imperative that you desist from provoking them. You should inform all the guerrillas and the civilian population about this and make them predisposed toward accepting this" The British Military Mission attempted to mediate an agreement between

15288-812: The Cham minority. However, it had not the opportunity to make any significant contribution against the Germans. On 15 June 1943 the Albanian National Liberation Front formed the ethnically mixed (consisting of Albanians from Albania, Greeks from Albania and Cham Albanians) Chameria battalion ( Albanian : Batalioni Çamëria ), during the meeting of the Regional Committee of the National Anti-fascist Liberation Army in Konispol . At

15484-465: The Cham opposition was quickly overcome and the local Albanian communities began to cross the border and settled to Albanian territory. Those Chams that remained in Filiates in order to organize the defence against EDES were easily defeated. They were imprisoned, tried and executed the following day. However, their leaders, brothers Mazar and Nuri Dino, managed to flee to Albanian territory together with

15680-513: The Cham refugees in Albania. Nevertheless, due to the deterioration of the relation between the People's Republic of Albania and the Western world the local regime prohibited any the financial and humanitarian aid. Since 1947, the Committee was charged with the normalization of living situations of Cham refugees in Albania. In 1951, Chams were forcibly given Albanian citizenship and the Committee

15876-630: The Chams for conscription. Seeing the omens several hundred Muslim Chams enlisted in its ranks. With the German withdrawal and the start of the Greek civil war, local ELAS forces with the participation of those Chams volunteers, aided with ELAS forces from the central Greece, attacked EDES in Epirus and succeeded to take the control in the Thesprotia region in late 1944 forcing EDES to leave in Corfu . As

16072-543: The Cold War period the Greek origin theory of Muslim Chams became a central theme, appearing even in scientific works, and the Albanian linguistic tradition of the area was continuously downplayed. In this way, and in accordance with the approach of claiming a territory through its population, a purely Greek history and character of Chameria was retained in official politics. The atrocities that took place do not appear to have been sanctioned by Greek government officials or

16268-535: The Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. The term "United States" and the initialism "U.S.", used as nouns or as adjectives in English, are common short names for the country. The initialism "USA", a noun, is also common. "United States" and "U.S." are the established terms throughout the U.S. federal government , with prescribed rules. In English, the term "America" rarely refers to topics unrelated to

16464-573: The District of Columbia occupy a combined area of 3,119,885 square miles (8,080,470 km ). The coastal plain of the Atlantic seaboard gives way to inland forests and rolling hills in the Piedmont plateau region. The Appalachian Mountains and the Adirondack massif separate the East Coast from the Great Lakes and the grasslands of the Midwest . The Mississippi River System ,

16660-528: The EDES leadership and the British mission, but both were unable to prevent them. Generally, violent incidents against Muslim Cham civilians were severely limited because the EDES leadership managed to impose discipline on its subordinate members. In 1945–1946, a special collaborator's court in Greece condemned a total of 2,109 Cham Albanians in absentia for collaboration with the Axis powers and war crimes . Several local Greek notables promised safe passage and offered to host all those Chams who would abandon

16856-401: The EDES leadership, and there is strong evidence that, EDES leadership at least in private, disproved of the atrocities. Officials were both indifferent towards it and received its results favorably. The leader of EDES, and hero in the eyes of the state, Napoleon Zervas, in a letter dated 1953 wrote to one of his comrades "Our fellow country men of the area must recall once more who got rid of

17052-486: The ELAS units and executed Giohalas. In the following months, German and Cham units attempted to retake Paramythia, but they were unsuccessful. At 17–18 August a Nazi-Cham Albanian force was defeated by the EDES resistance fighters at the Battle of Menina . After this battle the Cham community crossed the border and fled en masse to Albania. EDES for a second time invited the Cham representatives to abandon their support to

17248-573: The Elder concluded that major military resources needed to be devoted to North America to win the war against France. For the first time, the continent became one of the main theaters of what could be termed a " world war ". The British colonies' position as an integral part of the British Empire became more apparent during the war, with British military and civilian officials becoming a more significant presence in American life. The war increased

17444-540: The German army in all conflicts that occurred in Thesprotia: from the end of June 1944 until the German withdrawal. According to British reports, the Cham collaborationist bands managed to flee to Albania with all of their equipment, together with a half million stolen cattle as well as 3,000 horses, leaving only the elderly members of the community behind. On 18 June 1944, EDES forces with Allied support launched an attack on Paramythia. After short-term conflict against

17640-470: The Germans and hand over their weapons. This appeal was accompanied by similar initiatives of the Allied mission but the Cham response was again negative. On the other hand, the Cham community under their autonomous administration was determined to organize its armed defence against the advancing forces of EDES and armed all their male population of recruiting age (from 16 to 60 years old). In early August 1944

17836-576: The Greek government which concerned the possibility of an alliance against the Ottoman Empire. According to this, the two sides agreed that the future Greek-Albanian boundary should be located on the Acroceraunian mountains, thus leaving Chameria to Greece. Qemali's reasons for closer ties with Greece during this time was to thwart Bulgarian ambitions in the wider Balkans region and gain support for Albanian independence. The following years

18032-510: The Greek government. Thus, several local conflicts took place between local Muslim and Christian Albanian speakers, as they have been recruited by the Ottoman and Greek armies respectively. In the ensuing war against the Greek army, many of the Muslim Chams had formed irregular armed units and had burned Greek inhabited settlements in the area of Paramythia, Fanari and Filiates. As a response to this activity Greek guerilla units were organized in

18228-402: The Greek side of the border. Thus, in January 1944, Cham units were also active in Albania together with Nazi German forces, as a result, 600 people were murdered in the region of Konispol . Though the wider Muslim Cham population was sympathetic to the Axis forces during the war, many were not active collaborators apart from those mainly recruited as Axis troops and armed irregulars. Although

18424-474: The Greek state, however, the possibility of Orthodox Albanian speakers being recruited into the ranks of Albanian nationalists was a source of constant anxiety. However, despite efforts of state and national activists the local population was not nationalised in this period. Thus Kyrios Nitsos, a Greek educationalist in 1909 noted that local Orthodox Albanian speakers did not refer to themselves as Greek yet instead as Kaur which connoted Christian and did not find

18620-518: The Greeks" and "collaborators of the occupation forces", and suffered a certain degree of persecution within Albania, because their elites were traditionally rich landlords, they had collaborated with the Axis forces and they had been involved in anti-communist activities. Albanian presence in the area of Chameria , in coastal parts of Epirus , is recorded since at least the 13th century. A Venetian document cites an Albanian population inhabiting

18816-542: The Italians wanted to annex Chameria to Albania, the Germans vetoed the proposal, most probably due to the fact that Epirus periphery was inhabited by a vast majority by Greeks. An Albanian High Commissioner, Xhemil Dino , was appointed, but his authority was limited, and for the duration of the Occupation, the area remained under direct control from the occupational military authorities. The Nazi German command faced

19012-628: The January 1863 Emancipation Proclamation , many freed slaves joined the Union army . The war began to turn in the Union's favor following the 1863 Siege of Vicksburg and Battle of Gettysburg , and the Confederacy surrendered in 1865 after the Union's victory in the Battle of Appomattox Court House . The Reconstruction era followed the war. After the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln , Reconstruction Amendments were passed to protect

19208-605: The Midwest such as Greater Cleveland , and Kenosha and Milwaukee , and as well as smaller East Coast communities like that of in the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area that encompasses Northern Virginia and Maryland . West of the Mississippi River , there are smaller ethnic Albanian communities in Dallas-Fort Worth , Houston , Phoenix , and San Diego areas. To avoid service in the Turkish War during

19404-606: The Muslim Albanians of the sanjak of Preveza, especially the large landowners and the Ottoman state employees, were persecuting the Christian element in cooperation with the Ottomans. Moreover, the Ottomans continued to install an unknown number of Muslim Albanians in the sanjak as part of their resettlement policy. On 17 October, the Greek side attempted to approach the local Muslim representatives in order to discuss

19600-429: The Muslim Cham community are absent from official documents, which suggests that the state wished to erase any evidence of what had occurred. The very limited number of printed material that surfaced after the war attempted to reconstruct the events that transpired during the turbulent period with the implicit aim of justifying the expulsion, which might also be termed as ethnic cleansing by a number of scholars. During

19796-412: The Muslim Chams who were pushing down the neck of Hellenism for five hundred years." According to Greek scholar Lambros Baltsiotis, the leniency shown towards individuals involved in the atrocities strongly indicates that the expulsion was accepted by the Greek state and formed part of state policy. Historian Spyros Tsoutsoumpis states that the reluctance of EDES leadership to prosecute certain individuals

19992-460: The Muslim community were treated as de facto enemies by the Greek state. Later, in January 1913, Greek irregulars began to respond to this situation. Between 72 and 78 Muslim Cham notables from Paramythia were executed by a Greek army irregular unit during this time. Cham reports that some Albanian notables of Chameria were persecuted and killed by the Greek authorities had been officially refuted by

20188-470: The Nazi operations Augustus that resulted in the murder of 600 Greek villagers and the destruction of 70 villages. In September 1943, similar Cham activity resulted in the murder of 201 civilians in the region of Paramythia and Fanari and the destruction of 19 settlements. On one occasion, the Cham administration managed to exterminate the Greek notables of Paramythia . Active collaboration wasn't limited on

20384-591: The Nazi side. As such, a few hundred Muslim Chams stayed in Greece. Moreover, according to Albanian sources, an additional 2,500 Muslim Cham refugees lost their lives through starvation and epidemics on their way to Albania. After settling in the People's Republic of Albania and the ruling Party of Labour of Albania under Enver Hoxha did not treat them as victims, but took a very distrustful view towards them and proceeded with arrests and exiles . The Cham Albanians were labelled as "reactionaries", "murderers of

20580-558: The Orthodox faith are considered Greeks by the Greek government. After the expulsion the Cham community to Albania, Chams organized the Anti-Fascist Committee of Cham Immigrants , with the help of the newly established communist government of Albania . It was established, during the first wave of refugees, and it aimed to make Greece allow, the returning of Chams in their homes. They organized two congresses, adopted

20776-403: The Ottoman period members of the Cham community owned most large farmlands in the region. There is no evidence that Albanian national ideologies had strong support among the local Muslims in the late Ottoman period. On the other hand, the local Orthodox Albanian speaking population, as well as the rest of the Orthodox community, remained Greek-oriented and identified themselves as Greeks. For

20972-611: The Rocky Mountains, the Yellowstone Caldera , is the continent's largest volcanic feature. In 2021, the United States had 8% of global permanent meadows and pastures and 10% of cropland. With its large size and geographic variety, the United States includes most climate types. East of the 100th meridian , the climate ranges from humid continental in the north to humid subtropical in the south. The western Great Plains are semi-arid . Many mountainous areas of

21168-647: The U.S. has become a key ally of Ukraine ; it has also provided the country with significant military equipment and other support in response to Russia's 2022 invasion . The president is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces and appoints its leaders, the secretary of defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff . The Department of Defense , which is headquartered at the Pentagon near Washington, D.C., administers five of

21364-661: The U.S. territories." Despite disparate systems of confinement, four main institutions dominate: federal prisons , state prisons , local jails, and juvenile correctional facilities . Federal prisons are run by the Federal Bureau of Prisons and hold people who have been convicted of federal crimes, including pretrial detainees. State prisons, run by the official department of correction of each state, hold sentenced people serving prison time (usually longer than one year) for felony offenses. Local jails are county or municipal facilities that incarcerate defendants prior to trial; they also hold those serving short sentences (typically under

21560-464: The United States and the peaceful transfer of power , respectively. The Louisiana Purchase of 1803 from France nearly doubled the territory of the United States. Lingering issues with Britain remained , leading to the War of 1812 , which was fought to a draw. Spain ceded Florida and its Gulf Coast territory in 1819. In the late 18th century, American settlers began to expand westward , many with

21756-775: The United States entered the Cold War, where geopolitical tensions between the U.S. and the Soviet Union led the two countries to dominate world affairs . The U.S. utilized the policy of containment to limit the USSR's sphere of influence, and prevailed in the Space Race , which culminated with the first crewed Moon landing in 1969. Domestically, the U.S. experienced economic growth , urbanization , and population growth following World War II . The civil rights movement emerged, with Martin Luther King Jr. becoming

21952-582: The United States from Mexico and settled in Detroit. Some of the first ethnic Albanians to arrive in the United States were immigrants from Italy who descended from a group of Albanians known as the Arbëreshë . The Arbëreshë were a group of Albanians who fled to the Kingdom of Naples and to the Kingdom of Sicily in the 15th century to avoid invasion by the Ottoman Empire . This group of Albanians

22148-666: The United States has operated as a de facto two-party system , though the parties in that system have been different at different times. The two main national parties are presently the Democratic and the Republican . The former is perceived as relatively liberal in its political platform while the latter is perceived as relatively conservative . In the American federal system , sovereign powers are shared between two levels of elected government: national and state. People in

22344-593: The United States in 2001 by the pan-Islamist militant organization al-Qaeda led to the war on terror , and subsequent military interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq . The cultural impact of the attacks was profound and long-lasting. The U.S. housing bubble culminated in 2007 with the Great Recession , the largest economic contraction since the Great Depression. Coming to a head in

22540-656: The United States of America to Spain" to seek assistance in the Revolutionary War effort. The first known public usage is an anonymous essay published in the Williamsburg newspaper, The Virginia Gazette , on April 6, 1776. By June 1776, the "United States of America" appeared in the Articles of Confederation and the Declaration of Independence . The Second Continental Congress adopted

22736-593: The United States, despite the usage of "the Americas " as the totality of North and South America. "The States" is an established colloquial shortening of the name, used particularly from abroad; "stateside" is the corresponding adjective or adverb. The first inhabitants of North America migrated from Siberia across the Bering land bridge about 12,000 years ago; the Clovis culture , which appeared around 11,000 BC,

22932-624: The United States, except Iran , North Korea , and Bhutan . Though Taiwan does not have formal diplomatic relations with the U.S., it maintains close unofficial relations. The United States regularly supplies Taiwan with military equipment to deter potential Chinese aggression. Its geopolitical attention also turned to the Indo-Pacific when the United States joined the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue with Australia, India, and Japan. The United States has

23128-509: The United States. The American prison system is largely heterogenous, with thousands of relatively independent systems operating across federal, state, local, and tribal levels. In 2023, "these systems [held] almost 2 million people in 1,566 state prisons, 98 federal prisons, 3,116 local jails, 1,323 juvenile correctional facilities, 181 immigration detention facilities, and 80 Indian country jails, as well as in military prisons , civil commitment centers, state psychiatric hospitals, and prisons in

23324-610: The West Side of Cleveland), 14,500 live in Illinois and about 13,000 live in Connecticut. The three largest communities (New York, Michigan and Massachusetts) account for 58% of the total Albanian-American population. Michigan has an Albanian American percentage for the state recorded at 0.4%, higher than New York's at 0.3%; thus having Michigan having the highest percentage of Albanian Americans of any state. Hamtramck, Michigan

23520-428: The agricultural products and any transactions of the Greek peasants. They harassed in many ways the Christian notables and peasants who resisted, and these efforts had a detrimental effect on the Greek population. This atmosphere against the local Greeks who had suffered under Germans, Italians and Chams, led to an explosive polarization which would have constrained any motivation for joint Greek-Cham resistance. During

23716-399: The annexation of the Greek region and the creation of a Greater Albanian state . At the beginning of World War II , when the Greek state announced its full mobilization prior to the Italian invasion, Cham Albanians were alienated further by it, and were treated as a hostile population and experienced discrimination and oppression, while their community leaders were exiled. Subsequently,

23912-562: The area opposite the island of Corfu in 1210, while the first appearance of Albanians within the Despotate of Epirus is recorded in Byzantine sources as nomads. The wars of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries between Russia and the Ottoman Empire negatively impacted the region. Increased conversions to Islam followed, often forced, such as those of 25 villages in 1739 which are located in current day Thesprotia prefecture. During

24108-599: The assurances of the EDES guerillas, most of the Muslim Cham community fled, or were forced to flee, to Albania. The collaboration served as a justification for their expulsion that was also the outcome of Greek totalitarian regime's policy embedded in the prevailing nationalistic ideology of the interwar period . In the process between 200 and 300 Chams were massacred by EDES forces in various settlements between March and May 1945, while over 1,200 were murdered in total. Some Albanian sources increase this number to c. 2,000. However, atrocities were not encouraged by

24304-588: The borders in order to compose armed groups, which were to side with the Italians. Their numbers are estimated of about 2,000 to 3,000 men. Adding to them in the following months the Italians urgently started organizing several thousand local Albanians volunteers to participate on the "liberation of Chamuria" creating an army equivalent to a full division of 9 battalions; 4 blackshirt battalions – Tirana, Korçë and Vlorë, Shkodër, 2 infantry battalions – Gramos and Dajti, 2 volunteer battalions – Tomori and Barabosi, one battery corps – Drin. All of them eventually took part in

24500-481: The collaboration of Cham Albanians with the Nazis and accordingly downplayed violence by Greek nationalists against Cham Albanians. Newer generations of scholars re-examined this narrative and argued that the Greek state actively instigated violence against Cham Albanians and that their expulsion wasn't simply linked to collaborationism but an "outcome of state policy since the Interwar period" which sought to eliminate

24696-478: The communist regime in Albania. This proposal however was rejected by the Albanian side. The positions of the Greek government, which considers the Cham-issue non-existent, are generally based on the principles of international law, and therefore there is no obligation against the Cham community since it does not constitute a minority in Greece. In Greek historiography, two main schools of examination regarding

24892-457: The contiguous United States are in the State of California, about 84 miles (135 km) apart. At an elevation of 20,310 feet (6,190.5 m), Alaska's Denali is the highest peak in the country and continent. Active volcanoes are common throughout Alaska's Alexander and Aleutian Islands , and Hawaii consists of volcanic islands. The supervolcano underlying Yellowstone National Park in

25088-498: The country in which they boarded their boats to the United States. Many had initially lived in New York and New England, but moved to Detroit by the 1910s. The majority of this first wave of emigrants, approximately 10,000, did not intend to permanently settle in the U.S., and went back to Albania after World War I . Meanwhile, the post-WWII group of emigrants from Albania reached the U.S. The second group settled and intermarried in their new country. The number of Albanians that reported

25284-556: The country's GDP. The U.S. has 42% of the world's nuclear weapons —the second-largest share after Russia. The United States has the third-largest combined armed forces in the world, behind the Chinese People's Liberation Army and Indian Armed Forces . The military operates about 800 bases and facilities abroad, and maintains deployments greater than 100 active duty personnel in 25 foreign countries. State defense forces (SDFs) are military units that operate under

25480-469: The country's territory would expand with the admission of new states , rather than the expansion of existing states. The U.S. Constitution was drafted at the 1787 Constitutional Convention to overcome the limitations of the Articles. It went into effect in 1789, creating a federal republic governed by three separate branches that together ensured a system of checks and balances . George Washington

25676-792: The county), Arlington County, Virginia , Loudoun County, Virginia , Montgomery County, Maryland , and Washington, D.C. itself has an Albanian American proportion that is slightly higher than the American figure of 0.06% (D.C.'s is 0.08%). Massachusetts has a large Albanian population, especially in the communities of Worcester , which has 3,000 Albanians, and Quincy with over a thousand. Some 30,000 live in Michigan, about 20,000 live in Massachusetts, approximately 4,000 live in Ohio (in Greater Cleveland , especially Lakewood and

25872-584: The development of self-governance, and the First Great Awakening , a series of Christian revivals , fueled colonial interest in religious liberty . For a century, the American colonists had been providing their own troops and materiel in conflicts with indigenous peoples allied with Britain's colonial rivals , especially France, and the Americans had begun to develop a sense of self-defense and self-reliance separate from Britain. The French and Indian War (1754–1763) took on new significance for all North American colonists after Parliament under William Pitt

26068-414: The dispossession of native inhabitants . As more states were admitted , a North–South division over slavery led to the secession of the Confederate States of America , which fought states remaining in the Union in the 1861–1865 American Civil War . With the victory and preservation of the United States, slavery was abolished nationally . By 1900, the country had established itself as a great power ,

26264-418: The end of 1943 the men of this ethnically mixed battalion fought against the Germans in Konispol. They later were supported by 1,000 Albanian collaborators under the Cham leader Nuri Dino (Nuri Dino battalion Albanian : Batalioni Nuri Dino ). Soon after this battle, Haki Rushit (one of the leaders of the Chameria battalion) defected to the nationalist collaborators of the Balli Kompetar. EDES also approached

26460-416: The end of 1943, the presence of the Germans also encouraged the Chams to organise a parallel state, which progressively replaced the Greek authorities across the region. A Muslim committee was elected, that would serve as a de facto civilian authority in the Paramithia region. In early 1944 the Albanian notables appointed their own council presidents, militia men and rural guards, and imposed a compulsory tax on

26656-407: The environment for labor unions to begin to flourish . This period eventually ended with the advent of the Progressive Era , which was characterized by significant reforms. Pro-American elements in Hawaii overthrew the Hawaiian monarchy ; the islands were annexed in 1898. That same year, Puerto Rico , the Philippines , and Guam were ceded to the U.S. by Spain after the latter's defeat in

26852-407: The expulsion of Cham Albanians have appeared. A corpus of works written mostly by non-historians including local politicians were published with explicit goal of justifying state violence against Cham Albanians and to support irredentist claims of the Greek state towards Albania. These works often presented Albanians as "brutes" who were naturally inclined to collaborate with the Nazis, they exaggerated

27048-414: The federal government often applied policies of Indian removal or assimilation . The Trail of Tears (1830–1850) was a U.S. government policy that forcibly removed and displaced most Native Americans living east of the Mississippi River to lands far to the west. These and earlier organized displacements prompted a long series of American Indian Wars west of the Mississippi. The Republic of Texas

27244-434: The first nuclear weapons and used them against the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, ending the war. The United States was one of the " Four Policemen " who met to plan the post-war world , alongside the United Kingdom , Soviet Union , and China . The U.S. emerged relatively unscathed from the war, with even greater economic power and international political influence . After World War II,

27440-505: The first operation by EDES forces, the most infamous massacre of Muslim Chams occurred in the district of Paramythia . The total number of the Cham Albanians killed in the town, as well as in similar incidents in Karvounari, Parga, Trikoryfo (ex-Spatari), Filiates and the surrounding settlements of Paramythia are estimated from 300-600; men, women and children. Reports of rapes and torture were recorded as well. On 28 June 1944, EDES entered Parga and killed 52 Albanians. The following month

27636-411: The first settlement of the Thirteen Colonies in Virginia in 1607. Clashes with the British Crown over taxation and political representation sparked the American Revolution , with the Second Continental Congress formally declaring independence on July 4, 1776. Following its victory in the 1775–1783 Revolutionary War , the country continued to expand westward across North America , resulting in

27832-464: The gap created by socialist historiography. Serious study on the history of events has begun to emerge from Albania, Greece and Great Britain after the collapse of the Socialist Republic in Albania. The Cham issue would regain momentum in Albania in 1991, when the communist regime collapsed, and the National Political Association "Çamëria" was established. In 1994 the Albanian government declared 27 June as The Day of Greek Chauvinist Genocide Against

28028-463: The integration of Army National Guard units and personnel into the U.S. Army and (since 1947) the U.S. Air Force. There are about 18,000 U.S. police agencies from local to national level in the United States. Law in the United States is mainly enforced by local police departments and sheriff departments in their municipal or county jurisdictions. The state police departments have authority in their respective state , and federal agencies such as

28224-421: The interwar period, the Muslim Chams were not integrated into the Greek state, which adopted policies that aimed to drive them out of their territory, led to tensions between them. Unlike the Christian Albanians of Greece, the Muslim Cham Albanians were seen by Greek nationalists as an immediate threat to the state. Meanwhile, fascist Italian propaganda initiated in 1939 an aggressive pro-Albanian campaign for

28420-473: The invasion to Greece at 28 October 1940 (see Greco-Italian War ) under the XXV Italian Army Corps which after the incorporation of the Albanian units renamed to "Chamuria Army Corps" under General C. Rossi, although with poor performance. In October 1940, 1800 Cham conscripts were disarmed and put to work on local roads, and in the following months all Albanian males not called up were deported to camps or to island exile. The Greco–Italian War started with

28616-407: The late 19th century, due to Albania being under the rule of the Ottoman Empire , Albanians would arrive in the U.S., namely to Chicago , Boston , and New York. The first Albanian documented to have emigrated to the United States was Kolë Kristofori (English: Nicholas Christopher ), who landed in Boston in the early 1880s and is remembered as the pioneer of the Albanian ethnic group in the U.S. It

28812-515: The left wing National Liberation Front (EAM) arrested 40 local Muslim Albanians in Parga and executed them. Some British officers described it as " a most disgraceful affair involving an orgy of revenge with the local guerrillas looting and wantonly destroying everything ". British Foreign Office reported that " The bishop of Paramythia joined in the searching of houses for booty and came out of one house to find his already heavily laden mule had been meanwhile stripped by some andartes ". On

29008-415: The local demographic composition with the removal of the Christian population and the final incorporation of the region to Albania. However, it seems that local beys (most of them were already part of the Albanian nationalistic and partly collaborationist group Balli Kombëtar ) and the mufti did not support such actions. Thus, in the summer of 1943, armed Cham collaborator units actively participated in

29204-427: The military draft (leading to the end of conscription in 1973) and wide opposition to U.S. intervention in Vietnam (with the U.S. totally withdrawing in 1975). A societal shift in the roles of women was significantly responsible for the large increase in female paid labor participation during the 1970s, and by 1985 the majority of American women aged 16 and older were employed. The late 1980s and early 1990s saw

29400-441: The most Albanian Americans in Florida with 3,812 Albanians, having almost 1/4 of all Albanian Americans in Florida and 1.76% of all Albanian Americans. Jacksonville's population is 0.4% Albanian by ancestry. Clearwater , in the Tampa area, has 900 Albanian residents, almost one percent of its population, as well as an Albanian Islamic mosque. There is also another Tampa-area Albanian mosque located in Dunedin , which has served as

29596-612: The most attractive to the population are the most vulnerable. The U.S. is one of 17 megadiverse countries containing large numbers of endemic species : about 17,000 species of vascular plants occur in the contiguous United States and Alaska, and over 1,800 species of flowering plants are found in Hawaii, few of which occur on the mainland. The United States is home to 428 mammal species, 784 birds, 311 reptiles, 295 amphibians , and around 91,000 insect species. There are 63 national parks , and hundreds of other federally managed parks, forests, and wilderness areas , managed by

29792-478: The most violent, the California genocide of thousands of Native inhabitants, lasted into the early 1870s, just as additional western territories and states were created. During the colonial period, slavery had been legal in the American colonies , though the practice began to be significantly questioned during the American Revolution. States in the North enacted abolition laws , though support for slavery strengthened in Southern states , as inventions such as

29988-477: The occupation forces" by the regime of the People's Republic of Albania and also persecuted to a certain extent. Considered a "hostile population" and a black sheep in the "heroic resistance of the Albanian people", Cham history was hidden or suppressed by the regime, and the persecution they had faced in Greece was omitted from history text books. While the emergence of present discourse is motivated by obvious financial and political reasons, it also attempts to fill

30184-428: The occupation forces. These armed bands under the leadership of gendarmerie officers Nuri and Mazar Dino participated in the Axis operations (village burnings, murders, executions) and committed a number of crimes in both Greece and Albania. It seems that the leaders of the Cham community with the support of the German Wehrmacht units stationed in the region implemented ethnic cleansing policies that aimed to change

30380-414: The organization of guerilla resistance in that area difficult. I never heard of any of them taking part in any resistance against enemy. Zervas encouraged by the Allied Mission under myself, chased them out of their homes in 1944 in order to facilitate operations against the enemy. They mostly took refuge in Albania, where they were not popular either. Their eviction from Greece was bloodily carried out, owing

30576-420: The other hand, Colonel Christopher Montague Woodhouse, 5th Baron Terrington , who was present in the area at the time, in his " Note on the Chams " official military report of 16 October 1945, stated that the Chams "deserved what they got" and wrote a brief description of the situation which led to the events, the events themselves, as well as his thoughts on them: "In 1941-3 they collaborated with Italians, making

30772-431: The other hand, the Orthodox community, or the "Greeks", as known to contemporary Ottoman classification were Greek, Albanian and Aromanian speakers: In the highlands of Mourgana and Souli there were mostly Greek speakers, while in the lowlands of Margariti, Igoumenitsa and Paramithia Albanian speakers. In January 1907 a secret agreement was signed between Ismail Qemali , a leader of the then Albanian national movement, and

30968-408: The policy of redlining later adopted by the federal Home Owners' Loan Corporation . An explosion of technological advancement accompanied by the exploitation of cheap immigrant labor led to rapid economic expansion during the late 19th and early 20th centuries , allowing the United States to outpace the economies of England, France, and Germany combined. This fostered the amassing of power by

31164-401: The possibility of a Greek-Albanian alliance. Only some Albanian beys of Margariti were willing to accept a Greek rule. Muslim Chams were not keen to fight on the side of the Ottoman army, but already from autumn 1912 formed armed bands and raided the entire area as far north as Pogoni . As a result, hundreds of Greek villagers were forced to escape to nearby Corfu and Arta. Thus, the members of

31360-443: The possibility of an Italian attack on Greece drew nearer, he began arming Albanian irregular bands to use against Greece. As the final excuse for the start of the Greco-Italian War , Jacomoni used the killing of Daut Hoxha, a Cham Albanian, whose headless body was discovered near the village of Vrina in June 1940. It was alleged by the Italian-controlled government in Tirana that he had been murdered by Greek secret agents. Hoxha

31556-420: The primary colonial grievances was a denial of their rights as Englishmen , particularly the right to representation in the British government that taxed them . To demonstrate their dissatisfaction and resolve, the First Continental Congress met in 1774 and passed the Continental Association , a colonial boycott of British goods that proved effective. The British attempt to then disarm the colonists resulted in

31752-484: The reality that "all ‘national’ and ‘leftist’ partisan groups consisted of Greeks, unlike the Chams who almost entirely supported the Germans". On 10 August 1943, the National Republican Greek League (EDES) and the Cham Balli Kombëtar (BK) held a meeting in Parga, attended by representatives of the two organizations including Mazar Dino. EDES asked for the disarmament of the Cham units and for their activity to pass under EDES command. These demands were met with refusal by

31948-444: The region and to hand it over to Albania. Following the Italian invasion of Albania , the Albanian Kingdom became a protectorate of the Kingdom of Italy . The Italians, especially governor Francesco Jacomoni , used the Cham issue as a means to rally Albanian support. Although in the event, Albanian enthusiasm for the "liberation of Chameria" was muted, Jacomoni sent repeated over-optimistic reports to Rome on Albanian support. As

32144-427: The region latter in 1913. Thus, village burnings were committed by both sides. Occurrences of atrocities perpetrated by Greek forces within the region were recorded mainly by the Albanian side, whereas those events were noted only indirectly, though clearly by Greek government officials. During the Balkan Wars, Chameria, as the whole region of Epirus, came under Greek control . The region's geographical proximity to

32340-479: The relationship between Cham Albanians and the Greek state improved during the early 1930s, things worsened again under the dictatorship of Ioannis Metaxas. Under the Metaxas regime (1936–1940), the gendarmerie used increased intimidation methods toward the Cham populace through imprisonments, arbitrary arrests, violence, beatings, house searches for discovery of weapons and the prohibition of Albanian language, books and newspapers. In 1928, Cham protests were brought to

32536-402: The remaining inhabitants fled across the border into Albania. However, there was no link between the perpetrators of the 1945 events and the EDES leadership, as well as the Greek administration of that time. The incident came under an investigation of the Greek army four years later during the second circle of the Greek civil war, in which time, the by-then communist Albania was actively helping

32732-448: The resistance groups and the Cham community after the Italian capitulation, but that was rejected by the Muslim notables. The capitulation of Italians and the arrival of Germans put an end to the negotiations between Chams and Greek resistance groups. The Germans tried to win over the Muslim Chams by offering money, supplies, guns, uniforms and promising a union with Albania in the event of an Axis victory. Approximately 300 Chams took part in

32928-471: The resistance, but the results were disappointing. They were unable to recruit more than 30, but most of them deserted ELAS the following winter. Only at the end of the war, in May 1944, a mixed ELAS battalion the IV Ali Demi battalion ( Albanian : Batalioni Ali Demi ) was formed. It was named after a Cham Albanian who was killed in Vlora fighting against the Germans. According to a Cham report of 1945 it consisted of 460 men, some of whom were members of

33124-418: The rest of the community was completed by a massacre of Chams in Filliates in March 1945, carried out by EDES veterans under Zotos and groups of armed civilians. Thus, Col. Zotos, a loose paramilitary grouping of EDES veteran guerrillas and local men went on a rampage. In the worst massacre, at the town of Filiates, on 13 March, some sixty to seventy Chams were killed. Many of the Cham villages were burned and

33320-433: The retreating Germans. As noted by U.S. intelligence a large number of Chams moved to Albania with vehicles of the German army during its withdrawal. Towards the end of the Greek occupation, the communist-controlled ELAS, having limited people's support in the Epirus region due to the right-wing EDES dominance in the area and in preparation of taking up the country's control after the German withdrawal from Greece, turned to

33516-515: The rights of African Americans . National infrastructure, including transcontinental telegraph and railroads , spurred growth in the American frontier . From 1865 through 1917 an unprecedented stream of immigrants arrived in the United States, including 24.4 million from Europe. Most came through the port of New York City , and New York City and other large cities on the East Coast became home to large Jewish , Irish , and Italian populations, while many Germans and Central Europeans moved to

33712-437: The rocky Great Basin and Chihuahua , Sonoran , and Mojave deserts. In the northwest corner of Arizona , carved by the Colorado River over millions of years, is the Grand Canyon , a steep-sided canyon and popular tourist destination known for its overwhelming visual size and intricate, colorful landscape. The Sierra Nevada and Cascade mountain ranges run close to the Pacific coast . The lowest and highest points in

33908-474: The sacking and destruction by Albanian irregulars in which Italian soldiers also participated compelled the Italian command to promulgate an order against those outrages. The Axis forces adopted a pro-Albanian policy, promising that the region would become part of a Greater Albania when the war ends. Under these circumstances, as Italy managed to control most of Greece after the German invasion , Cham Albanians formed armed groups and provided active support to

34104-464: The six service branches, which are made up of the U.S. Army , Marine Corps , Navy , Air Force , and Space Force . The Coast Guard is administered by the Department of Homeland Security in peacetime and can be transferred to the Department of the Navy in wartime. The United States spent $ 916 billion on its military in 2023, which is by far the largest amount of any country , making up 37% of global military spending and accounting for 3.4% of

34300-407: The sole authority of a state government. SDFs are authorized by state and federal law but are under the command of the state's governor . They are distinct from the state's National Guard units in that they cannot become federalized entities. A state's National Guard personnel, however, may be federalized under the National Defense Act Amendments of 1933 , which created the Guard and provides for

34496-543: The states are also represented by local elected governments , which are administrative divisions of the states. States are subdivided into counties or county equivalents , and further divided into municipalities . The District of Columbia is a federal district containing the U.S. capital, Washington, D.C. . The federal district is an administrative division of the federal government. Federally recognized tribes govern 326 Indian reservations . The United States has an established structure of foreign relations, and it has

34692-451: The structure and responsibilities of the national federal government and its relationship with the individual states. The U.S. Constitution is the world's oldest national constitution still in effect (from March 4, 1789). Composed of three branches, all headquartered in Washington, D.C., the federal government is the national government of the United States. It is regulated by a strong system of checks and balances . The three-branch system

34888-410: The summer of 1944, the right-wing head of the National Republican Greek League (EDES), Napoleon Zervas , asked the Cham Albanians to join EDES, but their response was negative. After that and in accordance to orders given specifically to EDES by the Allied forces to push them out of the area, fierce fighting occurred between the two sides. In particular, Cham Albanian units were fighting together with

35084-465: The term insulting, while Muslim Albanian speakers identified themselves as Muslims or Turks . In late Ottoman period within the Balkans the terms "Muslim" and "Turk" became synonymous and Albanians were conferred and received the term "Turk" while having preferences to distance themselves from ethnic Turks. In the early 20th century Muslims constituted a little over one-third of the total population of Thesprotia, most of them were Albanian speakers. On

35280-419: The usual vendetta spirit, which was fed by many brutalities committed by the Chams in league with the Italians [...] The Chams deserved what they got, but Zervas' methods were pretty bad – or rather his subordinate officers got out of hand". Some of the EDES units, in particular the regiments of Agoros and Galanis, refrained from looting and tried to limit the activity of the undisciplined groups, thus arresting

35476-415: The war and benefited from the Axis occupation of Greece . These armed Cham collaborators displayed extreme cruelty toward the Greek population and indulged in massacres and lootings. Armed Cham collaboration units actively participated in Nazi operations that resulted in the murder of more than 1,200 Greek villagers between July and September 1943, and, in January 1944, in the murder of 600 people on

35672-406: The world's fourth-longest river system , runs predominantly north–south through the heart of the country. The flat and fertile prairie of the Great Plains stretches to the west, interrupted by a highland region in the southeast. The Rocky Mountains , west of the Great Plains, extend north to south across the country, peaking at over 14,000 feet (4,300 m) in Colorado . Farther west are

35868-449: The world's second-largest diplomatic corps as of 2024 . It is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council , and home to the United Nations headquarters . The United States is a member of the G7 , G20 , and OECD intergovernmental organizations. Almost all countries have embassies and many have consulates (official representatives) in the country. Likewise, nearly all countries host formal diplomatic missions with

36064-461: The world's third-largest land area , largest exclusive economic zone , and third-largest population , exceeding 334 million. Its three largest metropolitan areas are New York , Los Angeles , and Chicago , and its three most populous states are California , Texas , and Florida . Paleo-Indians migrated across the Bering land bridge more than 12,000 years ago, and formed various civilizations and societies . British colonization led to

36260-444: The world's oldest surviving federation, and its presidential system of national government has been adopted, in whole or in part, by many newly independent states worldwide following their decolonization . It is a liberal representative democracy "in which majority rule is tempered by minority rights protected by law ". The Constitution of the United States serves as the country's supreme legal document , also establishing

36456-423: The world's tornadoes occur in the country , mainly in Tornado Alley . Overall, the United States receives more high-impact extreme weather incidents than any other country. Extreme weather became more frequent in the U.S. in the 21st century, with three times the number of reported heat waves as in the 1960s. In the American Southwest , droughts became more persistent and more severe. The regions considered as

36652-516: The world, with almost 2 million people incarcerated . An analysis of the World Health Organization Mortality Database from 2010 showed U.S. homicide rates "were 7 times higher than in other high-income countries, driven by a gun homicide rate that was 25 times higher". Expulsion of Cham Albanians The expulsion of Cham Albanians from Greece was the forced migration and ethnic cleansing of thousands of Cham Albanians from settlements of Chameria in Thesprotia , Greece - after

36848-458: Was annexed in 1845, and the 1846 Oregon Treaty led to U.S. control of the present-day American Northwest . Victory in the Mexican–American War resulted in the 1848 Mexican Cession of California, Nevada, Utah, and much of present-day Colorado and the American Southwest . The California gold rush of 1848–1849 spurred a huge migration of white settlers to the Pacific coast, leading to even more confrontations with Native populations. One of

37044-400: Was a notorious bandit killed in a fight over some sheep with two shepherds and according to some other specific works Hoxha was a military leader of the Cham struggle during the Interwar years, leading to him branded as a bandit by the Greek government. From June of that same year up to the eve of the war, due to the instigation of Albanian and Italian propaganda, many Chams had secretly crossed

37240-703: Was adopted on July 4, 1776. The political values of the American Revolution included liberty , inalienable individual rights ; and the sovereignty of the people ; supporting republicanism and rejecting monarchy , aristocracy , and all hereditary political power; civic virtue ; and vilification of political corruption . The Founding Fathers of the United States , who included Washington, Jefferson, John Adams , Benjamin Franklin , Alexander Hamilton , John Jay , James Madison , Thomas Paine , and many others, were inspired by Greco-Roman , Renaissance , and Enlightenment philosophies and ideas. The Articles of Confederation were ratified in 1781 and established

37436-405: Was alienated by the Greek government. Muslims in general were seen as backwards and were excluded "from the concept of the Greek nation". During the interwar period, the numbers of Muslim Chams declined and estimates to their numbers varied between 22,000 in official reports, while the census registered 17,000 in 1928 and other Greek government sources gave 19,000 as the number in 1932. Although

37632-405: Was disbanded. During the Cold War period the Cham issue did not garner much attention by historians. The Cham issue received little study in communist Albania due to the uncertain position of Muslim Chams in Albanian society. Having refused to fight on side of the communists in the Greek Civil War, they were labeled as "reactionaries", "war criminals", "murderers of the Greeks", "collaborators of

37828-404: Was elected the country's first president under the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights was adopted in 1791 to allay skeptics' concerns about the power of the more centralized government. His resignation as commander-in-chief after the Revolutionary War and his later refusal to run for a third term as the country's first president established a precedent for the supremacy of civil authority in

38024-485: Was harassed and hundreds of young men were deported to various camps by Paramilitary bands. When Italian troops replaced the Greek administration with an Albanian one in 1917 in parts of Chameria, Albanians retaliated due to previous oppression by plundering Greek villages. Muslim Chams were counted as a religious minority, and some of them were transferred to Turkey , during the 1923 population exchange , although they were not officially part of it, while their property

38220-510: Was likely due to fear of it resulting in defections and a considerable drop in support. In an attempt to give a solution, in 1992 Prime Minister Konstantinos Mitsotakis proposed a trade-off in relation to their properties, only for the cases where their owners had certifiably not been convicted or participated in crimes against their fellow Greek citizens. Mitsotakis also proposed that the Albanian government likewise compensate ethnic Greeks who had lost properties due to alleged persecution during

38416-502: Was not until the 1900s that large numbers of Albanians reached the U.S. East Coast: most of them were young bachelors from southern Albania. In addition to the Boston and Chicago areas, large numbers of Albanians would make their home in the N.Y.C. area , especially in the Bronx . Workers settled in New York in the early 20th century, many of whom would find work in shoe, glass, and textile factories. A second wave of Albanians arrived after World War II , and many of them were refugees from

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