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136-420: Albedo ( / æ l ˈ b iː d oʊ / al- BEE -doh ; from Latin albedo  'whiteness') is the fraction of sunlight that is diffusely reflected by a body. It is measured on a scale from 0 (corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation) to 1 (corresponding to a body that reflects all incident radiation). Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiosity J e to

272-409: A disk and migrated inward are more likely to have abundant water. Conversely, planets that formed close to their host stars are less likely to have water because the primordial disks of gas and dust are thought to have hot and dry inner regions. So if a water world is found close to a star , it would be strong evidence for migration and ex situ formation, because insufficient volatiles exist near

408-421: A warmer version of an ice giant instead, like Uranus and Neptune . Important preliminary theoretical work was carried out prior to the planetary missions launched starting in the 1970s. In particular, Lewis showed in 1971 that radioactive decay alone was likely sufficient to produce subsurface oceans in large moons, especially if ammonia ( NH 3 ) were present. Peale and Cassen figured out in 1979

544-490: A big role in the heating and cooling effects of albedo, high insolation areas like the tropics will tend to show a more pronounced fluctuation in local temperature when local albedo changes. Arctic regions notably release more heat back into space than what they absorb, effectively cooling the Earth . This has been a concern since arctic ice and snow has been melting at higher rates due to higher temperatures, creating regions in

680-404: A byproduct of photosynthesis by life forms, so although encouraging, O 2 is not a reliable biosignature . In fact, planets with high concentration of O 2 in their atmosphere may be uninhabitable. Abiogenesis in the presence of massive amounts of atmospheric oxygen could be difficult because early organisms relied on the free energy available in redox reactions involving

816-417: A change in the area of ice caps , glaciers , and sea ice alters the albedo and surface temperature of a planet. Ice is very reflective, therefore it reflects far more solar energy back to space than the other types of land area or open water. Ice–albedo feedback plays an important role in global climate change . Albedo is an important concept in climate science . Any albedo in visible light falls within

952-399: A climate trade-off: increased carbon uptake from afforestation results in reduced albedo . Initially, this reduction may lead to moderate global warming over a span of approximately 20 years, but it is expected to transition into significant cooling thereafter. Water reflects light very differently from typical terrestrial materials. The reflectivity of a water surface is calculated using

1088-538: A consequence of land transformation" and can reduce surface temperature increases associated with climate change. Albedo is not directly dependent on the illumination because changing the amount of incoming light proportionally changes the amount of reflected light, except in circumstances where a change in illumination induces a change in the Earth's surface at that location (e.g. through melting of reflective ice). However, albedo and illumination both vary by latitude. Albedo

1224-458: A dark surface is thought to be indicative of a primitive and heavily space weathered surface containing some organic compounds . The overall albedo of the Moon is measured to be around 0.14, but it is strongly directional and non- Lambertian , displaying also a strong opposition effect . Although such reflectance properties are different from those of any terrestrial terrains, they are typical of

1360-485: A deep brittle layer, thermal energy from serpentinization may be the primary cause of hydrothermal activity in small ocean planets. The dynamics of global oceans beneath tidally flexing ice shells represents a significant set of challenges which have barely begun to be explored. The extent to which cryovolcanism occurs is a subject of some debate, as water, being denser than ice by about 8%, has difficulty erupting under normal circumstances. Nevertheless, imaging data from

1496-743: A few in German , Dutch , Norwegian , Danish and Swedish . Latin is still spoken in Vatican City, a city-state situated in Rome that is the seat of the Catholic Church . The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part, in substantial works or in fragments to be analyzed in philology . They are in part the subject matter of the field of classics . Their works were published in manuscript form before

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1632-746: A greater fraction of their foliage for direct interception of incoming radiation in the upper canopy. The result is that wavelengths of light not used in photosynthesis are more likely to be reflected back to space rather than being absorbed by other surfaces lower in the canopy. Studies by the Hadley Centre have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of carbon sequestration on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g., Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming. Research in 2023, drawing from 176 flux stations globally, revealed

1768-446: A low albedo because the majority of the ultraviolet and visible spectrum is absorbed through photosynthesis . For this reason, the greater heat absorption by trees could offset some of the carbon benefits of afforestation (or offset the negative climate impacts of deforestation ). In other words: The climate change mitigation effect of carbon sequestration by forests is partially counterbalanced in that reforestation can decrease

1904-407: A major part of the astronomical field of photometry . For small and far objects that cannot be resolved by telescopes, much of what we know comes from the study of their albedos. For example, the absolute albedo can indicate the surface ice content of outer Solar System objects, the variation of albedo with phase angle gives information about regolith properties, whereas unusually high radar albedo

2040-413: A marginally snow-covered area warms, snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to more snowmelt because more radiation is being absorbed by the snowpack (the ice–albedo positive feedback ). In Switzerland, the citizens have been protecting their glaciers with large white tarpaulins to slow down the ice melt. These large white sheets are helping to reject the rays from the sun and defecting

2176-541: A mathematical model is used to translate a sample set of satellite reflectance measurements into estimates of directional-hemispherical reflectance and bi-hemispherical reflectance (e.g.,). These calculations are based on the bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF), which describes how the reflectance of a given surface depends on the view angle of the observer and the solar angle. BDRF can facilitate translations of observations of reflectance into albedo. Earth's average surface temperature due to its albedo and

2312-706: A nearby super-Earth exoplanet with potential deep oceans, was discovered by the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite . Planetary objects that form in the outer Solar System begin as a comet -like mixture of roughly half water and half rock by mass, displaying a density lower than that of rocky planets. Icy planets and moons that form near the frost line should contain mostly H 2 O and silicates . Those that form farther out can acquire ammonia ( NH 3 ) and methane ( CH 4 ) as hydrates, together with CO , N 2 , and CO 2 . Planets that form prior to

2448-434: A net cooling impact, and the net climate impact of albedo and evapotranspiration changes from deforestation depends greatly on local climate. Mid-to-high-latitude forests have a much lower albedo during snow seasons than flat ground, thus contributing to warming. Modeling that compares the effects of albedo differences between forests and grasslands suggests that expanding the land area of forests in temperate zones offers only

2584-562: A new Classical Latin arose, a conscious creation of the orators, poets, historians and other literate men, who wrote the great works of classical literature , which were taught in grammar and rhetoric schools. Today's instructional grammars trace their roots to such schools , which served as a sort of informal language academy dedicated to maintaining and perpetuating educated speech. Philological analysis of Archaic Latin works, such as those of Plautus , which contain fragments of everyday speech, gives evidence of an informal register of

2720-428: A range of about 0.9 for fresh snow to about 0.04 for charcoal, one of the darkest substances. Deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an effective albedo approaching the zero of a black body . When seen from a distance, the ocean surface has a low albedo, as do most forests, whereas desert areas have some of the highest albedos among landforms. Most land areas are in an albedo range of 0.1 to 0.4. The average albedo of Earth

2856-476: A remarkable unity in phonological forms and developments, bolstered by the stabilising influence of their common Christian (Roman Catholic) culture. It was not until the Muslim conquest of Spain in 711, cutting off communications between the major Romance regions, that the languages began to diverge seriously. The spoken Latin that would later become Romanian diverged somewhat more from the other varieties, as it

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2992-495: A single type of observation or by theoretical modeling, including Ariel , Titania , Umbriel , Ceres , Dione , Mimas , Miranda , Oberon , Pluto , Triton , Eris , and Makemake . Outside the Solar System, exoplanets that have been described as candidate ocean worlds include GJ 1214 b , Kepler-22b , Kepler-62e , Kepler-62f , and the planets of Kepler-11 and TRAPPIST-1 . More recently,

3128-709: A small number of Latin services held in the Anglican church. These include an annual service in Oxford, delivered with a Latin sermon; a relic from the period when Latin was the normal spoken language of the university. In the Western world, many organizations, governments and schools use Latin for their mottos due to its association with formality, tradition, and the roots of Western culture . Canada's motto A mari usque ad mare ("from sea to sea") and most provincial mottos are also in Latin. The Canadian Victoria Cross

3264-442: A so-called ocean planet – the average temperature on the planet would rise to almost 27 °C (81 °F). In 2021, scientists reported that Earth dimmed by ~0.5% over two decades (1998–2017) as measured by earthshine using modern photometric techniques. This may have both been co-caused by climate change as well as a substantial increase in global warming. However, the link to climate change has not been explored to date and it

3400-421: A source of energy, and nutrients, and all three key requirements can potentially be satisfied within some of these bodies, that may offer the possibility for sustaining simple biological activity over geological timescales. In August 2018, researchers reported that water worlds could support life. An ocean world's habitation by Earth-like life is limited if the planet is completely covered by liquid water at

3536-599: A subsurface ocean depends on the rate of internal heating compared with the rate at which heat is removed, and the freezing point of the liquid. Ocean survival and tidal heating are thus intimately linked. Smaller ocean planets would have less dense atmospheres and lower gravity; thus, liquid could evaporate much more easily than on more massive ocean planets. Simulations suggest that planets and satellites of less than one Earth mass could have liquid oceans driven by hydrothermal activity , radiogenic heating , or tidal flexing . Where fluid-rock interactions propagate slowly into

3672-475: A temporary mitigation benefit. In seasonally snow-covered zones, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily. Deciduous trees have an albedo value of about 0.15 to 0.18 whereas coniferous trees have a value of about 0.09 to 0.15. Variation in summer albedo across both forest types is associated with maximum rates of photosynthesis because plants with high growth capacity display

3808-454: A thick atmosphere made mainly of hydrogen. Those planets would have a wide range area around their star where they could orbit and have liquid water. However, those models worked on rather simplistic approaches to the planetary atmosphere. More complex studies showed that hydrogen reacts differently to starlight's wavelengths than heavier elements like nitrogen and oxygen. If such a planet, with an atmospheric pressure 10 to 20 heavier than Earth's,

3944-425: A warm air mass ), the raised albedo and lower temperature would maintain the current snow and invite further snowfall, deepening the snow–temperature feedback. However, because local weather is dynamic due to the change of seasons , eventually warm air masses and a more direct angle of sunlight (higher insolation ) cause melting. When the melted area reveals surfaces with lower albedo, such as grass, soil, or ocean,

4080-435: A water layer sitting atop a silicate core . For a small satellite like Enceladus , an ocean will sit directly above the silicates and below a solid icy shell, but for a larger ice-rich body like Ganymede , pressures are sufficiently high that the ice at depth will transform to higher pressure phases, effectively forming a "water sandwich" with an ocean located between ice shells. An important difference between these two cases

4216-420: A well-defined surface. Even on cooler water-dominated planets, the atmosphere can be much thicker than that of Earth, and composed largely of water vapor, producing a very strong greenhouse effect . Such planets would have to be small enough not to be able to retain a thick envelope of hydrogen and helium, or be close enough to their primary star to be stripped of these light elements. Otherwise, they would form

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4352-411: Is Veritas ("truth"). Veritas was the goddess of truth, a daughter of Saturn, and the mother of Virtue. Switzerland has adopted the country's Latin short name Helvetia on coins and stamps, since there is no room to use all of the nation's four official languages . For a similar reason, it adopted the international vehicle and internet code CH , which stands for Confoederatio Helvetica ,

4488-643: Is +0.2 W m, with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W m. Black carbon is a bigger cause of the melting of the polar ice cap in the Arctic than carbon dioxide due to its effect on the albedo. In astronomy, the term albedo can be defined in several different ways, depending upon the application and the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation involved. The albedos of planets , satellites and minor planets such as asteroids can be used to infer much about their properties. The study of albedos, their dependence on wavelength, lighting angle ("phase angle"), and variation in time composes

4624-420: Is a kind of written Latin used in the 3rd to 6th centuries. This began to diverge from Classical forms at a faster pace. It is characterised by greater use of prepositions, and word order that is closer to modern Romance languages, for example, while grammatically retaining more or less the same formal rules as Classical Latin. Ultimately, Latin diverged into a distinct written form, where the commonly spoken form

4760-640: Is a reversal of the original phrase Non terrae plus ultra ("No land further beyond", "No further!"). According to legend , this phrase was inscribed as a warning on the Pillars of Hercules , the rocks on both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar and the western end of the known, Mediterranean world. Charles adopted the motto following the discovery of the New World by Columbus, and it also has metaphorical suggestions of taking risks and striving for excellence. In

4896-597: Is about 0.3. This is far higher than for the ocean primarily because of the contribution of clouds. Earth's surface albedo is regularly estimated via Earth observation satellite sensors such as NASA 's MODIS instruments on board the Terra and Aqua satellites, and the CERES instrument on the Suomi NPP and JPSS . As the amount of reflected radiation is only measured for a single direction by satellite, not all directions,

5032-504: Is calculated for a single angle of incidence (i.e., for a given position of the Sun), albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period. The temporal resolution may range from seconds (as obtained from flux measurements) to daily, monthly, or annual averages. Unless given for a specific wavelength (spectral albedo), albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation. Due to measurement constraints, it

5168-506: Is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect (the particles act as cloud condensation nuclei and thereby change cloud properties) is less certain. Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from black carbon particles. The size of this effect is difficult to quantify: the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change estimates that the global mean radiative forcing for black carbon aerosols from fossil fuels

5304-745: Is highest near the poles and lowest in the subtropics, with a local maximum in the tropics. The intensity of albedo temperature effects depends on the amount of albedo and the level of local insolation ( solar irradiance ); high albedo areas in the Arctic and Antarctic regions are cold due to low insolation, whereas areas such as the Sahara Desert , which also have a relatively high albedo, will be hotter due to high insolation. Tropical and sub-tropical rainforest areas have low albedo, and are much hotter than their temperate forest counterparts, which have lower insolation. Because insolation plays such

5440-660: Is highly fusional , with classes of inflections for case , number , person , gender , tense , mood , voice , and aspect . The Latin alphabet is directly derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets . Latin remains the official language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church at the Vatican City . The church continues to adapt concepts from modern languages to Ecclesiastical Latin of

5576-410: Is indicative of high metal content in asteroids . Enceladus , a moon of Saturn, has one of the highest known optical albedos of any body in the Solar System, with an albedo of 0.99. Another notable high-albedo body is Eris , with an albedo of 0.96. Many small objects in the outer Solar System and asteroid belt have low albedos down to about 0.05. A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04. Such

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5712-623: Is likely that exoplanets with oceans are common in the Milky Way galaxy , based on mathematical modeling studies . Ocean worlds are of interest to astrobiologists for their potential to develop life and sustain biological activity over geological timescales. Major moons and dwarf planets in the Solar System thought to harbor subsurface oceans are of interest because they can be reached and studied by space probes , in contrast to exoplanets , which are light-years away, beyond

5848-689: Is modelled after the British Victoria Cross which has the inscription "For Valour". Because Canada is officially bilingual, the Canadian medal has replaced the English inscription with the Latin Pro Valore . Spain's motto Plus ultra , meaning "even further", or figuratively "Further!", is also Latin in origin. It is taken from the personal motto of Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain (as Charles I), and

5984-514: Is modified by feedbacks: increased by "self-reinforcing" or "positive" feedbacks and reduced by "balancing" or "negative" feedbacks . The main reinforcing feedbacks are the water-vapour feedback , the ice–albedo feedback , and the net effect of clouds. When an area's albedo changes due to snowfall, a snow–temperature feedback results. A layer of snowfall increases local albedo, reflecting away sunlight, leading to local cooling. In principle, if no outside temperature change affects this area (e.g.,

6120-409: Is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface (between 0.3 and 3 μm). This spectrum includes visible light (0.4–0.7 μm), which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark (e.g., trees absorb most radiation), whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright (e.g., snow reflects most radiation). Ice–albedo feedback is a positive feedback climate process where

6256-1011: Is taught at many high schools, especially in Europe and the Americas. It is most common in British public schools and grammar schools, the Italian liceo classico and liceo scientifico , the German Humanistisches Gymnasium and the Dutch gymnasium . Occasionally, some media outlets, targeting enthusiasts, broadcast in Latin. Notable examples include Radio Bremen in Germany, YLE radio in Finland (the Nuntii Latini broadcast from 1989 until it

6392-410: Is that for the small satellite the ocean is in direct contact with the silicates, which may provide hydrothermal and chemical energy and nutrients to simple life forms. Because of the varying pressure at depth, models of a water world may include "steam, liquid, superfluid, high-pressure ices, and plasma phases" of water. Some of the solid-phase water could be in the form of ice VII . Maintaining

6528-537: Is the astronomical albedo, D {\displaystyle D} is the diameter in kilometers, and H {\displaystyle H} is the absolute magnitude. Latin language Latin ( lingua Latina , pronounced [ˈlɪŋɡʷa ɫaˈtiːna] , or Latinum [ɫaˈtiːnʊ̃] ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages . Latin

6664-404: Is the only astronomical object known to presently have bodies of liquid water on its surface, although subsurface oceans are suspected to exist on Jupiter's moons Europa and Ganymede and Saturn's moons Enceladus and Titan . Several exoplanets have been found with the right conditions to support liquid water. There are also considerable amounts of subsurface water found on Earth, mostly in

6800-429: Is unclear whether or not this represents an ongoing trend. For land surfaces, it has been shown that the albedo at a particular solar zenith angle θ i can be approximated by the proportionate sum of two terms: with 1 − D {\displaystyle {1-D}} being the proportion of direct radiation from a given solar angle, and D {\displaystyle {D}} being

6936-543: The Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL). Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same: volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance and relevant information. The reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy . About 270,000 inscriptions are known. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. In

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7072-500: The Fresnel equations . At the scale of the wavelength of light even wavy water is always smooth so the light is reflected in a locally specular manner (not diffusely ). The glint of light off water is a commonplace effect of this. At small angles of incident light, waviness results in reduced reflectivity because of the steepness of the reflectivity-vs.-incident-angle curve and a locally increased average incident angle. Although

7208-528: The Holy See , the primary language of its public journal , the Acta Apostolicae Sedis , and the working language of the Roman Rota . Vatican City is also home to the world's only automatic teller machine that gives instructions in Latin. In the pontifical universities postgraduate courses of Canon law are taught in Latin, and papers are written in the same language. There are

7344-652: The Hubble Space Telescope , as well as Pioneer , Galileo , Voyager , Cassini–Huygens , and New Horizons missions, strongly indicate that several outer Solar System bodies harbour internal liquid water oceans under an insulating ice shell. Meanwhile, the Kepler space observatory , launched on March 7, 2009, has discovered thousands of exoplanets, about 50 of them of Earth-size in or near habitable zones . Planets of almost all masses, sizes, and orbits have been detected, illustrating not only

7480-502: The Late Latin period, language changes reflecting spoken (non-classical) norms tend to be found in greater quantities in texts. As it was free to develop on its own, there is no reason to suppose that the speech was uniform either diachronically or geographically. On the contrary, Romanised European populations developed their own dialects of the language, which eventually led to the differentiation of Romance languages . Late Latin

7616-607: The Middle Ages as a working and literary language from the 9th century to the Renaissance , which then developed a classicizing form, called Renaissance Latin . This was the basis for Neo-Latin which evolved during the early modern period . In these periods Latin was used productively and generally taught to be written and spoken, at least until the late seventeenth century, when spoken skills began to erode. It then became increasingly taught only to be read. Latin grammar

7752-574: The Middle Ages , borrowing from Latin occurred from ecclesiastical usage established by Saint Augustine of Canterbury in the 6th century or indirectly after the Norman Conquest , through the Anglo-Norman language . From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed " inkhorn terms ", as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by

7888-514: The Voyager 2 , Cassini-Huygens , Galileo and New Horizons spacecraft revealed cryovolcanic surface features on several of the icy bodies in our own solar system. Recent studies suggest that cryovolcanism may occur on ocean planets that harbor internal oceans beneath layers of surface ice as it does on the icy moons Enceladus and Europa in our own solar system. Liquid water oceans on extrasolar planets could be significantly deeper than

8024-407: The common language of international communication , science, scholarship and academia in Europe until well into the early 19th century, by which time modern languages had supplanted it in common academic and political usage. Late Latin is the literary language from the 3rd century AD onward. No longer spoken as a native language, Medieval Latin was used across Western and Catholic Europe during

8160-501: The contrails of heavy commercial airliner traffic. A study following the burning of the Kuwaiti oil fields during Iraqi occupation showed that temperatures under the burning oil fires were as much as 10 °C (18 °F) colder than temperatures several miles away under clear skies. Aerosols (very fine particles/droplets in the atmosphere) have both direct and indirect effects on Earth's radiative balance. The direct (albedo) effect

8296-410: The greenhouse effect is currently about 15 °C (59 °F). If Earth were frozen entirely (and hence be more reflective), the average temperature of the planet would drop below −40 °C (−40 °F). If only the continental land masses became covered by glaciers, the mean temperature of the planet would drop to about 0 °C (32 °F). In contrast, if the entire Earth was covered by water –

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8432-413: The habitable zone (HZ), possess a protective magnetic field , and have the gravitational pull needed to retain an ample amount of atmospheric pressure . If the planet's gravity cannot sustain that, then all the water will eventually evaporate into outer space. A strong planetary magnetosphere , maintained by internal dynamo action in an electrically conducting fluid layer, is helpful for shielding

8568-466: The irradiance E e (flux per unit area) received by a surface. The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself, but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface. These factors vary with atmospheric composition, geographic location, and time (see position of the Sun ). While directional-hemispherical reflectance factor

8704-467: The regolith surfaces of airless Solar System bodies. Two common optical albedos that are used in astronomy are the (V-band) geometric albedo (measuring brightness when illumination comes from directly behind the observer) and the Bond albedo (measuring total proportion of electromagnetic energy reflected). Their values can differ significantly, which is a common source of confusion. In detailed studies,

8840-570: The urban heat island effect. An estimate in 2022 found that on a global scale, "an albedo increase of 0.1 in worldwide urban areas would result in a cooling effect that is equivalent to absorbing ~44 Gt of CO 2 emissions." Intentionally enhancing the albedo of the Earth's surface, along with its daytime thermal emittance , has been proposed as a solar radiation management strategy to mitigate energy crises and global warming known as passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC). Efforts toward widespread implementation of PDRCs may focus on maximizing

8976-637: The British Crown. The motto is featured on all presently minted coinage and has been featured in most coinage throughout the nation's history. Several states of the United States have Latin mottos , such as: Many military organizations today have Latin mottos, such as: Some law governing bodies in the Philippines have Latin mottos, such as: Some colleges and universities have adopted Latin mottos, for example Harvard University 's motto

9112-475: The Earth’s ocean, which has an average depth of 3.7 km. Depending on the planet’s gravity and surface conditions, exoplanet oceans could be up to hundreds of times deeper. For example, a planet with a 300 K surface can possess liquid water oceans with depths from 30–500 km, depending on its mass and composition. To allow surface water to be liquid for long periods of time, a planet—or moon—must orbit within

9248-703: The Germanic and Slavic nations. It became useful for international communication between the member states of the Holy Roman Empire and its allies. Without the institutions of the Roman Empire that had supported its uniformity, Medieval Latin was much more liberal in its linguistic cohesion: for example, in classical Latin sum and eram are used as auxiliary verbs in the perfect and pluperfect passive, which are compound tenses. Medieval Latin might use fui and fueram instead. Furthermore,

9384-599: The Grinch Stole Christmas! , The Cat in the Hat , and a book of fairy tales, " fabulae mirabiles ", are intended to garner popular interest in the language. Additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissner's Latin Phrasebook . Some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series,

9520-630: The Latin language. Contemporary Latin is more often studied to be read rather than spoken or actively used. Latin has greatly influenced the English language , along with a large number of others, and historically contributed many words to the English lexicon , particularly after the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons and the Norman Conquest . Latin and Ancient Greek roots are heavily used in English vocabulary in theology ,

9656-467: The United States the unofficial national motto until 1956 was E pluribus unum meaning "Out of many, one". The motto continues to be featured on the Great Seal . It also appears on the flags and seals of both houses of congress and the flags of the states of Michigan, North Dakota, New York, and Wisconsin. The motto's 13 letters symbolically represent the original Thirteen Colonies which revolted from

9792-563: The University of Kentucky, the University of Oxford and also Princeton University. There are many websites and forums maintained in Latin by enthusiasts. The Latin Misplaced Pages has more than 130,000 articles. Italian , French , Portuguese , Spanish , Romanian , Catalan , Romansh , Sardinian and other Romance languages are direct descendants of Latin. There are also many Latin borrowings in English and Albanian , as well as

9928-640: The albedo effect of the colour of external clothing. Albedo can affect the electrical energy output of solar photovoltaic devices . For example, the effects of a spectrally responsive albedo are illustrated by the differences between the spectrally weighted albedo of solar photovoltaic technology based on hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) and crystalline silicon (c-Si)-based compared to traditional spectral-integrated albedo predictions. Research showed impacts of over 10% for vertically (90°) mounted systems, but such effects were substantially lower for systems with lower surface tilts. Spectral albedo strongly affects

10064-534: The albedo of surfaces from very low to high values, so long as a thermal emittance of at least 90% can be achieved. The tens of thousands of hectares of greenhouses in Almería, Spain form a large expanse of whitened plastic roofs. A 2008 study found that this anthropogenic change lowered the local surface area temperature of the high-albedo area, although changes were localized. A follow-up study found that "CO2-eq. emissions associated to changes in surface albedo are

10200-441: The albedo of various areas around the globe. Human impacts to "the physical properties of the land surface can perturb the climate by altering the Earth’s radiative energy balance" even on a small scale or when undetected by satellites. Urbanization generally decreases albedo (commonly being 0.01–0.02 lower than adjacent croplands ), which contributes to global warming . Deliberately increasing albedo in urban areas can mitigate

10336-542: The albedo to 0.9. Cloud albedo has substantial influence over atmospheric temperatures. Different types of clouds exhibit different reflectivity, theoretically ranging in albedo from a minimum of near 0 to a maximum approaching 0.8. "On any given day, about half of Earth is covered by clouds, which reflect more sunlight than land and water. Clouds keep Earth cool by reflecting sunlight, but they can also serve as blankets to trap warmth." Albedo and climate in some areas are affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by

10472-426: The arctic that are notably darker (being water or ground which is darker color) and reflects less heat back into space. This feedback loop results in a reduced albedo effect. Albedo affects climate by determining how much radiation a planet absorbs. The uneven heating of Earth from albedo variations between land, ice, or ocean surfaces can drive weather . The response of the climate system to an initial forcing

10608-604: The atmospheric composition, including but not limited to the ocean fraction for dissolution of CO 2 and for atmospheric relative humidity, redox state of the planetary surface and interior, acidity levels of the oceans, planetary albedo , and surface gravity. The atmospheric structure, as well as the resulting HZ limits, depend on the density of a planet's atmosphere, shifting the HZ outward for lower mass and inward for higher mass planets. Theory, as well as computer models suggest that atmospheric composition for water planets in

10744-427: The author and then forgotten, but some useful ones survived, such as 'imbibe' and 'extrapolate'. Many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French . Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and Dutch vocabularies. Those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Ocean planet Earth

10880-535: The beginning of the Renaissance . Petrarch for example saw Latin as a literary version of the spoken language. Medieval Latin is the written Latin in use during that portion of the post-classical period when no corresponding Latin vernacular existed, that is from around 700 to 1500 AD. The spoken language had developed into the various Romance languages; however, in the educated and official world, Latin continued without its natural spoken base. Moreover, this Latin spread into lands that had never spoken Latin, such as

11016-425: The benefit of those who do not understand Latin. There are also songs written with Latin lyrics . The libretto for the opera-oratorio Oedipus rex by Igor Stravinsky is in Latin. Parts of Carl Orff 's Carmina Burana are written in Latin. Enya has recorded several tracks with Latin lyrics. The continued instruction of Latin is seen by some as a highly valuable component of a liberal arts education. Latin

11152-430: The comic playwrights Plautus and Terence and the author Petronius . While often called a "dead language", Latin did not undergo language death . By the 6th to 9th centuries, natural language change eventually resulted in Latin as a vernacular language evolving into distinct Romance languages in the large areas where it had come to be natively spoken. However, even after the fall of Western Rome , Latin remained

11288-465: The country's full Latin name. Some film and television in ancient settings, such as Sebastiane , The Passion of the Christ and Barbarians (2020 TV series) , have been made with dialogue in Latin. Occasionally, Latin dialogue is used because of its association with religion or philosophy, in such film/television series as The Exorcist and Lost (" Jughead "). Subtitles are usually shown for

11424-503: The decline in written Latin output. Despite having no native speakers, Latin is still used for a variety of purposes in the contemporary world. The largest organisation that retains Latin in official and quasi-official contexts is the Catholic Church . The Catholic Church required that Mass be carried out in Latin until the Second Vatican Council of 1962–1965 , which permitted the use of the vernacular . Latin remains

11560-568: The development of European culture, religion and science. The vast majority of written Latin belongs to this period, but its full extent is unknown. The Renaissance reinforced the position of Latin as a spoken and written language by the scholarship by the Renaissance humanists . Petrarch and others began to change their usage of Latin as they explored the texts of the Classical Latin world. Skills of textual criticism evolved to create much more accurate versions of extant texts through

11696-478: The directional reflectance properties of astronomical bodies are often expressed in terms of the five Hapke parameters which semi-empirically describe the variation of albedo with phase angle , including a characterization of the opposition effect of regolith surfaces. One of these five parameters is yet another type of albedo called the single-scattering albedo . It is used to define scattering of electromagnetic waves on small particles. It depends on properties of

11832-450: The dissipation of the gaseous circumstellar disk experience strong torques that can induce rapid inward migration into the habitable zone, especially for planets in the terrestrial mass range. Since water is highly soluble in magma , a large fraction of the planet's water content will initially be trapped in the mantle . As the planet cools and the mantle begins to solidify from the bottom up, large amounts of water (between 60% and 99% of

11968-413: The earliest extant Latin literary works, such as the comedies of Plautus and Terence . The Latin alphabet was devised from the Etruscan alphabet . The writing later changed from what was initially either a right-to-left or a boustrophedon script to what ultimately became a strictly left-to-right script. During the late republic and into the first years of the empire, from about 75 BC to AD 200,

12104-407: The effect is reversed: the darkening surface lowers albedo, increasing local temperatures, which induces more melting and thus reducing the albedo further, resulting in still more heating. Snow albedo is highly variable, ranging from as high as 0.9 for freshly fallen snow, to about 0.4 for melting snow, and as low as 0.2 for dirty snow. Over Antarctica snow albedo averages a little more than 0.8. If

12240-525: The effects of small errors in the measurement of albedo, can lead to large errors in energy estimates. Because of this, in order to reduce the error of energy estimates, it is important to measure the albedo of snow-covered areas through remote sensing techniques rather than applying a single value for albedo over broad regions. Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. In sunlight, dark clothes absorb more heat and light-coloured clothes reflect it better, thus allowing some control over body temperature by exploiting

12376-410: The erosion of planetary atmospheres; photolysis of water vapor, and hydrogen/oxygen escape to space can lead to the loss of several Earth oceans of water from planets throughout the habitable zone, regardless of whether the escape is energy-limited or diffusion-limited. The amount of water lost seems proportional with the planet mass, since the diffusion-limited hydrogen escape flux is proportional to

12512-478: The exoplanets TOI-1452 b , Kepler-138c , and Kepler-138d have been found to have densities consistent with large fractions of their mass being composed of water. Additionally, models of the massive rocky planet LHS 1140 b suggest its surface may be covered in a deep ocean. Although 70.8% of all Earth 's surface is covered in water, water accounts for only 0.05% of Earth's mass. An extraterrestrial ocean could be so deep and dense that even at high temperatures

12648-445: The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and some important texts were rediscovered. Comprehensive versions of authors' works were published by Isaac Casaubon , Joseph Scaliger and others. Nevertheless, despite the careful work of Petrarch, Politian and others, first the demand for manuscripts, and then the rush to bring works into print, led to the circulation of inaccurate copies for several centuries following. Neo-Latin literature

12784-415: The form of aquifers . For exoplanets, current technology cannot directly observe liquid surface water, so atmospheric water vapor may be used as a proxy. The characteristics of ocean worlds provide clues to their history and the formation and evolution of the Solar System as a whole. Of additional interest is their potential to originate and host life . In June 2020, NASA scientists reported that it

12920-471: The form of upwelling infrared radiation because the greenhouse gases absorb and re-radiate energy from the host star. Ice-rich planets that have migrated inward into orbit too close to their host stars may develop thick steamy atmospheres but still retain their volatiles for billions of years, even if their atmospheres undergo slow hydrodynamic escape . Ultraviolet photons are not only biologically harmful but can drive fast atmospheric escape that leads to

13056-419: The habitable zone (HZ) are expected to have distinct geophysics and geochemistry of their surface and atmosphere. For example, in the case of exoplanets Kepler-62e and -62f, they could possess a liquid ocean outer surface, a steam atmosphere, or a full cover of surface Ice I , depending on their orbit within the HZ and the magnitude of their greenhouse effect . Several other surface and interior processes affect

13192-646: The habitable zone (HZ) should not differ substantially from those of land-ocean planets. For modeling purposes, it is assumed that the initial composition of icy planetesimals that assemble into water planets is similar to that of comets: mostly water ( H 2 O ), and some ammonia ( NH 3 ), and carbon dioxide ( CO 2 ). An initial composition of ice similar to that of comets leads to an atmospheric model composition of 90% H 2 O , 5% NH 3 , and 5% CO 2 . Atmospheric models for Kepler-62f show that an atmospheric pressure of between 1.6 bar and 5 bar of CO 2 are needed to warm

13328-464: The heat. Although this method is very expensive, it has been shown to work, reducing snow and ice melt by 60%. Just as fresh snow has a higher albedo than does dirty snow, the albedo of snow-covered sea ice is far higher than that of sea water. Sea water absorbs more solar radiation than would the same surface covered with reflective snow. When sea ice melts, either due to a rise in sea temperature or in response to increased solar radiation from above,

13464-546: The history of Latin, and the kind of informal Latin that had begun to move away from the written language significantly in the post-Imperial period, that led ultimately to the Romance languages . During the Classical period, informal language was rarely written, so philologists have been left with only individual words and phrases cited by classical authors, inscriptions such as Curse tablets and those found as graffiti . In

13600-467: The important role of tidal heating (aka: tidal flexing) on satellite evolution and structure. The first confirmed detection of an exoplanet was in 1992. Marc Kuchner in 2003 and Alain Léger et al figured in 2004 that a small number of icy planets that form in the region beyond the snow line can migrate inward to ~1 AU , where the outer layers subsequently melt. The cumulative evidence collected by

13736-703: The invention of printing and are now published in carefully annotated printed editions, such as the Loeb Classical Library , published by Harvard University Press , or the Oxford Classical Texts , published by Oxford University Press . Latin translations of modern literature such as: The Hobbit , Treasure Island , Robinson Crusoe , Paddington Bear , Winnie the Pooh , The Adventures of Tintin , Asterix , Harry Potter , Le Petit Prince , Max and Moritz , How

13872-704: The language of the Roman Rite . The Tridentine Mass (also known as the Extraordinary Form or Traditional Latin Mass) is celebrated in Latin. Although the Mass of Paul VI (also known as the Ordinary Form or the Novus Ordo) is usually celebrated in the local vernacular language, it can be and often is said in Latin, in part or in whole, especially at multilingual gatherings. It is the official language of

14008-405: The language, Vulgar Latin (termed sermo vulgi , "the speech of the masses", by Cicero ). Some linguists, particularly in the nineteenth century, believed this to be a separate language, existing more or less in parallel with the literary or educated Latin, but this is now widely dismissed. The term 'Vulgar Latin' remains difficult to define, referring both to informal speech at any time within

14144-496: The material ( refractive index ), the size of the particle, and the wavelength of the incoming radiation. An important relationship between an object's astronomical (geometric) albedo, absolute magnitude and diameter is given by: A = ( 1329 × 10 − H / 5 D ) 2 , {\displaystyle A=\left({\frac {1329\times 10^{-H/5}}{D}}\right)^{2},} where A {\displaystyle A}

14280-431: The meanings of many words were changed and new words were introduced, often under influence from the vernacular. Identifiable individual styles of classically incorrect Latin prevail. Renaissance Latin, 1300 to 1500, and the classicised Latin that followed through to the present are often grouped together as Neo-Latin , or New Latin, which have in recent decades become a focus of renewed study , given their importance for

14416-525: The moment of inertia – if the body is in hydrostatic equilibrium (i.e. behaving like a fluid on long timescales). Proving that a body is in hydrostatic equilibrium is extremely difficult, but by using a combination of shape and gravity data, the hydrostatic contributions can be deduced. Specific techniques to detect inner oceans include magnetic induction , geodesy , librations , axial tilt , tidal response , radar sounding , compositional evidence, and surface features. A generic icy moon will consist of

14552-502: The oceans by rainwater hitting rocks on exposed land, so the mechanism would not work on an ocean world. Simulations of ocean planets with 50 Earth oceans' worth of water indicate the pressure on the sea floor would be so immense that the planet's interior would not sustain plate tectonics to cause volcanism to provide the right chemical environment for terrestrial life. On the other hand, small bodies such as Europa and Enceladus are regarded as particularly habitable environments because

14688-561: The performance of bifacial solar cells where rear surface performance gains of over 20% have been observed for c-Si cells installed above healthy vegetation. An analysis on the bias due to the specular reflectivity of 22 commonly occurring surface materials (both human-made and natural) provided effective albedo values for simulating the performance of seven photovoltaic materials mounted on three common photovoltaic system topologies: industrial (solar farms), commercial flat rooftops and residential pitched-roof applications. Forests generally have

14824-413: The planet surface gravity. During a runaway greenhouse effect , water vapor reaches the stratosphere, where it is easily broken down ( photolyzed ) by ultraviolet radiation (UV). Heating of the upper atmosphere by UV radiation can then drive a hydrodynamic wind that carries the hydrogen (and potentially some of the oxygen) to space, leading to the irreversible loss of a planet's surface water, oxidation of

14960-402: The pressure would turn the water into ice. The immense pressures of many thousands of bar in the lower regions of such oceans, could lead to the formation of a mantle of exotic forms of ice such as ice V . This ice would not necessarily be as cold as conventional ice. If the planet is close enough to its star that the water reaches its boiling point, the water will become supercritical and lack

15096-423: The proportion of diffuse illumination, the actual albedo α {\displaystyle {\alpha }} (also called blue-sky albedo) can then be given as: This formula is important because it allows the albedo to be calculated for any given illumination conditions from a knowledge of the intrinsic properties of the surface. Human activities (e.g., deforestation, farming, and urbanization) change

15232-406: The reach of current technology. The best-established water worlds in the Solar System, other than the Earth , are Callisto , Enceladus , Europa , Ganymede , and Titan . Europa and Enceladus are considered compelling targets for exploration due to their thin outer crusts and cryovolcanic features. Other bodies in the Solar System are considered candidates to host subsurface oceans based upon

15368-497: The reflection of sunlight (albedo). In the case of evergreen forests with seasonal snow cover, albedo reduction may be significant enough for deforestation to cause a net cooling effect. Trees also impact climate in extremely complicated ways through evapotranspiration . The water vapor causes cooling on the land surface, causes heating where it condenses, acts as strong greenhouse gas, and can increase albedo when it condenses into clouds. Scientists generally treat evapotranspiration as

15504-408: The reflectivity of water is very low at low and medium angles of incident light, it becomes very high at high angles of incident light such as those that occur on the illuminated side of Earth near the terminator (early morning, late afternoon, and near the poles). However, as mentioned above, waviness causes an appreciable reduction. Because light specularly reflected from water does not usually reach

15640-421: The sciences , medicine , and law . A number of phases of the language have been recognized, each distinguished by subtle differences in vocabulary, usage, spelling, and syntax. There are no hard and fast rules of classification; different scholars emphasize different features. As a result, the list has variants, as well as alternative names. In addition to the historical phases, Ecclesiastical Latin refers to

15776-633: The snow-covered surface is reduced, and more surface of sea water is exposed, so the rate of energy absorption increases. The extra absorbed energy heats the sea water, which in turn increases the rate at which sea ice melts. As with the preceding example of snowmelt, the process of melting of sea ice is thus another example of a positive feedback. Both positive feedback loops have long been recognized as important for global warming . Cryoconite , powdery windblown dust containing soot, sometimes reduces albedo on glaciers and ice sheets. The dynamical nature of albedo in response to positive feedback, together with

15912-445: The star for in situ formation. Simulations of Solar System formation and of extra-solar system formation have shown that planets are likely to migrate inward (i.e., toward the star) as they form. Outward migration may also occur under particular conditions. Inward migration presents the possibility that icy planets could move to orbits where their ice melts into liquid form, turning them into ocean planets. This possibility

16048-641: The styles used by the writers of the Roman Catholic Church from late antiquity onward, as well as by Protestant scholars. The earliest known form of Latin is Old Latin, also called Archaic or Early Latin, which was spoken from the Roman Kingdom , traditionally founded in 753 BC, through the later part of the Roman Republic , up to 75 BC, i.e. before the age of Classical Latin . It is attested both in inscriptions and in some of

16184-685: The surface temperature above freezing, leading to a scaled surface pressure of 0.56–1.32 times Earth's. It is suggested that strong ocean currents exist in Enceladus , Titan , Ganymede , and Europa . In Enceladus , oceanic heat flux inferred from ice shell thickness suggests the upwelling of warm water at the poles and downwelling of colder water at low latitudes. Europa is predicted to have an equatorial upwelling of warm water with greater heat transfer at low latitudes. Global scale currents are organized into three zonal and two equatorial circulation cells, convecting internal heat toward

16320-447: The surface, and possible accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere. The fate of a given planet's atmosphere strongly depends on the extreme ultraviolet flux, the duration of the runaway regime, the initial water content, and the rate at which oxygen is absorbed by the surface. Volatile-rich planets should be more common in the habitable zones of young stars and M-type stars . Scientists have proposed Hycean planets , ocean planets with

16456-440: The surface, especially in equatorial regions. Titan and Ganymede are hypothesized to behave as a non-rotating system and have no coherent heat transfer patterns. The characteristics of ocean worlds or ocean planets provide clues to their history, and the formation and evolution of the Solar System as a whole. Of additional interest is their potential to form and host life . Life as we know it requires liquid water,

16592-413: The surface, even more restricted if a pressurized, solid ice layer is located between the global ocean and the lower rocky mantle . Simulations of a hypothetical ocean world covered by five Earth oceans' worth of water indicate the water would not contain enough phosphorus and other nutrients for Earth-like oxygen-producing ocean organisms such as plankton to evolve. On Earth, phosphorus is washed into

16728-649: The theorized locations of their oceans would almost certainly leave them in direct contact with the underlying silicate core , a potential source of both heat and biologically important chemical elements. The surface geological activity of these bodies may also lead to the transport to the oceans of biologically-important building blocks implanted at the surface, such as organic molecules from comets or tholins , formed by solar ultraviolet irradiation of simple organic compounds such as methane or ethane , often in combination with nitrogen. Molecular oxygen ( O 2 ) can be produced by geophysical processes, as well as

16864-425: The total amount in the mantle) are exsolved to form a steam atmosphere, which may eventually condense to form an ocean. Ocean formation requires differentiation , and a heat source, either radioactive decay , tidal heating , or the early luminosity of the parent body. Unfortunately, the initial conditions following accretion are theoretically incomplete. Planets that formed in the outer, water-rich regions of

17000-400: The upper atmosphere from stellar wind mass loss and retaining water over long geological time scales. A planet's atmosphere forms from outgassing during planet formation or is gravitationally captured from the surrounding protoplanetary nebula . The surface temperature on an exoplanet is governed by the atmosphere's greenhouse gases (or lack thereof), so an atmosphere can be detectable in

17136-486: The variable nature of planet formation but also a subsequent migration through the circumstellar disc from the planet's place of origin. As of 24 July 2024, there are 7,026 confirmed exoplanets in 4,949 planetary systems , with 1007 systems having more than one planet . In June 2020, NASA scientists reported that it is likely that exoplanets with oceans may be common in the Milky Way galaxy , based on mathematical modeling studies . In August 2022, TOI-1452 b ,

17272-410: The viewer, water is usually considered to have a very low albedo in spite of its high reflectivity at high angles of incident light. Note that white caps on waves look white (and have high albedo) because the water is foamed up, so there are many superimposed bubble surfaces which reflect, adding up their reflectivities. Fresh 'black' ice exhibits Fresnel reflection. Snow on top of this sea ice increases

17408-422: The written form of Latin was increasingly standardized into a fixed form, the spoken forms began to diverge more greatly. Currently, the five most widely spoken Romance languages by number of native speakers are Spanish , Portuguese , French , Italian , and Romanian . Despite dialectal variation, which is found in any widespread language, the languages of Spain, France, Portugal, and Italy have retained

17544-783: Was also used as a convenient medium for translations of important works first written in a vernacular, such as those of Descartes . Latin education underwent a process of reform to classicise written and spoken Latin. Schooling remained largely Latin medium until approximately 1700. Until the end of the 17th century, the majority of books and almost all diplomatic documents were written in Latin. Afterwards, most diplomatic documents were written in French (a Romance language ) and later native or other languages. Education methods gradually shifted towards written Latin, and eventually concentrating solely on reading skills. The decline of Latin education took several centuries and proceeded much more slowly than

17680-491: Was extensive and prolific, but less well known or understood today. Works covered poetry, prose stories and early novels, occasional pieces and collections of letters, to name a few. Famous and well regarded writers included Petrarch, Erasmus, Salutati , Celtis , George Buchanan and Thomas More . Non fiction works were long produced in many subjects, including the sciences, law, philosophy, historiography and theology. Famous examples include Isaac Newton 's Principia . Latin

17816-431: Was first discussed in the astronomical literature by Marc Kuchner in 2003. The internal structure of an icy astronomical body is generally deduced from measurements of its bulk density, gravity moments, and shape. Determining the moment of inertia of a body can help assess whether it has undergone differentiation (separation into rock-ice layers) or not. Shape or gravity measurements can in some cases be used to infer

17952-503: Was largely separated from the unifying influences in the western part of the Empire. Spoken Latin began to diverge into distinct languages by the 9th century at the latest, when the earliest extant Romance writings begin to appear. They were, throughout the period, confined to everyday speech, as Medieval Latin was used for writing. For many Italians using Latin, though, there was no complete separation between Italian and Latin, even into

18088-493: Was located at 1 astronomical unit (AU) from their star their water bodies would boil. Those studies now place the habitable zone of such worlds at 3.85 AU, and 1.6 AU if it had a similar atmospheric pressure to Earth. There are challenges in examining an exoplanetary surface and its atmosphere, as cloud coverage influences the atmospheric temperature, structure as well as the observability of spectral features . However, planets composed of large quantities of water that reside in

18224-732: Was originally spoken by the Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio ), the lower Tiber area around Rome , Italy. Through the expansion of the Roman Republic it became the dominant language in the Italian Peninsula and subsequently throughout the Roman Empire . By the late Roman Republic , Old Latin had evolved into standardized Classical Latin . Vulgar Latin refers to the less prestigious colloquial registers , attested in inscriptions and some literary works such as those of

18360-529: Was perceived as a separate language, for instance early French or Italian dialects, that could be transcribed differently. It took some time for these to be viewed as wholly different from Latin however. After the Western Roman Empire fell in 476 and Germanic kingdoms took its place, the Germanic people adopted Latin as a language more suitable for legal and other, more formal uses. While

18496-482: Was shut down in June 2019), and Vatican Radio & Television, all of which broadcast news segments and other material in Latin. A variety of organisations, as well as informal Latin 'circuli' ('circles'), have been founded in more recent times to support the use of spoken Latin. Moreover, a number of university classics departments have begun incorporating communicative pedagogies in their Latin courses. These include

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