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62-660: Behnke is also known as the "modern-day father" of human body composition for his work in developing the hydrodensitometry method of measuring body density, his standard man and woman models as well as a somatogram based on anthropometric measurements. Behnke was born August 8, 1903, in Chicago, Illinois . He moved to New Mexico and settled in Whittier, California , by 1912. Behnke graduated from Whittier College in 1925 and moved to San Francisco to attend medical school at Stanford University . Stanford Medical School required

124-406: A consequence of having different body compositions. This may be explained by a person having low or high body fat , dense muscles, or big bones. Body composition models typically use between 2 and 6 compartments to describe the body. Common models include: As a rule, the compartments must sum to the body weight. The proportion of each compartment as a percent is often reported, found by dividing

186-472: A female thirty year old will have a different ideal fat percentage than a male thirty year old. An athlete will have a different ideal than a non athlete, and it can depend on the sport. The physical activities which can help decrease fat mass, increase lean mass, or both are the same for everybody. Aerobic exercise, also known as cardio (heart) exercise, decreases fat. High intensity interval training (HIIT) in particular helps decrease visceral fat. Visceral fat

248-598: A list of officers it recommends for promotion to flag rank. This list is then sent to the service secretary and the joint chiefs for review before it can be sent to the President , through the defense secretary, for consideration. The president nominates officers to be promoted from this list with the advice of the Secretary of Defense , the service secretary, and if applicable, the service's chief of staff or commandant. The President may nominate any eligible officer who

310-477: A magnetic field to the body and measures the difference in relaxation rates of hydrogen atoms within fat versus lean mass. It functions similarly to magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) but instead of providing an image like MRI, QMR gives quantities of fat mass, lean mass, and total body water. QMR is also widely used for body composition analysis of animals, including laboratory animals like mice, and wildlife including birds. Assessment of somatic (skeletal) protein

372-457: A maximal PPV. Behnke then goes on to describe "isobaric inert gas transport" or "inherent unsaturation" as termed by LeMessurier and Hills, and separately by Hills, who made their independent observations at the same time. Van Liew et al. also made a similar observation that they did not name at the time. The clinical significance of their work was later shown by Sass. In 1975, Behnke was involved with experiments on cosmic particle radiation for

434-882: A medical laboratory in 1936. That outline would eventually become the Naval Medical Research Institute (NMRI) now located with the National Naval Medical Center . In 1937, Behnke introduced the “no-stop” decompression tables . After being transferred to Washington, D.C. , in 1938, Behnke was assigned to medical duty at the Experimental Diving Unit (NEDU). The submarine USS Squalus sank in 1939 and Behnke responded with fellow NEDU personnel Commanders Charles Momsen and Allan McCann , Yarbrough and Wilmon, and master diver James McDonald with more divers. They met Shilling on site to begin work. Divers from

496-788: A one-year internship prior to conferring a medical doctorate . Behnke joined the United States Navy and completed his internship at the Mare Island Naval Hospital in 1930. In 1932, the Navy sent Behnke to the Harvard School of Public Health . Following medical school in 1930, Behnke found his lifelong interest in deep sea diving when he was assigned as an assistant medical officer to USS  Holland and Submarine Division Twenty in San Diego under

558-415: A personal blue and white command pennant containing the initials, acronym abbreviation or numerical designation of their command. In 1981, Pub. L.   97–86 expanded commodore from a title to an official permanent grade by creating the one-star rank of commodore admiral . After only 11 months, the rank was reverted to just commodore but kept the one-star insignia. However, this caused issues with

620-537: A radiologist. Total body scans using DEXA give accurate and precise measurements of body composition, including bone mineral content (BMC), bone mineral density (BMD), lean tissue mass, fat tissue mass, and fractional contribution of fat. DEXA measurements are highly reproducible if the same type of machine is used, making them excellent for monitoring pharmaceutical therapy, nutritional or exercise intervention, sports training, and other body composition altering programs. They are also fast, simple, non-invasive, and expose

682-436: Is bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), which uses the resistance of electrical flow through the body. BIA is highly sensitive to hydration status and water intake. Drinking water dilutes the electrolytes in the body, making it less conductive, as does increasing body fat. By controlling hydration status or performing multiple impedance measurements, it is possible to estimate body fat and other variables. InBody developed

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744-826: Is a two-star flag officer, with the pay grade of O-8 in the United States Navy, the United States Coast Guard, the United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps and the United States Maritime Service . Rear admiral ranks above rear admiral (lower half) and below vice admiral . Rear admiral is equivalent to

806-486: Is a technique used for measuring body shape. Initially, BVI technology employed white light scanning machines to measure an individual's body shape. However, recent technological advances in 3D measurement have enabled BVI to be calculated using images taken on a smartphone. Two images are required to create an individual 3D silhouette. By comparing this 3D silhouette with MRI data, body volume and fat distribution can be calculated. Body composition can also be measured using

868-482: Is also common to use a DEXA scan alone and refer to this as the "gold standard". These claims are somewhat dubious since measurements methods vary significantly from study to study. In practice, the measurement methods used will be a tradeoff between cost, availability, and accuracy. Body composition measurement with dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) is used increasingly for a variety of clinical and research applications. A DEXA scan requires medical supervision by

930-544: Is equivalent to the rank of brigadier general in the United States Army , Air Force , Marine Corps , and Space Force and equivalent to the rank of commodore in most other navies. In the United States uniformed services, rear admiral (lower half) replaced the rank of commodore in 1985. Rear admiral (abbreviated as RADM ), also sometimes referred to informally as " rear admiral (upper half) ",

992-422: Is known as air displacement plethysmography (ADP). Subjects enter a sealed chamber that measures their body volume through the displacement of air in the chamber. Next, body volume is combined with body weight (mass) to determine body density. The technique then estimates the percentage of body fat and lean body mass (LBM) through empirically derived equations similar to those used with underwater weighing (for

1054-555: Is later, unless appointed for promotion or reappointed to grade to serve longer. Otherwise all flag officers must retire the month after their 64th birthday. However, the Secretary of Defense can defer a flag officer's retirement until the officer's 66th birthday and the President can defer it until the officer's 68th birthday. Flag officers typically retire well in advance of the statutory age and service limits, so as not to impede

1116-525: Is near the internal organs, while subcutaneous fat is just under the skin. The former is more tightly associated with poor metabolic health. Bone and muscle strengthening exercise, also known as resistant training, decreases fat mass and increases lean mass at the same time, though it does better at the latter. In order to prevent injury from repetitive motion, people should do resistant training with different parts of their bodies on different days. Rear admiral (United States) A rear admiral in four of

1178-461: Is not on the recommended list if it serves in the interest of the nation, but this is uncommon. The Senate must then confirm the nominee by a majority vote before the officer can be promoted. Once confirmed, a nominee is promoted by assuming an office that requires or allows an officer to hold that rank. For one-star or two-star positions of office that are reserved by statute, the President nominates an officer for appointment to fill that position. For

1240-497: Is robust to most variation and each of its components can be measured directly. A wide variety of body composition measurement methods exist. The gold standard measurement technique for the 4-compartment model consists of a weight measurement, body density measurement using hydrostatic weighing or air displacement plethysmography , total body water calculation using isotope dilution analysis, and mineral content measurement by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA). However, it

1302-446: Is typically determined by simple measurements and calculations, including mid-arm circumference (MAC), mid-arm muscle circumference (MAMC), and creatinine height ratio (CHI). Creatinine height ratio is calculated as 24-hour urine creatinine multiplied by 100 over the expected 24-hour urine creatinine for height. This calculation results in a percentage that can indicate protein depletion. Many methods of determining body composition use

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1364-632: The Apollo program . Starting in 1969, the Behnke award has been given annually by the Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society , Inc. to a scientist for outstanding scientific contributions to advances in undersea biomedical activity. The award carries an honorarium and a plaque. The first recipient was Behnke. Established in 1916 and awarded by the Association of Military Surgeons of the United States,

1426-569: The Bay Area Rapid Transit system was designed by Behnke in 1964. Behnke with several other researchers founded the Undersea Medical Society (now the Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society ) in 1967. The term " oxygen window " was first used by Behnke in 1967. Behnke refers to early work by Momsen on "partial pressure vacancy" (PPV) where he used partial pressures of O2 and He as high as 2-3 ATA to create

1488-561: The Navy and Marine Corps Medal "for saving the life of a civilian skin diver who surfaced too quickly off Monterey. Behnke, then a Navy captain, spent two days in a decompression chamber with the man." Upon retiring from the Navy in 1959, Behnke turned over command of the NRDL to Captain Harry S. Etter. Upon his retirement from the Navy in 1959, Behnke became a professor of preventive medicine at

1550-554: The U.S. Code of law . However, the four uniformed services will sometimes list the rank as rear admiral (upper half) to help the general public distinguish between the two grades. Although it exists largely as a maritime training organization, the United States Maritime Service does use the ranks of rear admiral (upper half) and rear admiral (lower half). By law, the Service has the same rank structure as

1612-705: The University of California and Director of the Institute of Applied Biology, Presbyterian Medical Center, San Francisco, California. Behnke served on the first Board of Advisors for the National Association of Underwater Instructors and taught medical aspects of diving at their first Instructor Candidate Course that started on August 26, 1960, in Houston, TX. The bends prevention and safety program for crews working in underground caissons to build

1674-457: The body weight as a measurement, determined via a weighing scale . Other details such as height and age can be correlated with other measures and are often used in estimation formulas. The methods above are each valid and notable in providing a measurement that can be used to determine the "true body composition" of the tested individual. However, each method does possess its own individual limitations, such as accuracy, precision, or expense, and

1736-526: The cognitive impairment symptoms associated with such deep dives , thereby confirming Behnke's theory of nitrogen narcosis . Later in 1939, Behnke and Yarborough demonstrated that gases other than nitrogen also could cause narcosis. From his results, he deduced that xenon gas could serve as an anesthetic , even under normobaric conditions but was too scarce to allow for confirmation. Although Lazharev, in Russia, apparently studied xenon anesthesia in 1941,

1798-619: The uniformed services of the United States is one of two distinct ranks of commissioned officers ; " rear admiral (lower half) ," a one-star flag officer , and " rear admiral " (sometimes referred to as " rear admiral (upper half) "), a two-star flag officer. The two ranks are only utilized by the United States Navy , U.S. Coast Guard , U.S. Public Health Service Commissioned Corps , and the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps . In contrast, in most other nations' rank-bearing services,

1860-436: The "modern-day father" of human body composition for "his pioneering studies of hydrostatic weighing in 1942, the development of a reference man and woman model, and somatogram based on anthropometric measurements underlie much current work in body composition assessment" In 1942 Behnke made the first proposal for operational saturation diving and its economic benefit pertaining to work in caissons and pressurized tunnels. When

1922-794: The Assistant Surgeons General are one-star rear admirals and no more than half are two-star rear admirals. The Coast Guard's chief medical officer is also a commissioned corps two-star rear admiral, on assignment to the Coast Guard. Officers serving in certain intelligence positions are not counted against the statutory limit. For the Navy and the Coast Guard, to be promoted to the permanent grade of rear admiral (lower half) or rear admiral, officers who are eligible for promotion to these ranks are screened by an in-service promotion board composed of other flag officers from their branch of service. This promotion board then generates

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1984-512: The NMRI Hyperbaric Research Facility on July 1, 1981, to Behnke. Body composition In physical fitness , body composition refers to quantifying the different components (or "compartments") of a human body . The selection of compartments varies by model but may include fat , bone , water , and muscle . Two people of the same gender, height, and body weight may have completely different body types as

2046-528: The Navy allowed it. Lieutenant junior grade Behnke was then sent to Pearl Harbor in 1935 to the Submarine Escape Training Tower . Later that year, Behnke et al. experimented with oxygen for recompression therapy. Evidence of the effectiveness of recompression therapy utilizing oxygen was later shown by Yarbrough and Behnke and has since become the standard of care for treatment of DCS. Behnke also began to outline his idea for

2108-643: The Navy and the Coast Guard, because the one-star and two-star grades are permanent ranks, the nominee may still be screened by an in-service promotion board to add their input on the nominee before the nomination can be sent to the Senate for approval. For the NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps and the Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, one-star and two-star rank are achieved by appointment from

2170-560: The Navy due to the difficulty in differentiating those commodores who were flag officers from commodores who were senior captains in certain command positions. Then in 1985, Pub. L.   99–145 renamed commodore to the current grade of rear admiral (lower half) effective on November 8, 1985. Up until 1981 all rear admirals wore two stars on their shoulder boards and rank insignia. Since then, rear admirals (lower half) wear one star while rear admirals wear two; verbal address remains "rear admiral" for both ranks. On correspondence, where

2232-751: The President, or from their department secretary, and do not require senatorial approval. The standard tour length for most rear admiral positions is three years, but some are set at four or more years by statute. For the Navy, Coast Guard, and NOAA Corps, both grades of rear admiral are permanent ranks and do not expire when the officer vacates a one-star or two-star position. The Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, however, employs permanent promotions in both grades of rear admiral as well as position-linked temporary appointments in both grades (e.g., Assistant Surgeons General). Their temporary ranks expires when those officers vacate certain temporary positions of office designated to bear those ranks. By tradition in

2294-644: The RDML abbreviation for the O-7 pay grade in 2022. As flag officers, the flags flown for rear admirals of the unrestricted line of the U.S. Navy have one or two white, single-point-up stars on blue fields for the lower half or upper half, respectively. The flags of restricted line officers and staff corps officers have blue stars on a white field. All services officially list the two-star grade as rear admiral and not rear admiral (upper half) as stated by 10 U.S.C.   § 8111 and 37 U.S.C.   § 201 of

2356-676: The Reserve Active Status List as part-time drilling reservists. Some of these billets are reserved or set by statute. For example, the Deputy Judge Advocate General of the Navy is a two-star rear admiral in the Navy. A newer statute enacted in 2016 lowers the cap on the total number of active duty flag officers in the Department of Defense to 151, effective December 31, 2022. In the Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, at least half of

2418-545: The Sir Henry S. Wellcome Medal and Prize is awarded annually for "the research work most valuable for the military service performed in any branch of medicine, surgery, or sanitation". Behnke was the 1941 recipient. Behnke received the American College of Sports Medicine 's Honor Award in 1976. In 1977, Behnke was awarded an honorary Doctor of Science (Sc.D.) degree from Whittier College . The Navy dedicated

2480-573: The United States Coast Guard, but its uniforms are more similar to the United States Navy. By statute, Congress has expressly limited the total number of flag officers that may be on active duty at any given time. The total number of active duty flag officers is capped at 162 for the Regular Navy, augmented by a smaller number of additional flag officers in the Navy Reserve who are either on full-time active duty, temporary active duty, or on

2542-584: The United States Navy, when an officer is selected or appointed to flag rank, all current Navy flag officers write the selectee a letter congratulating him or her for attaining flag officer status. Other than voluntary retirement, federal statutes set a number of mandates for retirement. All one-star officers must retire after five years in grade or 30 years of service, whichever is later, unless they are selected or appointed for promotion or reappointed to grade to serve longer. All two-star officers must retire after five years in grade or 35 years of service, whichever

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2604-412: The accuracy of BIA machines. BIA machines have found acceptance in medical, fitness, and wellness space owing to their ease-of-use, portability, quick measurements, and cost efficiency. AURA Devices developed and launched a number of wearable bioimpedance trackers, including the first smart strap for Apple Watch that tracks body fat, muscles, lean mass, water levels, etc. The Body Volume Index (BVI)

2666-426: The advantage of being able to also directly measure muscle thickness and quantify intramuscular fat. In the abdomen, ultrasonography is a useful tool for quantifying both subcutaneous and visceral fat. Ultrasonography has many advantages over CT scan and MRI as it is non-invasive and doesn't utilize ionizing radiation, making it more accessible to special populations. Quantitative magnetic resonance (QMR) applies

2728-426: The combination of methods also has limitations. Often, the relative change from one period to the next is most important; if an individual can maintain all factors as similar as possible, even a simple method such as weighing may give enough information to determine the true change in composition. The ideal percent of body mass which should be fat depends on an individual's sex, age, and physical activity. For example,

2790-610: The command of Chester W. Nimitz . In addition to his other duties, Behnke spent time covering medical watch on USS  Ortolan , a submarine rescue ship , where he performed his first hard hat dive . In 1932 Behnke wrote a letter to the Surgeon General that was published in the United States Naval Medical Bulletin outlining the possible causes of arterial gas embolisms he was seeing related to submarine escape training. This separated

2852-456: The compartment weight by the body weight. Individual compartments may be estimated based on population averages or measured directly or indirectly. Many measurement methods exist with varying levels of accuracy. Typically, the higher compartment models are more accurate, as they require more data and thus account for more variation across individuals. The four compartment model is considered the reference model for assessment of body composition as it

2914-560: The construction of his research laboratory (NMRI). On December 7, 1941, when the attack on Pearl Harbor began, Behnke was at sea on USS  Lexington and immediately reassigned to medical posts around Hawaii . Behnke returned to Washington and soon opened NMRI as the "research executive" in October 1942. Behnke focused his interest in how physical fitness and fat content effects inert gas elimination and started projects to evaluate this relationship. His research lead us to consider him

2976-462: The criterion." Hydrostatic weighing, also referred to as underwater weighing, hydrostatic body composition analysis and hydrodensitometry, is a technique for measuring the density of a living person's body. It is a direct application of Archimedes' principle, that an object displaces its own volume of water. Air displacement plethysmography is an alternative to underwater weighing for measuring body volume. The technique uses air as opposed to water and

3038-577: The density of fat and fat-free mass). Total body water may be effectively measured using isotope dilution analysis of deuterium oxide. Potassium 40 is a naturally occurring radioactive isotope found in intracellular water, but is not present in stored triglycerides (fat). Whole body counting can measure the amount of potassium 40 (40K) in the body, a quantity called total body potassium (TBK). This can be used to estimate fat-free mass directly. It has mostly been replaced by newer, more accurate techniques such as DEXA. Another method to estimate body water

3100-482: The first published report confirming xenon anesthesia was in 1946 by J. H. Lawrence, who experimented on mice. Xenon was first used as a surgical anesthetic in 1951 by Stuart C. Cullen, who successfully operated on two patients. Taking advantage of the positive public support for Navy diving following the Squalus rescue, Behnke contacted Franklin D. Roosevelt and with Presidential interest known, received approval for

3162-681: The newly independent U.S. Air Force . Lower-half rear admirals were eventually advanced to full rear admirals, or upper half status, where they would receive pay equivalent to a two-star major general. However, both categories of rear admiral wore two-star insignia, an issue that was a source of consternation to the other services. At the same time, the Navy also bestowed the title of commodore on selected U.S. Navy captains who commanded multiple subordinate units, such as destroyer squadrons , submarine squadrons and air wings and air groups not designated as carrier air wings or carrier air groups. Although not flag officers , these officers were entitled to

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3224-633: The people of Occupied Germany were suffering from starvation, Behnke focused his attention to increasing their food ration. Behnke remained at NMRI until 1950 when he was transferred to his final assignment at the Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory (NRDL) at the San Francisco Naval Shipyard . His work on physical fitness and body habitus continued in projects surrounding radiological shelters and decontamination . In 1950, Behnke earned

3286-501: The rank of major general in the U.S. Army, Air Force, Marine Corps, and Space Force. It is the highest permanent rank during peacetime in the uniformed services. All higher ranks are temporary ranks and linked to their specific commands or office and expire with the expiration of their term of command or office. Before the American Civil War , the U.S. Navy had resisted creating the rank of admiral. Instead, they preferred

3348-490: The rear admiral's rank is spelled out, the acronym (LH) and (UH) follows the rear admiral's rank title to distinguish between one and two stars. Beginning around 2001, the Navy, Coast Guard, and NOAA Corps started using the separate rank abbreviations RDML (one star) and RADM (two stars), while the Public Health Service continued to use the abbreviation RADM for both. The Public Health Service formally adopted

3410-549: The skin fold test, which is performed using a measuring caliper . It can be done in nine steps: A common skin fold method is by using gun style calipers to measure the thickness of subcutaneous fat in multiple places on the body. This includes the abdominal area, the subscapular region, arms, buttocks and thighs. These measurements are then used to estimate total body fat. Ultrasound has also been used to measure subcutaneous fat thickness, and by using multiple points an estimation of body composition can be made. Ultrasound has

3472-455: The subject to a level of x-rays less than that of a cross-country flight. DEXA exams provide both total body and up to 14 regional (trunk, individual arms & legs, android, gynoid, etc.) results. However, the role of DEXA in clinical evaluations and research studies has been questioned by Wang et al. who stated that "the errors of the DXA [DEXA] method are still of concern if it were to be used as

3534-498: The submarine rescue ship Falcon , under the direction of the salvage and rescue expert Momsen, employed the new Rescue Chamber he had invented years earlier but which the US Navy command had repeatedly blocked. They were able to rescue all 33 surviving crew members from the sunken submarine including future Rear Admiral Oliver F. Naquin . The salvage divers used recently developed heliox diving schedules and successfully avoided

3596-562: The symptoms of arterial gas embolism (AGE) from those of decompression sickness . This letter caught the attention of the director of the submarine medicine in the Bureau of Medicine , Captain E.W. Brown. Brown sent Behnke to do postgraduate work at the Harvard School of Public Health and research on diving and submarine medicine with fellow student Charles W. Shilling . Philip Drinker asked Behnke to stay for two additional years and

3658-536: The term " flag officer ", in order to distinguish the rank from the traditions of the European navies. During the American Civil War, the U.S. Congress honored David Farragut 's successful assault on the city of New Orleans by creating the rank of rear admiral on July 16, 1862. During World War II , the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Coast Guard both had a temporary appointment, one-star rank of commodore, that

3720-766: The term " rear admiral " refers exclusively to two-star flag officer rank. Rear admiral (lower half) (abbreviated as RDML ) is a one-star flag officer , with the pay grade of O-7 in the United States Navy , the United States Coast Guard , the United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps , and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps . Rear admiral (lower half) ranks above captain and below rear admiral . Rear admiral (lower half)

3782-404: The world's first 8-point tactile electrode system in 1996, a direct segmental analysis method that measures the impedance of five torsos using multiple frequencies. Many BIA products provide partial muscle and fat mass measurements, but not impedance, especially in the torso. Recent advancements such as 8-point electrodes, multi-frequency measurements, and Direct Segmental Analysis, have improved

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3844-418: Was used in limited circumstances. By the end of the war, all incumbents had been advanced to the rank of two-star rear admiral and the commodore rank was abolished in both services. Both the Navy and the Coast Guard divided their rear admirals into "lower half" and full rear admirals, or "upper half", the former being paid at the same rate as a one-star brigadier general in the U.S. Army , U.S. Marine Corps and

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