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152-538: Albert Camus ( / k æ ˈ m uː / ka- MOO ; French: [albɛʁ kamy] ; 7 November 1913 – 4 January 1960) was a French philosopher, author, dramatist, journalist, world federalist , and political activist. He was the recipient of the 1957 Nobel Prize in Literature at the age of 44, the second-youngest recipient in history. His works include The Stranger , The Plague , The Myth of Sisyphus , The Fall and The Rebel . Camus

304-438: A Provisional World Parliament have been held under the framework of this constitution from 1982 to the present and have passed dozens of acts of legislation on issues of global concern. Debate around world government falls into four broad categories, which is often applied also to world federalism : The establishment of a world federation would require extraordinary amounts of coordination and trust from all nations of

456-415: A Rasmussen aneurysm , resulting in massive bleeding. Tuberculosis may become a chronic illness and cause extensive scarring in the upper lobes of the lungs. The upper lung lobes are more frequently affected by tuberculosis than the lower ones. The reason for this difference is not clear. It may be due to either better air flow, or poor lymph drainage within the upper lungs. In 15–20% of active cases,

608-617: A plane tree on a long straight stretch of the Route nationale 5 (now the RN 6 or D606). Camus, who was in the passenger seat, died instantly, while Gallimard died five days later. Janine and Anne Gallimard escaped without injuries. 144 pages of a handwritten manuscript entitled Le premier Homme ('The First Man') were found in the wreckage. Camus had predicted that this unfinished novel based on his childhood in Algeria would be his finest work. Camus

760-543: A German Friend') in 1945, and were included in the collection Resistance, Rebellion, and Death . Camus regretted the continued reference to himself as a "philosopher of the absurd". He showed less interest in the Absurd shortly after publishing The Myth of Sisyphus . To distinguish his ideas, scholars sometimes refer to the Paradox of the Absurd, when referring to "Camus's Absurd". World federalist World federalism

912-553: A celebrity figure and gave many lectures around the world. He married twice but had many extramarital affairs. Camus was politically active; he was part of the left that opposed Joseph Stalin and the Soviet Union because of their totalitarianism . Camus was a moralist and leaned towards anarcho-syndicalism . He was part of many organisations seeking European integration . During the Algerian War (1954–1962), he kept

1064-400: A family died from the disease, the other infected members would lose their health slowly. People believed this was caused by the original person with TB draining the life from the other family members. Although Richard Morton established the pulmonary form associated with tubercles as a pathology in 1689, due to the variety of its symptoms, TB was not identified as a single disease until

1216-631: A latent infection of TB. New infections occur in about 1% of the population each year. In 2022, an estimated 10.6 million people developed active TB, resulting in 1.3 million deaths, making it the second leading cause of death from an infectious disease after COVID-19 . As of 2018, most TB cases occurred in the WHO regions of South-East Asia (44%), Africa (24%), and the Western Pacific (18%), with more than 50% of cases being diagnosed in seven countries: India (27%), China (9%), Indonesia (8%),

1368-571: A matter of emergency. In 1945, following the Sétif and Guelma massacre after Arabs revolted against French mistreatment, Camus was one of only a few mainland journalists to visit the colony. He wrote a series of articles reporting on conditions and advocating for French reforms and concessions to the demands of the Algerian people. When the Algerian War began in 1954, Camus was confronted with

1520-531: A meeting of the Cercle des Étudiants Anarchistes ('Anarchist Student Circle') in 1948 as a sympathiser familiar with anarchist thought. Camus wrote for anarchist publications such as Le Libertaire ('The Libertarian'), La Révolution prolétarienne ('The Proletarian Revolution'), and Solidaridad Obrera ('Workers' Solidarity'), the organ of the anarcho-syndicalist Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT, 'National Confederation of Labor'). Camus kept

1672-685: A microscope. Since MTB retains certain stains even after being treated with acidic solution, it is classified as an acid-fast bacillus . The most common acid-fast staining techniques are the Ziehl–Neelsen stain and the Kinyoun stain , which dye acid-fast bacilli a bright red that stands out against a blue background. Auramine-rhodamine staining and fluorescence microscopy are also used. The M. tuberculosis complex (MTBC) includes four other TB-causing mycobacteria : M. bovis , M. africanum , M. canettii , and M. microti . M. africanum

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1824-579: A moral dilemma. He identified with the pieds-noirs such as his own parents and defended the French government's actions against the revolt. He argued the Algerian uprising was an integral part of the "new Arab imperialism " led by Egypt and an "anti-Western" offensive orchestrated by Russia to "encircle Europe" and "isolate the United States". Although favoring greater Algerian autonomy or even federation, though not full-scale independence, he believed

1976-626: A neutral stance during the Algerian Revolution (1954–1962). While he was against the violence of the National Liberation Front (FLN), he acknowledged the injustice and brutalities imposed by colonialist France. He was supportive of Pierre Mendès France 's Unified Socialist Party (PSU) and its approach to the crisis; Mendès France advocated for reconciliation. Camus also supported a like-minded Algerian militant, Aziz Kessous . Camus traveled to Algeria to negotiate

2128-658: A neutral stance, advocating a multicultural and pluralistic Algeria, a position that was rejected by most parties. Philosophically, Camus's views contributed to the rise of the philosophy known as absurdism . Some consider Camus's work to show him to be an existentialist , even though he himself firmly rejected the term throughout his lifetime. Albert Camus was born on 7 November 1913 in a working-class neighbourhood in Mondovi (present-day Dréan ), in French Algeria . His mother, Catherine Hélène Camus ( née  Sintès ),

2280-658: A number of people with tuberculosis into the cave in the hope of curing the disease with the constant temperature and purity of the cave air; each died within a year. Hermann Brehmer opened the first TB sanatorium in 1859 in Görbersdorf (now Sokołowsko ) in Silesia . In 1865, Jean Antoine Villemin demonstrated that tuberculosis could be transmitted, via inoculation, from humans to animals and among animals. (Villemin's findings were confirmed in 1867 and 1868 by John Burdon-Sanderson . ) Robert Koch identified and described

2432-496: A part in his rejection of existentialism. David Simpson argues further that his humanism and belief in human nature set him apart from the existentialist doctrine that existence precedes essence . On the other hand, Camus focused most of his philosophy around existential questions. The absurdity of life and that it inevitably ends in death is highlighted in his acts. His belief was that the absurd – life being void of meaning, or man's inability to know that meaning if it were to exist –

2584-569: A partner of Camus's friend, who later became his first wife. Camus played as goalkeeper for the Racing Universitaire d'Alger junior team from 1928 to 1930. The sense of team spirit, fraternity, and common purpose appealed to him enormously. In match reports, he was often praised for playing with passion and courage. Any football ambitions, however, disappeared when he contracted tuberculosis. Camus drew parallels among football, human existence, morality, and personal identity. For him,

2736-686: A private tutor, car parts clerk, and assistant at the Meteorological Institute. In 1933, Camus enrolled at the University of Algiers and completed his licence de philosophie ( BA ) in 1936 after presenting his thesis on Plotinus . Camus developed an interest in early Christian philosophers, but Nietzsche and Arthur Schopenhauer had paved the way towards pessimism and atheism. Camus also studied novelist-philosophers such as Stendhal , Herman Melville , Fyodor Dostoyevsky , and Franz Kafka . In 1933, he also met Simone Hié, then

2888-522: A session of the United Nations General Assembly, where he gave a short speech before being escorted out of the hall: "I interrupt you in the name of the people of the world not represented here. Though my words may be unheeded, our common need for world law and order can no longer be disregarded. We, the people, want the peace which only a world government can give. The sovereign states you represent divide us and lead us to

3040-407: A small decrease in case numbers. Some countries have legislation to involuntarily detain or examine those suspected to have tuberculosis, or involuntarily treat them if infected. The only available vaccine as of 2021 is bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG). In children it decreases the risk of getting the infection by 20% and the risk of infection turning into active disease by nearly 60%. It

3192-406: A solution to the absurdity of life. Many existentialist writers have addressed the Absurd, each with their own interpretation of what it is and what makes it important. Kierkegaard suggests that the absurdity of religious truths prevents people from reaching God rationally. Sartre recognizes the absurdity of individual experience. Camus's thoughts on the Absurd begin with his first cycle of books and

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3344-625: A theatrical play. Soon after Camus moved to Paris, the outbreak of World War II began to affect France. Camus volunteered to join the army but was not accepted because he once had tuberculosis. As the Germans were marching towards Paris, Camus fled. He was laid off from Paris-Soir and ended up in Lyon , where he married pianist and mathematician Francine Faure on 3 December 1940. Camus and Faure moved back to Algeria ( Oran ), where he taught in primary schools. Because of his tuberculosis, he moved to

3496-510: A truce between the two belligerents but was met with distrust by all parties. In one, often misquoted incident, Camus confronted an Algerian critic during his 1957 Nobel Prize acceptance speech in Stockholm, rejecting the false equivalence of justice with revolutionary terrorism: "People are now planting bombs in the tramways of Algiers. My mother might be on one of those tramways. If that is justice, then I prefer my mother." Critics have labelled

3648-401: A tuberculosis infection does become active, it most commonly involves the lungs (in about 90% of cases). Symptoms may include chest pain and a prolonged cough producing sputum. About 25% of people may not have any symptoms (i.e., they remain asymptomatic). Occasionally, people may cough up blood in small amounts, and in very rare cases, the infection may erode into the pulmonary artery or

3800-571: A vote on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was expected to fail due to conflicts of national interests. He ripped his US passport, declared himself "World Citizen Number One" and asked for asylum in the United Nations, whose assembly hall had been declared international territory for the duration of the meeting. He was promptly arrested. After his release, Davis and several supporters founded "Operation Oran", entering

3952-509: A way that both are sovereign within their respective sphere of competence. Albert Einstein grew increasingly convinced that the world was veering off course. He arrived at the conclusion that the gravity of the situation demanded more profound actions and the establishment of a " world government " was the only logical solution. In his "Open Letter to the General Assembly of the United Nations" of October 1947, Einstein emphasized

4104-478: A world government. Proposals for a world government can be found as far back as Ancient Greece, India and China, mostly tied to a mystical cosmology. Alexander the Great pursued the goal of conquering the entire known world and subjugating it under his rule. World governments in various forms later appeared in the works of Dante Alighieri , Immanuel Kant , Anacharsis Cloots and Johann Gottlieb Fichte , where it

4256-398: Is Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), a small, aerobic , nonmotile bacillus . The high lipid content of this pathogen accounts for many of its unique clinical characteristics. It divides every 16 to 20 hours, which is an extremely slow rate compared with other bacteria, which usually divide in less than an hour. Mycobacteria have an outer membrane lipid bilayer. If a Gram stain

4408-611: Is a part of our lives and live with it. The turning point in Camus's attitude to the Absurd occurs in a collection of four letters to an anonymous German friend, written between July 1943 and July 1944. The first was published in the Revue Libre in 1943, the second in the Cahiers de Libération in 1944, and the third in the newspaper Libertés , in 1945. The four letters were published as Lettres à un ami allemand ('Letters to

4560-418: Is a transmitted disease, he moved out of his home and stayed with his uncle Gustave Acault, a butcher, who influenced the young Camus. It was at that time he turned to philosophy, with the mentoring of his philosophy teacher Jean Grenier . He was impressed by ancient Greek philosophers and Friedrich Nietzsche . During that time, he was only able to study part time. To earn money, he took odd jobs, including as

4712-399: Is a union of sovereign nations, which are pursuing a common cause. Member states in a confederation are sometimes free to secede from the confederation. In a federation based on subsidiarity, nations choose to give up their sovereignty over global issues they cannot manage to a central authority empowered to manage these issues at the global level. Sovereignty over national issues remains with

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4864-449: Is able to reproduce inside the macrophage and will eventually kill the immune cell. The primary site of infection in the lungs, known as the Ghon focus , is generally located in either the upper part of the lower lobe, or the lower part of the upper lobe . Tuberculosis of the lungs may also occur via infection from the blood stream. This is known as a Simon focus and is typically found in

5016-653: Is also rare and is seen almost only in immunodeficient people, although its prevalence may be significantly underestimated. Other known pathogenic mycobacteria include M. leprae , M. avium , and M. kansasii . The latter two species are classified as " nontuberculous mycobacteria " (NTM) or atypical mycobacteria. NTM cause neither TB nor leprosy , but they do cause lung diseases that resemble TB. When people with active pulmonary TB cough, sneeze, speak, sing, or spit, they expel infectious aerosol droplets 0.5 to 5.0 μm in diameter. A single sneeze can release up to 40,000 droplets. Each one of these droplets may transmit

5168-444: Is difficult, as is diagnosing the disease in those who have a weakened immune system. A diagnosis of TB should, however, be considered in those with signs of lung disease or constitutional symptoms lasting longer than two weeks. A chest X-ray and multiple sputum cultures for acid-fast bacilli are typically part of the initial evaluation. Interferon-γ release assays (IGRA) and tuberculin skin tests are of little use in most of

5320-484: Is distinguished from unitary world government models by the principle of subsidiarity , where decisions are made as much as possible at the most immediate level, preserving national agency to a large degree. Proponents maintain that a world federation offers a more effective and accountable global governance structure than the existing United Nations organization, while simultaneously allowing wide autonomy for continental, national, regional and local governments. Unlike

5472-412: Is known as latent tuberculosis . Around 10% of latent infections progress to active disease that, if left untreated, kill about half of those affected. Typical symptoms of active TB are chronic cough with blood-containing mucus , fever , night sweats , and weight loss . Infection of other organs can cause a wide range of symptoms. Tuberculosis is spread from one person to the next through

5624-471: Is no salvation for civilization, or even the human race, other than the creation of a world government.- Albert Einstein , Letter to World Federalists, Stockholm Congress, 1949 Einstein and other prominent figures sponsored the Peoples' World Convention (PWC), which took place in 1950-51 and later continued in the form of world constituent assemblies in 1968, 1977, 1978-79, and 1991. This effort

5776-509: Is not widespread, but it is a significant cause of tuberculosis in parts of Africa. M. bovis was once a common cause of tuberculosis, but the introduction of pasteurized milk has almost eliminated this as a public health problem in developed countries. M. canettii is rare and seems to be limited to the Horn of Africa , although a few cases have been seen in African emigrants. M. microti

5928-489: Is often used to screen people at high risk for TB. Those who have been previously immunized with the Bacille Calmette-Guerin vaccine may have a false-positive test result. The test may be falsely negative in those with sarcoidosis , Hodgkin's lymphoma , malnutrition , and most notably, active tuberculosis. Interferon gamma release assays , on a blood sample, are recommended in those who are positive to

6080-501: Is performed, MTB either stains very weakly "Gram-positive" or does not retain dye as a result of the high lipid and mycolic acid content of its cell wall. MTB can withstand weak disinfectants and survive in a dry state for weeks. In nature, the bacterium can grow only within the cells of a host organism, but M. tuberculosis can be cultured in the laboratory . Using histological stains on expectorated samples from phlegm (also called sputum), scientists can identify MTB under

6232-423: Is poor as of 2019 . The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) stopped recommending yearly testing of health care workers without known exposure in 2019. Tuberculosis prevention and control efforts rely primarily on the vaccination of infants and the detection and appropriate treatment of active cases. The World Health Organization (WHO) has achieved some success with improved treatment regimens, and

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6384-592: Is spurred by our outrage over the world's lack of transcendent significance, while political rebellion is our response to attacks against the dignity and autonomy of the individual. Camus opposed political violence , tolerating it only in rare and very narrowly defined instances, as well as revolutionary terror which he accused of sacrificing innocent lives on the altar of history. Philosophy professor David Sherman considers Camus an anarcho-syndicalist . Graeme Nicholson considers Camus an existentialist anarchist. The anarchist André Prudhommeaux first introduced him at

6536-416: Is subsidiary to local in that it only does what local government cannot. Plans that sought to unify the known world by conquest have historically aimed at a centralized, unitary government, rather than a federal government. World federalists generally do not support violent paths towards a world federation (see World Federalism § Current proposals for establishing a world federation ) A confederation

6688-464: Is termed caseous necrosis . If TB bacteria gain entry to the blood stream from an area of damaged tissue, they can spread throughout the body and set up many foci of infection, all appearing as tiny, white tubercles in the tissues. This severe form of TB disease, most common in young children and those with HIV, is called miliary tuberculosis. People with this disseminated TB have a high fatality rate even with treatment (about 30%). In many people,

6840-420: Is the most widely used vaccine worldwide, with more than 90% of all children being vaccinated. The immunity it induces decreases after about ten years. As tuberculosis is uncommon in most of Canada, Western Europe, and the United States, BCG is administered to only those people at high risk. Part of the reasoning against the use of the vaccine is that it makes the tuberculin skin test falsely positive, reducing

6992-561: The Blum–Viollette proposal to grant Algerians full French citizenship in a manifesto with arguments defending this assimilative proposal on radical egalitarian grounds. In 1939, Camus wrote a stinging series of articles for the Alger républicain on the atrocious living conditions of the inhabitants of the Kabylie highlands. He advocated for economic, educational, and political reforms as

7144-486: The League of Nations by establishing a federal world government as an effective means to abolish war. Such a democratic world government would represent the interests of the world's people, rather than merely the national interests of member states. The pamphlet "Chaos, War or a New World Order?" (1937) outlines the campaign's approach to put the demands into practise: a World Constitutional Convention would be held to lay

7296-603: The Soviet invasion of Hungary and the totalitarian tendencies of Franco 's regime in Spain. Camus had numerous affairs, particularly an irregular and eventually public affair with the Spanish-born actress María Casares , with whom he had extensive correspondence. Faure did not take this affair lightly. She had a mental breakdown and needed hospitalisation in the early 1950s. Camus, who felt guilty, withdrew from public life and

7448-691: The Student Federalists in 1942. The organization's success prompted Newsweek to predict he would become President of the United States. The 1943 book One World by the Republican Wendell L. Willkie about his world tour through the Allied countries became an instant bestseller, further promoting the concept of world federalism and decolonisation to a wider audience. The publication of Emery Reves ' The Anatomy of Peace in 1945, translated into thirty languages, further popularised

7600-580: The World Government of Citizens in his hometown of Ellsworth in 1953. The movement for world federalism has declined from its peak in the 1950s, due to a lack of funding and successors for the activists who founded the original world federalist organizations. Major active world federalist organizations include World Constitution and Parliament Association (WCPA) , Citizens for Global Solutions and Democracy Without Borders . The World Federalist Movement/Institute for Global Policy acts as

7752-416: The bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine. Those at high risk include household, workplace, and social contacts of people with active TB. Treatment requires the use of multiple antibiotics over a long period of time. Antibiotic resistance is a growing problem, with increasing rates of multiple drug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB). In 2018, one quarter of the world's population was thought to have

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7904-587: The interwar period escalated, the Stalinist PCA and PPA broke ties. Camus was expelled from the PCA for refusing to toe the party line. This series of events sharpened his belief in human dignity. Camus's mistrust of bureaucracies that aimed for efficiency instead of justice grew. He continued his involvement with theatre and renamed his group Théâtre de l'Equipe ('Theatre of the Team'). Some of his scripts were

8056-458: The lymphatic system (in scrofula of the neck), the genitourinary system (in urogenital tuberculosis ), and the bones and joints (in Pott disease of the spine), among others. A potentially more serious, widespread form of TB is called "disseminated tuberculosis"; it is also known as miliary tuberculosis . Miliary TB currently makes up about 10% of extrapulmonary cases. The main cause of TB

8208-583: The pieds-noirs and Arabs could co-exist. During the war, he advocated a civil truce that would spare the civilians. It was rejected by both sides who regarded it as foolish. Behind the scenes, he began working for imprisoned Algerians who faced the death penalty. His position drew much criticism from the left and later postcolonial literary critics, such as Edward Said , who were opposed to European imperialism, and charged that Camus's novels and short stories are plagued with colonial depictions – or conscious erasures – of Algeria's Arab population. In their eyes, Camus

8360-547: The 1820s. Benjamin Marten conjectured in 1720 that consumptions were caused by microbes which were spread by people living close to each other. In 1819, René Laennec claimed that tubercles were the cause of pulmonary tuberculosis. J. L. Schönlein first published the name "tuberculosis" (German: Tuberkulose ) in 1832. Between 1838 and 1845, John Croghan, the owner of Mammoth Cave in Kentucky from 1839 onwards, brought

8512-497: The 1924 scholarship competition – despite the fact that his grandmother had a destiny in store for him as a manual worker so that he could immediately contribute to the maintenance of the family. Camus maintained great gratitude and affection towards Louis Germain throughout his life and to whom he dedicated his speech for accepting the Nobel Prize. Having received the news of the awarding of the prize, he wrote: But when I heard

8664-552: The 1950s, when he came to believe that the Soviet model was morally bankrupt. Camus was firmly against any kind of exploitation, authority, property, the State, and centralization. However, he opposed revolution, separating the rebel from the revolutionary and believing that the belief in "absolute truth", most often assuming the guise of history or reason, inspires the revolutionary and leads to tragic results. He believed that rebellion

8816-647: The 19th and early 20th centuries as the disease became common among the urban poor. In 1815, one in four deaths in England was due to "consumption". By 1918, TB still caused one in six deaths in France. After TB was determined to be contagious, in the 1880s, it was put on a notifiable-disease list in Britain. Campaigns started to stop people from spitting in public places, and the infected poor were "encouraged" to enter sanatoria that resembled prisons. The sanatoria for

8968-424: The Absurd is the result of the "confrontation between human need and the unreasonable silence of the world". Even though absurdity is inescapable, Camus does not drift towards nihilism . But the realization of absurdity leads to the question: Why should someone continue to live? Suicide is an option that Camus firmly dismisses as the renunciation of human values and freedom. Rather, he proposes we accept that absurdity

9120-557: The Algerian people, in opposition to "Latiny", a popular pro-fascist and antisemitic ideology among other pieds-noirs – French or Europeans born in Algeria. For Camus, this vision encapsulated the Hellenic humanism which survived among ordinary people around the Mediterranean Sea. His 1938 address on "The New Mediterranean Culture" represents Camus's most systematic statement of his views at this time. Camus also supported

9272-516: The French Alps on medical advice. There he began writing his second cycle of works, this time dealing with revolt – a novel, La Peste ( The Plague ), and a play, Le Malentendu ( The Misunderstanding ). By 1943 he was known because of his earlier work. He returned to Paris, where he met and became friends with Jean-Paul Sartre . He also became part of a circle of intellectuals, which included Simone de Beauvoir and André Breton . Among them

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9424-698: The Mantoux test. These are not affected by immunization or most environmental mycobacteria , so they generate fewer false-positive results. However, they are affected by M. szulgai , M. marinum , and M. kansasii . IGRAs may increase sensitivity when used in addition to the skin test, but may be less sensitive than the skin test when used alone. The US Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) has recommended screening people who are at high risk for latent tuberculosis with either tuberculin skin tests or interferon-gamma release assays . While some have recommend testing health care workers, evidence of benefit for this

9576-475: The Massachusetts Committee for World Federation. The organization was renamed to World Federalists, USA (1960s), World Federalists Association (1970s) and then Citizens for Global Solutions , which is active to this day. In 1949, six U.S. states — California, Connecticut, Florida, Maine, New Jersey, and North Carolina — applied for an Article V convention to propose an amendment "to enable

9728-508: The Netherlands, Switzerland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden and Finland were to form the seed for a democratic world republic. A world congress, made up of a House of Representative and a Senate should decide on matters related to defence, trade and currency. During World War II , multiple other world federalist organizations were founded, especially in the United States. Inspired by Clarence Streit 's Union Now , Harris Wofford Jr. founded

9880-581: The PCF a year later. In 1936, the independence-minded Algerian Communist Party (PCA) was founded, and Camus joined it after his mentor Grenier advised him to do so. Camus's main role within the PCA was to organise the Théâtre du Travail ('Workers' Theatre'). Camus was also close to the Parti du Peuple Algérien ( Algerian People's Party [PPA]), which was a moderate anti-colonialist/nationalist party. As tensions in

10032-550: The Philippines (6%), Pakistan (6%), Nigeria (4%), and Bangladesh (4%). By 2021, the number of new cases each year was decreasing by around 2% annually. About 80% of people in many Asian and African countries test positive, while 5–10% of people in the United States test positive via the tuberculin test. Tuberculosis has been present in humans since ancient times . Tuberculosis has existed since antiquity . The oldest unambiguously detected M. tuberculosis gives evidence of

10184-686: The Red Cross , the Telegraphic Union , the Universal Postal Union and the Inter-Parliamentary Union with the goal of serving as "an international congress which should meet periodically to discuss international questions". The Campaign for World Government was founded in 1937 by pacifists and feminists Rosika Schwimmer and Lola Maverick Lloyd . The campaign aimed to learn from the weaknesses of

10336-514: The Right Side ). Both were published by Edmond Charlot 's small publishing house. Camus separated his work into three cycles. Each cycle consisted of a novel, an essay, and a play. The first was the cycle of the absurd consisting of L'Étranger , Le Mythe de Sysiphe , and Caligula . The second was the cycle of the revolt which included La Peste ( The Plague ), L'Homme révolté ( The Rebel ), and Les Justes ( The Just Assassins ). The third,

10488-544: The States a higher degree of power and freedom in which countries preserve their sovereignty, relinquishing to the federal authority only the powers to manage and regulate intergovernmental relationships. The European Union can be considered an example of such system of government, because its Member States preserve their sovereignty even though they relinquish part of it to the community's authorities in specific matters. World federalism has evolved from more general proposals for

10640-443: The United Nations organization is reserved for states, not individuals (see World Citizenship ). A unitary world government would consist of a single, central government body with supreme sovereignty. While administrative subdivisions might exist, their powers are delegated by the central government. In a world federation based on subsidiarity, the delegation is the other way round, from local to central. Global federal government

10792-460: The United Nations was first planned. The rise of nationalism and the growing threat of fascism in Europe caused a resurgence of the idea of a unified world under democratic principles. With the release of the book Union Now , Clarence Streit proposed a political union of democratic nations. The United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Ireland, France, Belgium,

10944-584: The United States and Latin America during two separate trips. He also visited Algeria once more, only to leave disappointed by the continued oppressive colonial policies, which he had warned about many times. During this period he completed the second cycle of his work, with the essay L'Homme révolté ( The Rebel ). Camus attacked totalitarian communism while advocating libertarian socialism and anarcho-syndicalism . Upsetting many of his colleagues and contemporaries in France with his rejection of communism ,

11096-755: The United States was not liberal. His critique of the Soviet Union caused him to clash with others on the political left, most notably with his on-again/off-again friend Jean-Paul Sartre. Active in the French Resistance to the Nazi occupation of France during World War II, Camus wrote for and edited the Resistance journal Combat . Of the French collaboration with the German occupiers, he wrote: "Now

11248-439: The abyss of total war. I call upon you no longer to deceive us by this illusion of political authority. I call upon you to convene forthwith a World Constitutional Assembly to raise the standard around which all men can gather, the standard of true peace, of One Government for One World." Prominent people, such as Albert Camus , André Breton , Albert Schweitzer and Albert Einstein publicly supported Garry Davis, fueling

11400-688: The active disease. Use of certain medications, such as corticosteroids and infliximab (an anti-αTNF monoclonal antibody), is another important risk factor, especially in the developed world . Other risk factors include: alcoholism , diabetes mellitus (3-fold increased risk), silicosis (30-fold increased risk), tobacco smoking (2-fold increased risk), indoor air pollution , malnutrition, young age, recently acquired TB infection, recreational drug use, severe kidney disease, low body weight, organ transplant, head and neck cancer, and genetic susceptibility (the overall importance of genetic risk factors remains undefined ). Tobacco smoking increases

11552-715: The age of 46, in a car accident near Sens , in Le Grand Fossard in the small town of Villeblevin . He had spent the New Year's holiday of 1960 at his house in Lourmarin , Vaucluse with his family, and his publisher Michel Gallimard of Éditions Gallimard , along with Gallimard's wife, Janine, and daughter, Anne. Camus's wife and children went back to Paris by train on 2 January, but Camus decided to return in Gallimard's luxurious Facel Vega FV2 . The car crashed into

11704-554: The air when people who have active TB in their lungs cough, spit, speak, or sneeze . People with latent TB do not spread the disease. Active infection occurs more often in people with HIV/AIDS and in those who smoke . Diagnosis of active TB is based on chest X-rays , as well as microscopic examination and culture of bodily fluids. Diagnosis of latent TB relies on the tuberculin skin test (TST) or blood tests. Prevention of TB involves screening those at high risk, early detection and treatment of cases, and vaccination with

11856-458: The arrival of streptomycin and other antibiotics, although the disease remained a significant threat. In 1946, the development of the antibiotic streptomycin made effective treatment and cure of TB a reality. Prior to the introduction of this medication, the only treatment was surgical intervention, including the " pneumothorax technique", which involved collapsing an infected lung to "rest" it and to allow tuberculous lesions to heal. Because of

12008-575: The bacillus causing tuberculosis, M. tuberculosis , on 24 March 1882. In 1905, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for this discovery. In Europe, rates of tuberculosis began to rise in the early 1600s to a peak level in the 1800s, when it caused nearly 25% of all deaths. In the 18th and 19th century, tuberculosis had become epidemic in Europe , showing a seasonal pattern. Tuberculosis caused widespread public concern in

12160-423: The bacterium is enveloped by the macrophage and stored temporarily in a membrane-bound vesicle called a phagosome. The phagosome then combines with a lysosome to create a phagolysosome. In the phagolysosome, the cell attempts to use reactive oxygen species and acid to kill the bacterium. However, M. tuberculosis has a thick, waxy mycolic acid capsule that protects it from these toxic substances. M. tuberculosis

12312-479: The basis for his later novels. In 1938, Camus began working for the leftist newspaper Alger républicain (founded by Pascal Pia ), as he had strong anti-fascist feelings, and the rise of fascist regimes in Europe was worrying him. By then, Camus had developed strong feelings against authoritarian colonialism as he witnessed the harsh treatment of the Arabs and Berbers by French authorities. Alger républicain

12464-610: The book brought about the final split with Sartre. His relations with the Marxist Left deteriorated further during the Algerian War . Camus was a strong supporter of European integration in various marginal organisations working towards that end. In 1944, he founded the Comité français pour la féderation européenne ('French Committee for the European Federation' [CFFE]), declaring that Europe "can only evolve along

12616-425: The cattle and human tuberculosis diseases were similar, which delayed the recognition of infected milk as a source of infection. During the first half of the 1900s, the risk of transmission from this source was dramatically reduced after the application of the pasteurization process. Koch announced a glycerine extract of the tubercle bacilli as a "remedy" for tuberculosis in 1890, calling it "tuberculin". Although it

12768-416: The classical Marxist view that historical material relations define morality. Camus was also strongly critical of Marxism–Leninism , especially in the case of the Soviet Union, which he considered totalitarian . Camus rebuked those sympathetic to the Soviet model and their "decision to call total servitude freedom". A proponent of libertarian socialism , he stated that the Soviet Union was not socialist and

12920-439: The consequences of totalitarianism. Camus began his work on the second cycle while he was in Algeria, in the last months of 1942, just as the Germans were reaching North Africa. In the second cycle, Camus used Prometheus , who is depicted as a revolutionary humanist, to highlight the nuances between revolution and rebellion. He analyses various aspects of rebellion, its metaphysics, its connection to politics, and examines it under

13072-498: The core of world federalism, which are commonly seen as safeguards against tyranny and oppression in nation states. Realizing the inherent risks of the concentration of power, world federalists advocate a vertical separation of powers between different levels of government ( subsidiarity ), horizontal separation of powers between different government branches ( checks and balances ), democratic participation , and constitutionally enshrined human and civil rights . Critics argue that

13224-416: The cycle of the love, consisted of Nemesis . Each cycle was an examination of a theme with the use of a pagan myth and including biblical motifs. The books in the first cycle were published between 1942 and 1944, but the theme was conceived earlier, at least as far back as 1936. With this cycle, Camus aimed to pose a question on the human condition , discuss the world as an absurd place, and warn humanity of

13376-711: The declaration of a global health emergency by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1993. There is a popular misconception that tuberculosis is purely a disease of the lungs that manifests as coughing . Tuberculosis may infect many organs, even though it most commonly occurs in the lungs (known as pulmonary tuberculosis). Extrapulmonary TB occurs when tuberculosis develops outside of the lungs, although extrapulmonary TB may coexist with pulmonary TB. General signs and symptoms include fever, chills , night sweats, loss of appetite , weight loss, and fatigue . Significant nail clubbing may also occur. If

13528-640: The developing world. IGRA have similar limitations in those with HIV. A definitive diagnosis of TB is made by identifying M. tuberculosis in a clinical sample (e.g., sputum, pus , or a tissue biopsy ). However, the difficult culture process for this slow-growing organism can take two to six weeks for blood or sputum culture. Thus, treatment is often begun before cultures are confirmed. Nucleic acid amplification tests and adenosine deaminase testing may allow rapid diagnosis of TB. Blood tests to detect antibodies are not specific or sensitive , so they are not recommended. The Mantoux tuberculin skin test

13680-538: The disease in the remains of bison in Wyoming dated to around 17,000 years ago. However, whether tuberculosis originated in bovines, then transferred to humans, or whether both bovine and human tuberculosis diverged from a common ancestor, remains unclear. A comparison of the genes of M. tuberculosis complex (MTBC) in humans to MTBC in animals suggests humans did not acquire MTBC from animals during animal domestication, as researchers previously believed. Both strains of

13832-620: The disease, since the infectious dose of tuberculosis is very small (the inhalation of fewer than 10 bacteria may cause an infection). People with prolonged, frequent, or close contact with people with TB are at particularly high risk of becoming infected, with an estimated 22% infection rate. A person with active but untreated tuberculosis may infect 10–15 (or more) other people per year. Transmission should occur from only people with active TB – those with latent infection are not thought to be contagious. The probability of transmission from one person to another depends upon several factors, including

13984-463: The emergence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB), surgery has been re-introduced for certain cases of TB infections. It involves the removal of infected chest cavities ("bullae") in the lungs to reduce the number of bacteria and to increase exposure of the remaining bacteria to antibiotics in the bloodstream. Hopes of eliminating TB ended with the rise of drug-resistant strains in the 1980s. The subsequent resurgence of tuberculosis resulted in

14136-428: The establishment of a world federal government is the crucial problem of our time. Until it is solved, all other issues, whether national or international, will remain unsettled. It is not between free enterprise and planned economy, nor between capitalism and communism that the choice lies, but between federalism and power politics. Federalism alone can assure the survival of man. The United World Federalists emerged as

14288-559: The experience of the Absurd. Aspects of the notion of the Absurd can also be found in The Plague . Camus follows Sartre's definition of the Absurd: "That which is meaningless. Thus man's existence is absurd because his contingency finds no external justification". The Absurd is created because man, who is placed in an unintelligent universe, realises that human values are not founded on a solid external component; as Camus himself explains,

14440-569: The first genuine success in immunization against tuberculosis in 1906, using attenuated bovine-strain tuberculosis. It was called bacille Calmette–Guérin (BCG). The BCG vaccine was first used on humans in 1921 in France, but achieved widespread acceptance in the US, Great Britain, and Germany only after World War II. By the 1950s mortality in Europe had decreased about 90%. Improvements in sanitation, vaccination, and other public-health measures began significantly reducing rates of tuberculosis even before

14592-461: The goddess Nemesis , the Greek and Roman goddess of Revenge. Two of Camus's works were published posthumously. The first entitled La mort heureuse ( A Happy Death ) (1971) is a novel that was written between 1936 and 1938. It features a character named Patrice Mersault, comparable to The Stranger ' s Meursault. There is scholarly debate about the relationship between the two books. The second

14744-601: The groundwork for a Federation of Nations with democratic elections. The pamphlet further includes several policy suggestions, e.g., universal membership, direct representation, separation of powers, abolition of military forces, standardization of an international date system, the peaceful transfer of people out of population-dense regions, and a combined global free-trade and command economy. Advocacy tactics involved congressional testimony, lobbying of legislators, national letter-writing campaigns, and participation in world government conferences. The campaign succeeded in motivating

14896-431: The host's immune system. Macrophages and dendritic cells in the granulomas are unable to present antigen to lymphocytes; thus the immune response is suppressed. Bacteria inside the granuloma can become dormant, resulting in latent infection. Another feature of the granulomas is the development of abnormal cell death ( necrosis ) in the center of tubercles . To the naked eye, this has the texture of soft, white cheese and

15048-535: The idea and was publicly endorsed by Albert Einstein . In 1947, the Committee to Frame a World Constitution was founded, releasing " The Preliminary Draft of a World Constitution " in 1948. Also in 1947, over 50 world federalist organizations formulated the Montreux Declaration, encapsulating the demands of the world federalist movement in light of WWII: We world federalists are convinced that

15200-400: The infected macrophages. When other macrophages attack the infected macrophage, they fuse together to form a giant multinucleated cell in the alveolar lumen. The granuloma may prevent dissemination of the mycobacteria and provide a local environment for interaction of cells of the immune system. However, more recent evidence suggests that the bacteria use the granulomas to avoid destruction by

15352-439: The infection spreads outside the lungs, causing other kinds of TB. These are collectively denoted as extrapulmonary tuberculosis. Extrapulmonary TB occurs more commonly in people with a weakened immune system and young children. In those with HIV, this occurs in more than 50% of cases. Notable extrapulmonary infection sites include the pleura (in tuberculous pleurisy), the central nervous system (in tuberculous meningitis ),

15504-613: The infection waxes and wanes. Tissue destruction and necrosis are often balanced by healing and fibrosis . Affected tissue is replaced by scarring and cavities filled with caseous necrotic material. During active disease, some of these cavities are joined to the air passages ( bronchi ) and this material can be coughed up. It contains living bacteria and thus can spread the infection. Treatment with appropriate antibiotics kills bacteria and allows healing to take place. Upon cure, affected areas are eventually replaced by scar tissue. Diagnosing active tuberculosis based only on signs and symptoms

15656-410: The lens of modernity, historicity , and the absence of a God. After receiving the Nobel Prize, Camus gathered, clarified, and published his pacifist leaning views at Actuelles III: Chronique algérienne 1939–1958 ( Algerian Chronicles ). He then decided to distance himself from the Algerian War as he found the mental burden too heavy. He turned to theatre and the third cycle which was about love and

15808-644: The literary essay The Myth of Sisyphus , his major work on the subject. In 1942, he published the story of a man living an absurd life in The Stranger . He also wrote a play about the Roman emperor Caligula , pursuing an absurd logic, which was not performed until 1945. His early thoughts appeared in his first collection of essays, Betwixt and Between , in 1937. Absurd themes were expressed with more sophistication in his second collection of essays, Noces ( Nuptials ) in 1938. In these essays, Camus reflects on

15960-496: The main advocacy group for world federalism in the United States after WWII. The United World Federalists was a non-partisan, non-profit organization with members in forty-eight states, founded in Asheville , North Carolina on February 23, 1947, as the result of a merger of five existing world government groups: Americans United for World Government; World Federalists, U.S.A.; Student Federalists; Georgia World Citizens Committee; and

16112-537: The middle and upper classes offered excellent care and constant medical attention. What later became known as the Alexandra Hospital for Children with Hip Disease (tuberculous arthritis) was opened in London in 1867. Whatever the benefits of the "fresh air" and labor in the sanatoria, even under the best conditions, 50% of those who entered died within five years ( c. 1916). Robert Koch did not believe

16264-510: The more generic concept of world government, world federalism describes a specific form of global governance, i.e., that of a federal, democratic world republic. The difference between world federalism and other types of global governance are outlined below. The United Nations is not a legislative body and is thus limited to a mostly advisory role. Its stated purpose is to foster cooperation between existing national governments rather than exert authority over them. Furthermore, membership of

16416-432: The most undesirable outcomes, world federalism instead is a realistic extension of the proven concepts of rule of law and liberal democracy to the global level. Critics argue that a concentration of power on a global level would raise the risks and probability of tyranny, deterioration of human rights, and cultural homogenization. Proponents of world federalism point out that democratic and republican principles are at

16568-451: The nation. Different forms of federalism can be applied at the global level. Traditional federalism is the model adopted by the United States, in which the States relinquish their sovereignty to the federal government, which in turn represents them in front of other nations. It constitutes a centralized model of world federalism. The most decentralized model of world federalism is the confederation of States, or world confederalism, which gives

16720-596: The newly infected person becomes infectious enough to transmit the disease to others. A number of factors make individuals more susceptible to TB infection and/or disease. The most important risk factor globally for developing active TB is concurrent HIV infection; 13% of those with TB are also infected with HIV. This is a particular problem in sub-Saharan Africa , where HIV infection rates are high. Of those without HIV infection who are infected with tuberculosis, about 5–10% develop active disease during their lifetimes; in contrast, 30% of those co-infected with HIV develop

16872-438: The news, my first thought, after my mother, was of you. Without you, without the affectionate hand you extended to the small poor child that I was, without your teaching and example, none of all this would have happened. In a letter dated 30 April 1959, Germain lovingly reciprocated the warm feelings towards his former pupil, calling him "my little Camus". In 1930, at the age of 17, he was diagnosed with tuberculosis . Because it

17024-599: The number of infectious droplets expelled by the carrier, the effectiveness of ventilation, the duration of exposure, the virulence of the M. tuberculosis strain , the level of immunity in the uninfected person, and others. The cascade of person-to-person spread can be circumvented by segregating those with active ("overt") TB and putting them on anti-TB drug regimens. After about two weeks of effective treatment, subjects with nonresistant active infections generally do not remain contagious to others. If someone does become infected, it typically takes three to four weeks before

17176-456: The only moral value is courage, which is useful here for judging the puppets and chatterboxes who pretend to speak in the name of the people." After France's liberation, Camus remarked: "This country does not need a Talleyrand , but a Saint-Just ." The reality of the postwar tribunals soon changed his mind: Camus publicly reversed himself and became a lifelong opponent of capital punishment. Camus had anarchist sympathies, which intensified in

17328-556: The paper after the liberation of France, composing almost daily editorials under his real name. During that period he composed four Lettres à un Ami Allemand ('Letters to a German Friend'), explaining why resistance was necessary. After the War, Camus lived in Paris with Faure, who gave birth to twins, Catherine and Jean, in 1945. Camus was now a celebrated writer known for his role in the Resistance. He gave lectures at various universities in

17480-421: The participation of the United States in a world federal government". Multiple other state legislatures introduced or debated the same proposal. These resolutions were part of this effort. During the 81st United States Congress (1949-1952), multiple resolutions were introduced favoring a world federation. In 1948, Garry Davis entered a meeting of the newly founded United Nations General Assembly, in which

17632-504: The path of economic progress, democracy, and peace if the nation-states become a federation." In 1947–48, he founded the Groupes de Liaison Internationale (GLI), a trade union movement in the context of revolutionary syndicalism ( syndicalisme révolutionnaire ). His main aim was to express the positive side of surrealism and existentialism, rejecting the negativity and the nihilism of André Breton. Camus also raised his voice against

17784-412: The practical implementation of world federalist goals. A comprehensive analysis and a roadmap to world federalism is presented in the book World Federalist Manifesto, Guide to Political Globalization, in which the author presents a model of world federalism divided into international legislative, executive, judicial and financial branches and the world government shares the authority with Member States, in

17936-457: The problems world federalism proposes to solve (e.g. climate change, war, pandemics, hunger) are too big to be solved by political means only, i.e. even if a world federation existed, it would not be capable of alleviating these issues. World federalists argue that these issues originate from the insistence on national sovereignty and the lack of democratic structures at the global level. Effective global governance could therefore deal directly with

18088-444: The resolution at the 1938 New York State Constitutional Convention encouraging President Roosevelt to call a world constitutional convention , and several Congressional resolutions and bills, including the "Alexander Peace Bill" (H.J.R. 610, 76th Cong. (1940)), and the "Tenerowicz Peace Bill" (H.J.R. 131, 77th Cong. (1941)). The organization was also one of the few independent observers of the 1944 Dumbarton Oaks conference at which

18240-519: The response as reactionary and a result of a colonialist attitude. Camus was sharply critical of the proliferation of nuclear weapons and the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . In the 1950s, Camus devoted his efforts to human rights. In 1952, he resigned from his work for UNESCO when the UN accepted Spain, under the leadership of the caudillo General Francisco Franco , as a member. Camus maintained his pacifism and resisted capital punishment anywhere in

18392-435: The risk of developing active TB increases to nearly 10% a year. If effective treatment is not given, the death rate for active TB cases is up to 66%. TB infection begins when the mycobacteria reach the alveolar air sacs of the lungs, where they invade and replicate within endosomes of alveolar macrophages . Macrophages identify the bacterium as foreign and attempt to eliminate it by phagocytosis . During this process,

18544-414: The risk of infections (in addition to increasing the risk of active disease and death). Additional factors increasing infection susceptibility include young age. About 90% of those infected with M. tuberculosis have asymptomatic , latent TB infections (sometimes called LTBI), with only a 10% lifetime chance that the latent infection will progress to overt, active tuberculous disease. In those with HIV,

18696-405: The root cause of these problems. Tuberculosis Tuberculosis ( TB ), also known colloquially as the " white death ", or historically as consumption , is an infectious disease usually caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) bacteria . Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs , but it can also affect other parts of the body. Most infections show no symptoms, in which case it

18848-407: The simplistic morality of football contradicted the complicated morality imposed by authorities such as the state and church. In 1934, Camus was in a relationship with Simone Hié. Simone had an addiction to morphine , a drug she used to ease her menstrual pains. His uncle Gustave did not approve of the relationship, but Camus married Hié to help her fight the addiction. He subsequently discovered she

19000-569: The sudden public interest in the idea. The first meeting of the World Citizens' Movement in Paris a month after his speech gathered 25,000 people. Garry Davis founded the World Service Authority , promoting the idea of world citizenship . Over 750,000 people from over 150 countries registered as world citizens between 1948 and 1950, and over 300 cities declared themselves as world citizen communities. Davis further founded

19152-465: The test's usefulness as a screening tool. Several vaccines are being developed. Intradermal MVA85A vaccine in addition to BCG injection is not effective in preventing tuberculosis. Public health campaigns which have focused on overcrowding, public spitting and regular sanitation (including hand washing) during the 1800s helped to either interrupt or slow spread which when combined with contact tracing, isolation and treatment helped to dramatically curb

19304-729: The theatre once more. Financed by the money he received with his Nobel Prize, he adapted and directed for the stage Dostoyevsky's novel Demons . The play opened in January 1959 at the Antoine Theatre in Paris and was a critical success. During these years, he published posthumously the works of the philosopher Simone Weil , in the series "Espoir" ('Hope') which he had founded for Éditions Gallimard . Weil had great influence on his philosophy, since he saw her writings as an "antidote" to nihilism . Camus described her as "the only great spirit of our times". Camus died on 4 January 1960 at

19456-565: The top of the lung. This hematogenous transmission can also spread infection to more distant sites, such as peripheral lymph nodes, the kidneys, the brain, and the bones. All parts of the body can be affected by the disease, though for unknown reasons it rarely affects the heart , skeletal muscles , pancreas , or thyroid . Tuberculosis is classified as one of the granulomatous inflammatory diseases. Macrophages , epithelioid cells , T lymphocytes , B lymphocytes , and fibroblasts aggregate to form granulomas, with lymphocytes surrounding

19608-467: The transmission of both tuberculosis and other airborne diseases which led to the elimination of tuberculosis as a major public health issue in most developed economies. Other risk factors which worsened TB spread such as malnutrition were also ameliorated, but since the emergence of HIV a new population of immunocompromised individuals was available for TB to infect. During the HIV/AIDS epidemic in

19760-695: The tuberculosis bacteria share a common ancestor, which could have infected humans even before the Neolithic Revolution . Skeletal remains show some prehistoric humans (4000 BC ) had TB, and researchers have found tubercular decay in the spines of Egyptian mummies dating from 3000 to 2400 BC. Genetic studies suggest the presence of TB in the Americas from about AD 100. Before the Industrial Revolution , folklore often associated tuberculosis with vampires . When one member of

19912-590: The umbrella organization for world federalist advocacy, albeit its focus has shifted away from its original core issue towards projects like Responsibility to Protect and the Coalition for the International Criminal Court . There are a number of proposals for the establishment of a world federation: Reform of the UN and existing international institutions: Regional Unification: Other: Numerous books and articles have been written on

20064-448: The urgent need for international cooperation and the establishment of a world government . In the year 1948, Einstein invited United World Federalists, Inc. (UWF) president Cord Meyer to a meeting of ECAS and joined UWF as a member of the advisory board. Einstein and ECAS assisted UEF in fundraising and provided supporting material. Einstein described United World Federalists as: "the group nearest to our aspirations". There

20216-494: The world, which are in economic and political competition with each other. Critics argue that world federalism is thus an unreachable utopia. Proponents of world federalism point to existential crises, such as climate change, war and pandemics, which make global coordination necessary and inevitable. An argument revolving around political realism asserts that, while conventional approaches ( diplomacy , deterrence , disarmament , international organizations, etc.) have not avoided

20368-731: The world. He wrote an essay against capital punishment in collaboration with Arthur Koestler , the writer, intellectual, and founder of the League Against Capital Punishment entitled Réflexions sur la peine capitale ('Reflections on Capital Punishment'), published by Calmann-Levy in 1957. Along with Albert Einstein , Camus was one of the sponsors of the Peoples' World Convention (PWC), also known as Peoples' World Constituent Assembly (PWCA), which took place between 1950 and 1951 at Palais Electoral in Geneva , Switzerland. Born in Algeria to French parents, Camus

20520-563: Was French with Balearic Spanish ancestry. She was deaf and illiterate. He never knew his father, Lucien Camus, a poor French agricultural worker killed in action while serving with a Zouave regiment in October 1914, during World War I . Camus, his mother, and other relatives lived without many basic material possessions during his childhood in the Belcourt section of Algiers . Camus was a second-generation French inhabitant of Algeria, which

20672-487: Was a French citizen and enjoyed more rights than Arab and Berber Algerians under indigénat . During his childhood, he developed a love for football and swimming . Under the influence of his teacher Louis Germain, Camus gained a scholarship in 1924 to continue his studies at a prestigious lyceum (secondary school) near Algiers. Germain immediately noticed his lively intelligence and his desire to learn. In middle school, he gave Camus free lessons to prepare him for

20824-414: Was a French territory from 1830 until 1962. His paternal grandfather, along with many others of his generation, had moved to Algeria for a better life during the first decades of the 19th century. Hence, he was called a pied-noir – a slang term for people of French and other European descent born in Algeria. His identity and poor background had a substantial effect on his later life. Nevertheless, Camus

20976-432: Was a criticism of various aspects of existentialism. Camus rejected existentialism as a philosophy, but his critique was mostly focused on Sartrean existentialism and – though to a lesser extent – on religious existentialism. He thought that the importance of history held by Marx and Sartre was incompatible with his belief in human freedom. David Sherman and others also suggest the rivalry between Sartre and Camus also played

21128-430: Was an unfinished novel, Le Premier homme ( The First Man , published in 1994), which Camus was writing before he died. It was an autobiographical work about his childhood in Algeria and its publication in 1994 sparked a widespread reconsideration of Camus's allegedly unrepentant colonialism. Camus was a moralist ; he claimed morality should guide politics. While he did not deny that morals change over time, he rejected

21280-420: Was banned in 1940 and Camus flew to Paris to take a new job at Paris-Soir as layout editor. In Paris, he almost completed his "first cycle" of works dealing with the absurd and the meaningless: the novel L'Étranger ( The Outsider [UK] or The Stranger [US]), the philosophical essay Le Mythe de Sisyphe ( The Myth of Sisyphus ), and the play Caligula . Each cycle consisted of a novel, an essay, and

21432-453: Was born in French Algeria to pied-noir parents. He spent his childhood in a poor neighbourhood and later studied philosophy at the University of Algiers . He was in Paris when the Germans invaded France during World War II in 1940. Camus tried to flee but finally joined the French Resistance where he served as editor-in-chief at Combat , an outlawed newspaper. After the war, he was

21584-477: Was buried in the Lourmarin Cemetery, Vaucluse, France, where he had lived. Jean-Paul Sartre read a eulogy, paying tribute to Camus's heroic "stubborn humanism". William Faulkner wrote his obituary, saying, "When the door shut for him he had already written on this side of it that which every artist who also carries through life with him that one same foreknowledge and hatred of death is hoping to do: I

21736-498: Was explicitly proposed as a means to securing world peace. A world parliament as integral part of a world republic was mentioned first by Pecqueur in 1842. The idea has been popularized by a number of prominent authors, such as Alfred Tennyson , F.A. Hayek , and H. G. Wells . The late 19th century has also seen the establishment of a number of international institutions, such as the International Committee of

21888-418: Was familiar with the institutional racism of France against Arabs and Berbers, but he was not part of a rich elite. He lived in very poor conditions as a child, but was a citizen of France and as such was entitled to citizens' rights; members of the country's Arab and Berber majority were not. Camus was a vocal advocate of the "new Mediterranean Culture". This was his vision of embracing the multi-ethnicity of

22040-589: Was here." Camus's first publication was a play called Révolte dans les Asturies ( Revolt in the Asturias ) written with three friends in May 1936. The subject was the 1934 revolt by Spanish miners that was brutally suppressed by the Spanish government, resulting in 1,500 to 2,000 deaths. In May 1937 he wrote his first book, L'Envers et l'Endroit ( Betwixt and Between , also translated as The Wrong Side and

22192-485: Was in a relationship with her doctor at the same time and the couple later divorced. Camus joined the French Communist Party (PCF) in early 1935. He saw it as a way to "fight inequalities between Europeans and 'natives' in Algeria", even though he was not a Marxist . He explained: "We might see communism as a springboard and asceticism that prepares the ground for more spiritual activities." Camus left

22344-657: Was no longer the defender of the oppressed. Camus once said that the troubles in Algeria "affected him as others feel pain in their lungs". Even though Camus is mostly connected to absurdism , he is routinely categorized as an existentialist , a term he rejected on several occasions. Camus himself said his philosophical origins lay in ancient Greek philosophy, Nietzsche, and 17th-century moralists, whereas existentialism arose from 19th- and early 20th-century philosophy such as Søren Kierkegaard , Karl Jaspers , and Martin Heidegger . He also said his work, The Myth of Sisyphus ,

22496-478: Was not effective, it was later successfully adapted as a screening test for the presence of pre-symptomatic tuberculosis. World Tuberculosis Day is marked on 24 March each year, the anniversary of Koch's original scientific announcement. When the Medical Research Council formed in Britain in 1913, it initially focused on tuberculosis research. Albert Calmette and Camille Guérin achieved

22648-463: Was slightly depressed for some time. In 1957, Camus received the news that he was to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature . This came as a shock to him; he anticipated André Malraux would win the award. At age 44, he was the second-youngest recipient of the prize, after Rudyard Kipling , who was 42. After this he began working on his autobiography Le Premier Homme ( The First Man ) in an attempt to examine "moral learning". He also turned to

22800-445: Was something that man should embrace. His opposition to Christianity and his commitment to individual moral freedom and responsibility are only a few of the similarities with other existential writers. Camus addressed one of the fundamental questions of existentialism: the problem of suicide. He wrote: "There is only one really serious philosophical question, and that is suicide." Camus viewed the question of suicide as arising naturally as

22952-564: Was successful in creating a world constitution , Constitution for the Federation of Earth and a Provisional Earth Federation. The Constitution for the Federation of Earth , drafted by international legal experts in 1968 and finalized in 1991, is a framework of a world federalist government, and its work today is being carried forward under the Provisional Earth Federation. Fourteen parliamentary sessions of

23104-486: Was the actress María Casares , who later had an affair with Camus. Camus took an active role in the underground resistance movement against the Germans during the French Occupation . Upon his arrival in Paris, he started working as a journalist and editor of the banned newspaper Combat . Camus used a pseudonym for his Combat articles and used false ID cards to avoid being captured. He continued writing for

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