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121-506: Alden Partridge (February 12, 1785 – January 17, 1854) was an American author , legislator , officer , surveyor , an early superintendent of the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York and a controversial pioneer in U.S. military education , emphasizing physical fitness training, advocating the concept of citizen soldier and establishing a series of private military academies throughout

242-430: A principal investigator (supervisor or lab head) last in an author list whereas organic chemists might have put him or her first. Research articles in high energy physics, where the author lists can number in the tens to hundreds, often list authors alphabetically. In the academic fields of economics, business, finance or particle physics , it is also usual to sort the authors alphabetically. Three main questions shape

363-562: A 150-mile hike from Norwich to Manchester in just four days. Awarded an honorary master's degree from Dartmouth in 1812, Partridge received the same honor from the University of Vermont in 1821, but he declined that institution's offer the same year to become its president. Partridge founded 17 military institutions during his quest to reform the fledgling United States military, including: The American Literary, Scientific, and Military Academy at Middletown, Connecticut (1824-1831),

484-465: A Minuteman regiment Colonel Ebenezer Bridge. Colonel William Prescott's Middlesex regiment had not yet split and had ten companies of militia and seven of minutemen. Worcester County had managed to already complete the organization and staffing of three Minuteman regiments by April 1775. In August 1636, the first offensive military attack by militias failed when Massachusetts dispatched John Endecott with four companies on an unsuccessful campaign against

605-551: A battle. Officers were elected by popular vote, as in the rest of the militia, and each unit drafted a formal written covenant to be signed upon enlistment. The militia in the New England colonies were organized in regiments by county. The militia and minutemen companies still were organized by town and trained typically as an entire unit in each town two to four times a year with the Minutemen receiving extra training. From

726-510: A bill. As a result, resisting legislators, including Samuel Adams being among the leaders, set up Committees of Correspondence in parallel with their fellow Patriots in Connecticut , New Hampshire , and Rhode Island that recommended that the militia increase in size and reorganize and form special companies of minutemen, who should be equipped and prepared to march at the shortest notice. These minutemen were to comprise one-quarter of

847-510: A bounty which paid 10 shillings each for the scalps of Indians. In 1703, snowshoes were issued to militiamen and bounty hunters to make winter raids on the Indians more effective. The minuteman concept was advanced by the snow shoe men. The Minutemen always kept in touch with the political situation in Boston and their own towns. From 1629 to 1683, the towns had controlled themselves but in 1689,

968-636: A commercial sponsor. Examples include the case of Professor Geoffrey Chamberlain named as guest author of papers fabricated by Malcolm Pearce, (Chamberlain was exonerated from collusion in Pearce's deception) and the co-authors of Jan Hendrik Schön at Bell Laboratories . More recent cases include Charles Nemeroff , former editor-in-chief of Neuropsychopharmacology , and the so-called Sheffield Actonel affair. Additionally, authors are expected to keep all study data for later examination even after publication. Both scientific and academic censure can result from

1089-457: A concept of a rapid responder that never came to fruition because the legislation in the Colony of Massachusetts House of Representatives was never passed because the war ended. Members of the minutemen, in contrast to the regular militia, were no more than 30 years old, and were chosen for their enthusiasm, political reliability, and strength. They were the first armed militia to arrive at or await

1210-400: A decision criterion for success create a zero-sum h {\displaystyle h} -index ranking game , where the rational strategy includes maximizing the number of coauthors up to the majority of the researchers in a field. Data of 189 thousand publications showed that the coauthors' number is strongly correlated with h {\displaystyle h} -index. Hence,

1331-477: A failure to keep primary data; the case of Ranjit Chandra of Memorial University of Newfoundland provides an example of this. Many scientific journals also require that authors provide information to allow readers to determine whether the authors may have commercial or non-commercial conflicts of interest . Outlined in the author disclosure statement for the American Journal of Human Biology , this

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1452-613: A financial subscription of local residents as an inducement to relocate his academy. Partridge moved the school, and in Middletown, it drew nearly 1,200 students in three years, but the academy was operating again in Norwich by 1829. The curriculum Partridge advanced incorporated the study of liberal arts, agriculture, modern languages, and engineering in addition to the sciences and various military subjects. Field exercises and drills, for which Partridge borrowed cannon and muskets from

1573-467: A long history of designating a portion of their militia as minutemen, with "minute companies" constituting special units within the militia system whose members underwent additional training and held themselves ready to respond at a minute's notice to emergencies, which gave rise to their name as Minutemen. The immediate predecessor to the organized Minuteman concept colony-wide was the Picket Guard,

1694-529: A long publication list and thus have little motivation to give up honorary authorships. A possible measure against honorary authorships has been implemented by some scientific journals, in particular by the Nature journals. They demand that each new manuscript must include a statement of responsibility that specifies the contribution of every author. The level of detail varies between the disciplines. Senior persons may still make some vague claim to have "supervised

1815-436: A new program of regional military instruction and began a lifelong campaign in opposition to the existing national military academy system which would shape the rest of his life. Partridge argued that the national academies produced a professional officer class, and was creating a new military elite, which was at odds with examples of the country's great generals, such as George Washington and Andrew Jackson . Partridge proposed

1936-644: A number of reasons. Historically some authors have published anonymously to shield themselves when presenting controversial claims. A key example is Robert Chambers ' anonymous publication of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation , a speculative, pre-Darwinian work on the origins of life and the cosmos. The book argued for an evolutionary view of life in the same spirit as the late Frenchman Jean-Baptiste Lamarck . Lamarck had long been discredited among intellectuals by this time and evolutionary (or development) theories were exceedingly unpopular, except among

2057-418: A paper that they do not completely understand or with which they were not intimately involved. Numerous guidelines and customs specify that all co-authors must be able to understand and support a paper's major points. In a notable case, American stem-cell researcher Gerald Schatten had his name listed on a paper co-authored with Hwang Woo-suk . The paper was later exposed as fraudulent and, though Schatten

2178-506: A paper's author list can run into the hundreds. In 1998, the Collider Detector at Fermilab (CDF) adopted a (at that time) highly unorthodox policy for assigning authorship. CDF maintains a standard author list . All scientists and engineers working at CDF are added to the standard author list after one year of full-time work; names stay on the list until one year after the worker leaves CDF. Every publication coming out of CDF uses

2299-400: A poem by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow . Although historians criticize the work as being historically inaccurate, Longfellow understood the history and manipulated it for poetic effect. The 1925 Lexington-Concord Sesquicentennial half dollar features a sculptural portrayal. The athletic teams of the University of Massachusetts-Amherst are nicknamed the Minutemen and Minutewomen . Until

2420-567: A precaution, these items were often hidden or left behind by minutemen in fields or wooded areas. Other popular concealment methods were to hide items underneath floorboards in houses and barns . The Minuteman model for militia mobilization married with a very professional, small standing army was the primary model for the United States' land forces up until 1916 with the establishment of the National Guard . In commemoration of

2541-530: A reputation among academy faculty as a martinet, often micromanaging subordinates, and occasionally demonstrating preference toward favorite cadets. The "Long Gray Line" tradition at West Point originated during Partridge's tenure when he had gray uniforms made in New York City in 1814 because of a shortage of blue cloth. In 1816, when the War Department decided to select a new Cadet uniform, gray

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2662-543: A substantial contribution to the research or the writing of the report, but is not listed as an author. Researchers, statisticians and writers (e.g. medical writers or technical writers ) become ghost authors when they meet authorship criteria but are not named as an author. Writers who work in this capacity are called ghostwriters . Ghost authorship has been linked to partnerships between industry and higher education. Two-thirds of industry-initiated randomized trials may have evidence of ghost authorship. Ghost authorship

2783-709: A total of 41,021 patients. There were 972 authors listed in an appendix and authorship was assigned to a group. In 2015, an article in high-energy physics was published describing the measurement of the mass of the Higgs boson based on collisions in the Large Hadron Collider ; the article boasted 5,154 authors, the printed author list needed 24 pages. Large authors lists have attracted some criticism and are believed to negatively affect all existing ethical issues of authorship. They strain guidelines that insist that each author's role be described and that each author

2904-550: Is a policy more common in scientific fields where funding often comes from corporate sources. Authors are also commonly required to provide information about ethical aspects of research, particularly where research involves human or animal participants or use of biological material. Provision of incorrect information to journals may be regarded as misconduct. Financial pressures on universities have encouraged this type of misconduct. The majority of recent cases of alleged misconduct involving undisclosed conflicts of interest or failure of

3025-713: Is about how authorship order impacts perceived responsibility, since the order alone may not clarify individual accountability, especially when seniority or randomized listings obscure who is ultimately responsible for the work's overall integrity. Although listing authors in order of the involvement in the project seems straightforward, it often leads to conflict. A study in the Canadian Medical Association Journal found that more than two-thirds of 919 corresponding authors disagreed with their coauthors regarding contributions of each author. Authors' reputations can be damaged if their names appear on

3146-464: Is considered problematic because it may be used to obscure the participation of researchers with conflicts of interest. Litigation against the pharmaceutical company, Merck over health concerns related to use of their drug, Rofecoxib (brand name Vioxx), revealed examples of ghost authorship. Merck routinely paid medical writing companies to prepare journal manuscripts, and subsequently recruited external, academically affiliated researchers to pose as

3267-461: Is described as "a noted pedestrian" in A History of Norwich . He had reportedly already ascended Mount Monadnock and Mount Moosilauke in New Hampshire when in 1818 he walked 76 miles from Norwich to climb both Camel's Hump and Mount Mansfield in two days. It rained the entire journey, according to his journal, and while one friend joined him climbing Mansfield, he hiked the balance of

3388-632: Is named "Minutemen" to highlight the rapid deployment and mobility nature of their mission. One of the factions in Bethesda 's 2015 video game Fallout 4 , which is set in Massachusetts, is called the "Commonwealth Minutemen". The inspiration for their namesake comes from the requirement to be ready "at a minute's notice" to defend any settlement in danger. Sinclair Lewis portrays Minute Men as paramilitary forces of Buzz Windrip 's despotic government in his 1935 book It Can't Happen Here . In

3509-615: Is responsible for the validity of the whole work. Such a system treats authorship more as credit for scientific service at the facility in general rather that as an identification of specific contributions. One commentator wrote, "In more than 25 years working as a scientific editor ... I have not been aware of any valid argument for more than three authors per paper, although I recognize that this may not be true for every field." The rise of shared authorship has been attributed to Big Science —scientific experiments that require collaboration and specialization of many individuals. Alternatively,

3630-548: Is that of William Sealy Gosset , who was forced to publish his work in statistics under the pseudonym "Student" due to his employment at the Guinness brewery. Another account describes the frustration of physicists working in nuclear weapons programs at the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory – years after making a discovery they would read of the same phenomenon being "discovered" by a physicist unaware of

3751-470: Is the nation's oldest private military college, based on Partridge's model of training citizen soldiers, it became the basis for the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC). In its first four years, the nascent academy was attended by 480 students representing 21 of the 24 states, and Partridge's program seemed successful enough to attract the attention of Middletown, Connecticut , which undertook

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3872-625: Is widely asserted, the captain of the Acton militia and first to be killed in Concord during the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, but rather French used live models in the study of the anatomy and facial expression. The Minute Man statue is still the symbol of the National Guard , featured prominently on its seals. It was also the symbol of the former Boston and Maine Railroad . Minutemen are portrayed in " Paul Revere's Ride ",

3993-525: The British military buildup. They found that, "including the sick and absent, it amounted to about 17,000 men, far short of the number wanted, that the council recommended an immediate application to the New England governments to make up the deficiency", resolving to re-organize and increase the size of the militia: The Massachusetts General Assembly was stymied by Governor Hutchinson from passing

4114-616: The Dutch , Sint Eustatius , were supportive of the American revolutionaries . As a token of support, they traded gunpowder to the Colonials for other goods needed in Europe. Not only did the Minutemen have political awareness of events in New England, but also of those occurring in Europe, such as Britain's lack of allies. In 1770, Samuel Adams had begun agitating for a reform and update of

4235-670: The Massachusetts Bay Colony , all able-bodied men between the ages of 16 and 60 were required to participate in their local militia company. As early as 1645 in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, some men were selected from the general ranks of "town-based training band" to be ready for rapid deployment. Men so selected were designated as minutemen. Their companies were organized by town, so it was very common for their counterpart militia company to contain relatives and friends. Some towns in Massachusetts had

4356-544: The Nobel Prize , being accepted for research fellowships and holding positions at top universities. When each author claims each paper and each citation as his/her own, papers and citations are multiplied by the number of authors. Since it is common and rational to cite own papers more than others, a high number of coauthors increases not only the number of own papers, but also their impact. As result, game rules set by h {\displaystyle h} -index being

4477-462: The Pequot Indians. According to one account, the expedition succeeded only in killing one Indian and burning some wigwams . Weeks elapsed between the incidents that caused the march and the arrival of Endecott's men in the area. Once they got there, they did not know which Indians to fight or why. This feeble response served to encourage the Indians, and attacks increased on the settlers in

4598-544: The Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals , designation as an author must satisfy four conditions. The author must have: Acquisition of funding, or general supervision of the research group alone does not constitute authorship. Biomedical authorship is prone to various misconducts and disputes. Many authors – especially those in the middle of the byline – do not fulfill these authorship criteria. Some medical journals have abandoned

4719-579: The United States House of Representatives on five occasions between 1834 and 1840, losing each time to Whig party candidate Horace Everett . In 1837, Partridge married Ann Swasey (1810-1902), with whom he had two sons, George M. C. Partridge (1838-1855) and Henry V. Partridge (1839-1920). His widow did not remarry, and survived him by 48 years. In 1823 Partridge adopted a young Greek boy, George Colvocoresses , whom he raised and educated at Norwich University. Colvocoresses, NU Class of 1831,

4840-605: The United States Military Academy at West Point, New York in 1806, Partridge received the rank of lieutenant of engineers and an appointment at the academy as an assistant professor of mathematics . In its early days, the post served both as the academy for training prospective officers and the headquarters of the United States Army Corps of Engineers , and the superintendent was also chief of engineers . In 1808 chief engineer Jonathan Williams promoted Partridge to professor of mathematics and delegated to him

4961-629: The 2003 rebranding featuring a modernized Sam the Minuteman , the logo featured the Concord Minute Man statue prominently. The U.S. Air Force named the LGM-30 Intercontinental Ballistic Missile the "Minuteman", which was designed for rapid deployment in the event of a nuclear attack . The "Minuteman III" LGM-30G remains in service. The U.S. Navy VR-55 Fleet Logistic Support Squadron

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5082-598: The Committees of Correspondence to hold County Conventions to revamp the militia. Gage tried to seat his own court in Worcester , but the townspeople blocked the court from sitting. Two thousand militiamen marched to intimidate the judges and get them to leave. This was the first time that the militia was used by the people to block the king's representatives from acting on royal orders and against popular opinion. Gage responded by preparing to march to collect munitions from

5203-537: The Connecticut Valley. In the following year, the Province of Massachusetts Bay again put a force on the field in collaboration with Plymouth Colony and Connecticut. By the time that Plymouth had gotten their force packed and ready to march, the campaign had ended. Massachusetts Bay sent 150 militiamen, Plymouth sent 50, and Connecticut sent 90. In May 1643, a joint council was formed. They published

5324-600: The King appointed governors. By 1772, James Otis and Samuel Adams used the Town Meetings to start a Committee of Correspondence. This instigated a boycott in 1774 of British goods. The Minutemen were aware of this as well. With a rising number of Minutemen they faced another problem: a lack of gunpowder to support an army for long enough to fight a prolonged campaign against the British. The people of an island controlled by

5445-572: The Modern Languages Association nor the Chicago Manual of Style define requirements for authorship (because usually humanities works are single-authored and the author is responsible for the entire work). From the late 17th century to the 1920s, sole authorship was the norm, and the one-paper-one-author model worked well for distributing credit. Today, shared authorship is common in most academic disciplines, with

5566-504: The National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America ( PNAS ) has an editorial policy that specifies "authorship should be limited to those who have contributed substantially to the work" and furthermore, "authors are strongly encouraged to indicate their specific contributions" as a footnote . The American Chemical Society further specifies that authors are those who also "share responsibility and accountability for

5687-650: The National Scientific and Military Academy at Brandywine Springs, Delaware (1853). When John Thomas Lewis Preston worked to influence public opinion in favor of creating the Virginia Military Institute in the 1830s, Partridge assisted by providing open letters of support to members of the Virginia General Assembly and letters to the editors of Virginia newspapers. Interested in revitalizing and reforming

5808-600: The Virginia Literary, Scientific and Military Academy at Portsmouth (1839–1846), Pennsylvania Literary, Scientific, and Military Academy at Bristol (1842–1845), Pennsylvania Military Institute at Harrisburg (1845–1848), Wilmington Literary, Scientific and Military Academy at Wilmington (1846–1848), the Scientific and Military Collegiate Institute at Reading, Pennsylvania (1850–1854), Gymnasium and Military Institute at Pembroke, New Hampshire (1850–1853)

5929-467: The academy at West Point. The following is an incomplete list of his writings. Academic authorship Authorship is a primary basis that employers use to evaluate academic personnel for employment, promotion, and tenure . In academic publishing , authorship of a work is typically claimed by those making intellectual contributions to the research described in the work. However, many scholarly journals also require that potential authors contribute to

6050-547: The academy. He received a pension for his service at West Point during the War of 1812 , and after his death his wife received a pension as the widow of an 1812 veteran. In the summer of 1818 Partridge was engaged in New York City to drill and instruct a volunteer infantry company, and he gave a series of lectures on the subjects of military science, fortifications, and military education. In these lectures, Partridge advocated

6171-615: The annihilation or surrender of the original road column. While a lot of Colonial militia units did not receive either arms or uniforms and were required to equip themselves, through colonial history both the Crown and local governments had issued arms and sometimes uniforms for provincial soldiers. Many simply wore their own farmers' or workmen's clothes and, in some cases, they wore cloth hunting frocks. Many farmers who owned separate guns such as fowling pieces , and sometimes rifles (though rarer in southern New England) would use them instead of

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6292-461: The area, and the British moved on. The British then moved to Concord and faced a larger number of militia. The British were rapidly outnumbered at Concord, with the arrival of the slower moving militia; they had not counted on a long fight, and so had not brought additional ammunition beyond the standard issue in the soldiers' cartridge boxes. This then forced a strategic defeat on Colonel Smith, forcing him back to Boston. A "running fight" began during

6413-553: The articles of the New England Confederation . The real power of the confederation was that all four of the colonies promised to contribute soldiers to an alert force that would fight anywhere in the colonies. On September 7, 1643, the towns were given more tactical control. A new rule allowed any general to call up his militia at any time. On August 12, 1645, 30% of all militia were made into short-notice groups (minutemen). Command and control were decentralized to

6534-470: The authors to have seen scientific data involve collaborative research between scientists and biotechnology companies. Honorary authorship is sometimes granted to those who played no significant role in the work, for a variety of reasons. Until recently, it was standard to list the head of a German department or institution as an author on a paper regardless of input. The United States National Academy of Sciences , however, warns that such practices "dilute

6655-582: The authors. Authors are sometimes included in a list without their permission. Even if this is done with the benign intention to acknowledge some contributions, it is problematic since authors carry responsibility for correctness and thus need to have the opportunity to check the manuscript and possibly demand changes. Researchers can pay to intentionally and dishonestly list themselves as authors on papers they have not contributed to, usually by using an academic paper mill which specializes in authorship sales. Authors occasionally forgo claiming authorship, for

6776-461: The barrel) gave it a much greater range than the smoothbore musket, although it took much longer to load. Because of the lower rate of fire, rifles were not used by regular infantry, but were preferred for hunting. When performing as skirmishers, the militia could fire and fall back behind cover or behind other troops, before the British could get into range. The wilderness terrain that lay just beyond many colonial towns favored this style of combat and

6897-415: The battlefield. It is a myth that the British and other professional armies of the 1700s did not practice marksmanship with their muskets; the military ammunition of the time was made for fast reloading and more than a dozen consecutive shots without cleaning. Accuracy of the musket was sacrificed for speed and repetitive loading. The militia prepared with elaborate plans to alarm and respond to movements by

7018-432: The bias against women in the sciences . She did not win the competition, but eventually her paper was published alongside the winning submissions, under her real name. Scientists and engineers working in corporate and military organizations are often restricted from publishing and claiming authorship of their work because their results are considered secret property of the organization that employs them. One notable example

7139-403: The book, the fascist-like militia is called "Minnie Mouses" by the populace. In Alan Moore 's Watchmen graphic novel the first masked vigilantes assembled are titled the Minutemen. The Minutemen was a militant anti-communist organization in the early 1960s. The Minuteman Civil Defense Corps was a militant anti-Mexican immigrants volunteer group formed in 2005. The Minuteman Project

7260-556: The centenary of the first engagement of the American Revolution, Daniel Chester French , in his first major commission, produced one of his best-known statues (along with the Lincoln Memorial ), The Minute Man . Inscribed on the pedestal is the opening stanza of Ralph Waldo Emerson 's 1837 " Concord Hymn " with the words, " Shot heard 'round the world ." The statue's likeness is not based on Isaac Davis as

7381-456: The colonial agrarian society, many were familiar with hunting. The Indian Wars , and especially the recent French and Indian War , had given colonials valuable experience in irregular warfare and skirmishing, while British line companies (light infantry and grenadier companies were called flank companies and trained in skirmishing) troops were less familiar with this. The long rifle was also well suited to this role. The rifling (grooves inside

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7502-546: The colonies were expanding, the Narragansetts got desperate and began raiding the colonists again. The militia chased the Indians, caught their chief, and got him to sign an agreement to end fighting. In 1672, the Massachusetts Council formed a military committee to control the militia in each town. In 1675, the military committee raised an expedition to fight the raiding Wampanoag tribe. A muster call

7623-599: The colonists and the Crown, it escalated them. That same month, Parliament passed "An Act for the better regulating the Government of the Province of Massachusetts-Bay" and "An Act for the more impartial administration of justice in said Province," otherwise known as the Intolerable Acts , which were designed to remove power from the towns. This brought many more citizens to Samuel Adams's side, and he pressed

7744-703: The country, including Norwich University . Alden Partridge was born and raised on a family farm in Norwich, Vermont , the son of Elizabeth (Wright) Partridge and soldier Samuel Partridge Jr., who had fought in the American Revolutionary War , including the Battles of Saratoga . Tall and hardy, the younger Partridge hiked the Green and White Mountains , worked on his father's farm, and matriculated in local district schools. He attended Dartmouth College from 1802 to 1805. Upon his graduation from

7865-400: The credit due the people who actually did the work, inflate the credentials of those so 'honored,' and make the proper attribution of credit more difficult." The extent to which honorary authorship still occurs is not empirically known. However, it is plausible to expect that it is still widespread, because senior scientists leading large research groups can receive much of their reputation from

7986-558: The criteria for authorship. Per se, this would not cause authorship issues unless the collaboration was imposed by a third party, like a supervisor or department manager, in which case it is called a coercive authorship . Still, omitting the authorship criteria by prioritizing hierarchy arguments, is an unethical practice. This kind of practices may hinder free-thinking and professional independence, and thus should be tackled by research managers, clear research guidelines and authors agreements. Ghost authorship occurs when an individual makes

8107-1170: The criteria for including or excluding individuals, they also presents challenges, such as ethical concerns over credit and responsibility, legal issues related to copyright , and technical difficulties due to the absence of persistent identifiers such as ORCID for groups. Equal co-authorship refers to crediting multiple authors as having made "equal contributions" to a paper, often as co-first or co-corresponding authors. This practice has become more common in recent years. Despite its rise, equal co-authorship presents ethical and practical challenges. For instance, it can be difficult to assess whether contributions were truly equal, and tensions might arise about whose name should appear first (the sequence of equal authors). Some argue that equal co-authorship helps resolve tensions and offers fair recognition of significant contributions, especially in collaborative projects. However, even in truly equal scenarios, one author often becomes more prominent, leading to additional complexities about authorship order and responsibilities. The inconsistent recognition of equal co-authorship by journals and academic institutions, along with

8228-562: The end of the French and Indian War , this was normal during peacetime but, in the 1770s, as friction with The Crown increased and the possibility of war became apparent, the militia trained three to four times a week. In response to these tensions, the Massachusetts Provincial legislators found that the colony's militia resources were short just before the American Revolutionary War , on October 26, 1774, after observing

8349-484: The entire standard author list, in alphabetical order. Other big collaborations, including most particle physics experiments, followed this model. In large, multi-center clinical trials authorship is often used as a reward for recruiting patients. A paper published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 1993 reported on a clinical trial conducted in 1,081 hospitals in 15 different countries, involving

8470-533: The exception of the humanities, where sole authorship is still the predominant model. Between about 1980-2010 the average number of authors in medical papers increased, and perhaps tripled. One survey found that in mathematics journals over the first decade of the 2000s, "the number of papers with 2, 3 and 4+ authors increased by approximately 50%, 100% and 200%, respectively, while single author papers decreased slightly." In particular types of research, including particle physics, genome sequencing and clinical trials,

8591-533: The expedition accompanied only by his "inseparable companions", his knapsack and barometer . He was an early traveler on a path to the summit of Mount Washington, New Hampshire that had been constructed in 1821 by the pioneering Ethan Crawford . A Democrat , Partridge served as Vermont's Surveyor General from 1822 to 1823. He also served four terms in the Vermont House of Representatives , (1833, 1834, 1837 and 1839). In addition, he ran unsuccessfully for

8712-569: The extent that individual company commanders could put their troops into a defensive battle if necessary. A portion of the militia was well trained and well equipped, and set aside as a ready force. In May 1653, the Council of Massachusetts said that an eighth of the militia should be ready to march within one day to anywhere in the colony. Eighty militiamen marched on the Narragansett tribe in Massachusetts, though no fighting took place. Since

8833-523: The federal and state governments, supplemented classroom instruction and added an element of realism to the college's program of well-rounded military education. One of America's first exercise enthusiasts, Partridge became a strong proponent of physical education as an essential part of school curriculum. As part of that program, he often led his classes on hiking expeditions in the many local mountains of New England . On one climb of Vermont's Green Mountains in 1822, Partridge led 27 pack-laden cadets on

8954-559: The first to fight in the American Revolution . Their teams constituted about a quarter of the entire militia. They were generally younger, more mobile, and provided with weapons and arms by the local governments. They were still part of the overall militia regimental organizations in the New England Colonies . The term has also been applied to various later United States civilian paramilitary forces. In

9075-430: The increase in multi-authorship is according to a game-theoretic analysis a consequence of the way scientists are evaluated. Scientists are judged by the number of papers they publish, and by the impact of those papers. Both measures are integrated into the most popular single value measure h {\displaystyle h} -index . The h {\displaystyle h} -index correlates with winning

9196-459: The king's forces out of Boston. The frequent mustering of the minute companies also built unit cohesion and familiarity with live firing, which increased the minute companies' effectiveness. The royal authorities inadvertently gave the new Minuteman mobilization plans validation by several "show the flag" demonstrations by General Gage through 1774. The royal authorities in Boston had seen these increasing numbers of militia appearing and thought that

9317-419: The lack of standardized policies, further complicates its evaluation in tenure, promotion, and funding decisions. Artificial intelligence systems have been credited with authorship on a handful of academic publications, however, many publishers disallow this on the grounds that "they cannot take responsibility for the content and integrity of scientific papers". Minutemen Minutemen were members of

9438-420: The militia and a report on the number and condition of the units' weapons. Another mission was military training to prepare the provincial soldiers for combat and the nature of that combat. Since British doctrine usually counted on the militia as augmentees to the regular forces as skirmishers and irregular auxiliaries, the provincial soldiers were more frequently trained as irregulars or skirmishers rather than in

9559-476: The militia in the provincial legislature. Hutchinson, the Royal Governor, had ignored him, but as tensions mounted, that tactic became less effective. Adams' and his like-minded friends were gaining more traction. In May 1774, Hutchinson was relieved by General Thomas Gage , the new Governor of Massachusetts , who arrived with orders to close the port of Boston. Instead of tamping down disagreement between

9680-411: The militia muskets if the muskets they bought for their duties were old or inoperative. These pieces gradually appeared in quantity, but neither fowling pieces nor rifles had bayonets . Some colonies purchased muskets, cartridge boxes, and bayonets from England, and maintained armories within the colony. Muskets were usually shipped to Crown authorities, where they became provincial arms and then sold to

9801-489: The militia would not interfere if they sent a sizable force to Concord to seize munitions and stores there (which they considered the King's property, since it was paid for to defend the colonies from the American Indian threat). The British officers were proven wrong. Shooting erupted at Lexington . There is still a debate as to whether it was a colonist or a British soldier who fired the first shot. The militia left

9922-415: The motive being that ranking officers in the militia could be considered strong Loyalists. Officers were then elected by their regiments. In turn, the officers then appointed one third of their militia regiment as Minutemen. Other counties followed Worcester's lead, electing new militia officers and appointing Minutemen. The British practiced formations with their weapons, focusing on marching formations on

10043-472: The nation be divided into state-based military departments, local citizen soldiers organized into militias and officers appointed by department, and units mustered on a regular basis for instruction and drill, much like the Minutemen of the well-remembered American Revolution . Further, he suggested military colleges for officer instruction be established in each department. Partridge was appointed chief of

10164-461: The offer of another author (honorary or not) with objectives that are beyond the research article itself or are ulterior, as promotion or favor. Guest authors are those that are included with the specific objective to increase the probability that it becomes accepted by a journal. A rolling authorship is a special case of gift authorship in which the honor is granted on the basis of previous research papers (published or not) and collaborations within

10285-448: The organized New England colonial militia companies trained in weaponry, tactics, and military strategies during the American Revolutionary War . They were known for being ready at a minute's notice, hence the name. Minutemen provided a highly mobile, rapidly deployed force that enabled the colonies to respond immediately to military threats. They were an evolution from the prior colonial rapid-response units. The minutemen were among

10406-501: The organized militia. The Continental Army regulars received European-style military training later in the American Revolutionary War, but the militias did not get much of this. Like the militia organization itself, training day had a large administrative mission. Four times each year, militia companies were legally obligated to document all persons living within their areas of responsibility who qualified for

10527-438: The original, secret discovery of the phenomenon. Satoshi Nakamoto is a pseudonym of a still unknown author or authors' group behind a white paper about bitcoin . Group authorship, also known as corporate, team, or consortium authorship, involves listing a collective entity (e.g., team, project, corporation, or consortium) as the author in the byline. While group authorships can reduce conflicts over authorship order and

10648-518: The political radicals, materialists, and atheists – Chambers hoped to avoid Lamarck's fate. In the 18th century, Émilie du Châtelet began her career as a scientific author by submitting a paper in an annual competition held by the French Academy of Sciences ; papers in this competition were submitted anonymously. Initially presenting her work without claiming authorship allowed her to have her work judged by established scientists while avoiding

10769-555: The project", for example, even if they were only in the formal position of a supervisor without having delivered concrete contributions. (The truth content of such statements is usually not checked by independent persons.) However, the need to describe contributions can at least be expected to somewhat reduce honorary authorships. In addition, it may help to identify the perpetrator in a case of scientific fraud. More specific types of honorary authorship are gift, guest and rolling authorship. Gift authorship consists of authorship obtained by

10890-557: The provincials. For 50 miles around Boston, militiamen were marching in response. By noon the next day, almost 4,000 people were on the common in Cambridge. The provincials got the judges to resign and leave. Gage backed off from trying to seat a court in Worcester. The colonials in Worcester met and came up with a new militia mobilization plan in their County Convention. The Convention required that all current militia officers resign;

11011-424: The quality and integrity of a scientific work. Rules for the order of multiple authors in a list have historically varied significantly between fields of research. Some fields list authors in order of their degree of involvement in the work, with the most active contributors listed first; other fields, such as mathematics or engineering, sometimes list them alphabetically. Historically, biologists tended to place

11132-525: The remainder of the American Revolution, militias moved to adopting the minuteman model for rapid mobilization. With this rapid mustering of forces, the militia proved its value by augmenting the Continental Army on a temporary basis, occasionally leading to instances of numerical superiority. This was seen at the Battles of Hubbardton and Bennington in the north and at Camden and Cowpens in

11253-537: The responsibilities of acting superintendent. Partridge set an example for physical fitness during his administration, frequently leading the cadet corps on extended marches in New York and neighboring states. Never profane or intemperate, superintendent Partridge required cadets to attend church services, occasionally preparing and delivering the sermon on Sundays. Named professor of engineers in 1813, and officially appointed as superintendent in 1814, "Old Pewt" developed

11374-473: The rest of the militia. Some also expended time, money, and effort to make sure their Minutemen were well-armed. For example, Captain Isaac Davis who was a gunsmith in his civilian occupation built a firing range on his farm to train his men in firing and drill. He also made sure that every man in his company had a good musket, cartridge box, canteen, and bayonet. This was one of the reasons that his company

11495-557: The results" and the U.S. National Academies specify "an author who is willing to take credit for a paper must also bear responsibility for its contents. Thus, unless a footnote or the text of the paper explicitly assigns responsibility for different parts of the paper to different authors, the authors whose names appear on a paper must share responsibility for all of it." In mathematics, the authors are usually listed in alphabetical order (the so-called Hardy-Littlewood Rule). The medical field defines authorship very narrowly. According to

11616-423: The retreat. Militiamen knew the local countryside and were familiar with "skulking" or "Indian warfare". They used trees and other obstacles to cover themselves from British gunfire and pursuit by British soldiers, while the militia were firing and moving. This kept the British under sporadic fire, and caused them to exhaust their limited ammunition. Only the timely arrival of a relief column under Lord Percy prevented

11737-443: The same research group. The "rolled" author may (or may not) be imposed by a superior employee for reasons that range from the research group's strategic interests, personal career interests, camaraderie or (professional) concession. For instance, a post-doc researcher in the same research group where his PhD was awarded, may be willing to roll his authorship into any subsequent paper from other researchers in that same group, overseeing

11858-440: The scholarly debate on authorship order. The first concerns the criteria for deciding the sequence of authors’ names (e.g., alphabetical order, arranging names based on the extent of contributions). The second question focuses on how power dynamics influence authorship order, as competition for prestigious positions (e.g., first or last) can create tensions and lead to unfair treatment of less powerful contributors. The third question

11979-457: The south. Cowpens is notable in that Daniel Morgan used the militia's strengths and weaknesses skilfully to attain the double-envelopment of Tarleton 's forces. Historian M. L. Brown states that some of these men mastered the difficult handling of a rifle, though few became expert. Brown quotes Continental Army soldier Benjamin Thompson, who expressed the "common sentiment" at the time, which

12100-578: The state militias, which had become increasingly dormant during the long period of peace following the War of 1812 , Partridge and Norwich University faculty members Truman B. Ransom and Alonzo Jackman , both of whom served in the militia, worked with Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire, also a militia officer, and Frederic Williams Hopkins of the Vermont militia on efforts to increase recruiting and improve training and readiness. An avid hiker , Partridge

12221-468: The statistical analysis, interpreting the results, or writing a major portion of the paper". While the APA guidelines list many other forms of contributions to a study that do not constitute authorship, it does state that combinations of these and other tasks may justify authorship. Like medicine, the APA considers institutional position, such as department chair, insufficient for attributing authorship. Neither

12342-439: The strict notion of author, with the flexible notion of contributor . The American Psychological Association (APA) has similar guidelines as medicine for authorship. The APA acknowledge that authorship is not limited to the writing of manuscripts, but must include those who have made substantial contributions to a study such as "formulating the problem or hypothesis, structuring the experimental design, organizing and conducting

12463-719: The surveying expedition to establish boundaries between the U.S. and Canada as required under the Treaty of Ghent . He mapped the natural watersheds of the Saint Lawrence River and Hudson River . Still consumed with plans for a military college based on his program, he decided to resign from the expedition in 1820, and retired to Norwich. In 1819, Partridge founded the "American Literary, Scientific, and Military Academy" in Norwich, Vermont (now known as Norwich University and located in Northfield, Vermont ). Norwich

12584-523: The system rewards heavily multi-authored papers. This problem is openly acknowledged, and it could easily be "corrected" by dividing each paper and its citations by the number of authors, though this practice has not been widely adopted. Finally, the rise in shared authorship may also reflect increased acknowledgment of the contributions of lower level workers, including graduate students and technicians, as well as honorary authorship, while allowing for such collaborations to make an independent statement about

12705-454: The text describing the results. According to some standards, even writing the entire article would not constitute authorship unless the writer was also involved in at least one other phase of the project. Guidelines for assigning authorship vary between institutions and disciplines. They may be formally defined or simply cultural norms. Incorrect assignment of authorship occasionally leads to charges of academic misconduct and sanctions for

12826-439: The total size of the militia as well. During the French and Indian Wars , the counties in the New England colonies had provided provincial regiments to the armies of the Crown. In Massachusetts, Middlesex County provided two while most had provided one (except Worcester which had provided three). The new reorganization provided six regiments of militia with a nominal strength of 9,000 men with minuteman companies being formed from

12947-530: The towns or individuals who would pay for them as only the wealthy few could purchase arms directly from arms manufacturers. On several occasions, the Crown authorities had issued muskets as recruitment tools, such as for the 1709 Quebec expedition and the 1710 Port Royal expedition. The Crown often used such opportunities to clear their storehouses of outmoded and inferior weapons, but local Crown authorities were horrified and it became more usual for provincial troops to turn in muskets unless they bought them for use in

13068-444: The traditional dense lines and columns. When used in conjunction with continental regulars, the militia would frequently fire ragged irregular volleys from a forward skirmish line or from the flanks of the Continental Army, while Continental soldiers held the center. Minutemen tended to get more training in line tactics and drill than the regular militia. Many Minutemen company commanders put their men through more training separate from

13189-543: The use of arms. More attention than formerly was likewise bestowed on the training and drilling of militia. The need for efficient minuteman companies was illustrated by the Powder Alarm of 1774. Militia companies were called out to engage British troops, who had been sent to capture ammunition stores. By the time the militia was ready, the British regulars had already captured the arms at Cambridge and Charlestown and had returned to Boston. The reorganization increased

13310-592: The violator. A 2002 survey of a large sample of researchers who had received funding from the U.S. National Institutes of Health revealed that 10% of respondents claimed to have inappropriately assigned authorship credit within the last three years. This was the first large scale survey concerning such issues. In other fields only limited or no empirical data is available. The natural sciences have no universal standard for authorship, but some major multi-disciplinary journals and institutions have established guidelines for work that they publish. The journal Proceedings of

13431-458: The whole militia, to be enlisted under the direction of the field-officers, and divide into companies, consisting of at least 50 men each. The privates were to choose their captains and subalterns, and these officers were to form the companies into battalions, and chose the field-officers to command the same. Hence the minute-men became a body distinct from the rest of the militia, and, by being more devoted to military exercises, they acquired skill in

13552-408: The writing of the article about the work, not just the work itself. Such requirements, as well as other norms around authorship in disciplines , can be controversial. In these contexts, authorship can encompass activities other than writing the article; a researcher who comes up with an experimental design and analyzes the data may be considered an author, even if she or he had little role in composing

13673-459: The younger, more physically fit men. The militia in New England was still midway through the process of splitting the Minutemen companies from the regular militia companies into their own regiments by the spring of 1775. For example, the old 2nd Middlesex Regiment of Foot, a provincial unit that had seen action in the French and Indian Wars, divided into a militia regiment under Colonel David Green and

13794-933: Was appointed to the United States Navy in 1832; from 1838 to 1842 he served in the United States Exploring Expedition , better known as the Wilkes Expedition of the Pacific Ocean . Three separate geographical features, two on the west coast of the U.S. and another in Antarctica , were named for Colvocoresses. Partridge died in Norwich on January 17, 1854. He was buried at Fairview Cemetery in Norwich. Partridge wrote widely, mostly in local newspapers and in books, about his many travels, several mathematical and scientific subjects, and his constant, vocal opposition to

13915-526: Was chosen because "it better suits the finance of the Cadets than one of blue." In other words, gray uniforms were cheaper. Partridge refused to relinquish his command when former student (but superior officer) Sylvanus Thayer was appointed to replace him as superintendent and was court-martialed for insubordination and neglect of duty. Though acquitted of serious wrongdoing, he chose to resign his commission in 1818, after having served his entire Army career at

14036-471: Was formed in which each town was required to participate. The Second Indian War broke out in 1689, and militiamen throughout the Thirteen Colonies began to muster in preparation for the fighting. In 1690, Colonel William Phips led 600 men to push back the French. Two years later he became governor of Massachusetts. When the French and Indians raided Massachusetts in 1702, Governor Phips created

14157-599: Was in the lead of Colonel Barrett's Middlesex Minutemen regiment as the Rebels marched down to face the regulars at the Old North Bridge at the Battle of Concord. There were still some cases where men in the Minuteman companies had to be provided arms. In Concord's two Minutemen companies, fifteen of the 104 still needed to be provided with muskets from the town's arsenal. Their experience suited irregular warfare. In

14278-501: Was not accused of participating in the fraud, a panel at his university found that "his failure to more closely oversee research with his name on it does make him guilty of 'research misbehavior.'" All authors, including co-authors, are usually expected to have made reasonable attempts to check findings submitted for publication. In some cases, co-authors of faked research have been accused of inappropriate behavior or research misconduct for failing to verify reports authored by others or by

14399-479: Was sent out and four days later, after harsh skirmishes with the Wampanoags, three companies arrived to help the locals. The expedition took heavy losses: two towns were raided, and one 80-man company was killed entirely, including their commander. That winter, a thousand militiamen pushed out the Wampanoags. In response to the success of the Wampanoags, in the spring of 1676 an alarm system of riders and signals

14520-484: Was that minutemen were notoriously poor marksmen with rifles: "Instead of being the best marksmen in the world and picking off every Regular that was to be seen, the continual firing which they kept up by the week and the month has had no other effect than to waste their ammunition and convince the King's troops that they are really not really so formidable." There was a shortage of ammunition and supplies, and what they had were constantly being seized by British patrols. As

14641-532: Was very familiar to the local militia. In time, however, loyalists such as John Butler and Robert Rogers mustered equally capable irregular forces ( Butler's Rangers and the Queen's Rangers , led by Englishman John Graves Simcoe ). In addition, many British commanders learned from experience and effectively modified their light infantry tactics and battle dress to suit conditions in North America. Through

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