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82-496: The recently discovered temple of the ancient storm-god Hadad dates use of the hill to the middle of the 3rd millennium BCE, as referenced in cuneiform texts from Ebla and Mari . The city became the capital of Yamhad and was known as the "City of Hadad". The temple remained in use from the 24th century BCE to at least the 9th century BCE, as evidenced by reliefs discovered at it during excavations by German archaeologist Kay Kohlmeyer. The patriarch Abraham milked his sheep on

164-564: A maqsura , denoting not only the place where the imam led prayers but also where some official functions, such as the dispensation of justice, were carried out. In the Mosque of the Prophet ( Al-Masjid al-Nabawi ) in Medina , a large block of stone initially marked the north wall which was oriented towards Jerusalem (the first qibla), but this was moved to the south wall in the second year of

246-493: A certain part of a palace , as well as "part of a temple where 𐩩𐩢𐩧𐩨 tḥrb (a certain type of visions) is obtained," from the root word 𐩢𐩧𐩨 ḥrb "to perform a certain religious ritual (which is compared to combat or fighting and described as an overnight retreat) in the 𐩣𐩢𐩧𐩨 mḥrb of the temple." It may also possibly be related to Ethiopic ምኵራብ məkʷrab "temple, sanctuary," whose equivalent in Sabaic

328-501: A common feature of Late Antique architecture prior to the rise of Islam, either as hollow spaces or to house statues . The mihrab niche could have also been related to the recessed area or alcove that sheltered the throne in some royal audience halls. The next earliest concave mihrab to be documented is the one that was added to the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus when it was built by Al-Walid between 706 and 715. This

410-665: A corruption of Migdon (Megiddo) and ultimately of Tammuz-Adon. He would render the verse, "In that day there shall be a great mourning in Jerusalem , as the mourning of the women who weep for Tammuz-Adon" ( Adon means "lord"). No further evidence has come to light to resolve such speculations. In the Books of Kings , Jezebel – the wife of the Northern Israelite King Ahab promoted the cult of Ba'al in her adopted nation. John Day argues that Jezebel's Baʿal

492-574: A day, visited the acropolis, offered a white bull to Zeus according to imperial customs, and held a short talk with the town council about worshiping the deities." Very few physical remains have been found from the Roman age in the Citadel. The Roman Empire was divided into two parts in 395 CE. Aleppo was in the eastern half, Byzantine Empire . During the clashes with the Sassanian king Khosrow II in

574-506: A great feast for the other gods. When urged by Kothar-wa-Khasis, Ba’al reluctantly opens a window in his palace and sends forth thunder and lightning. He then invites Mot (Death, the god of drought and the underworld), another son of El, to join the feast. But Mot, the eater of human flesh and blood, is insulted when offered only bread and wine. He threatens to break Ba‘al to pieces and swallow him, and even Ba‘al cannot stand against Death. Gaps here make interpretation dubious. It seems that by

656-439: A niche be made to designate the qibla wall (which identifies the direction of Mecca), which became the first concave mihrab niche. This type of mihrab was called miḥrāb mujawwaf in historical Arabic texts . The origin of this architectural feature has been debated by scholars. Some trace it to the apse of Christian churches , others to the alcove shrines or niches of Buddhist architecture . Niches were already

738-509: A political and economic renaissance. The Hamdanids built a reputedly splendid palace on the banks of the river, but moved to the Citadel after Byzantine troops sacked the city in 962 CE. A period of instability followed Hamdanid rule, marked by Byzantine and Bedouin attacks, as well as a short-term rule by the Egypt-based Fatimids . The Mirdasids were said to have converted the two churches into mosques. The citadel rose to

820-409: A result of this contemporary usage, the Citadel has received significant damage. The citadel was extensively damaged by the magnitude 7.8 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake on February 6, 2023 CE. On 17 February 2024 CE, Citadel of Aleppo was reopened after the completion of the first and second phase of the restoration of southern forward tower (the entrance to the citadel), which was greatly affected by

902-475: A special room in a house; a throne room in a palace, for example. The Fath al-Bari (p. 458), on the authority of others, suggests the mihrab is "the most honorable location of kings" and "the master of locations, the front and the most honorable." The Mosques in Islam (p. 13), in addition to Arabic sources, cites Theodor Nöldeke and others as having considered a mihrab to have originally signified

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984-484: A throne room. The term was subsequently used by the Islamic prophet Muhammad to denote his own private prayer room. The room additionally provided access to the adjacent mosque, and Muhammad entered the mosque through this room. This original meaning of mihrab  – i.e. as a special room in the house – continues to be preserved in some forms of Judaism where mihrabs are rooms used for private worship. In

1066-504: A vaulted entrance ramp, over which were machicolations for pouring hot liquids on attackers from the mezzanine above. Secret passageways wind through the complex, and the main passages are decorated with figurative reliefs. The Ayyubid block is topped by the Mamluk "Throne Hall", a hall where Mamluk sultans entertained large audiences and held official functions. Ghazi's "palace of glory" burned down on his wedding night and he escaped with

1148-541: Is 𐩣𐩫𐩧𐩨 mkrb of the same meaning, from the root word 𐩫𐩧𐩨 krb "to dedicate" (cognate with Akkadian 𒅗𒊒𒁍 karābu "to bless" and related to Hebrew כְּרוּב kerūḇ " cherub (either of the heavenly creatures that bound the Ark in the inner sanctuary )"). Arab lexicographers traditionally derive the word from the Arabic root ح ر ب (Ḥ-R-B) relating to "war, fighting or anger," (which, though cognate with

1230-437: Is appointed to take Ba‘al's place, but he is a poor substitute. Meanwhile, ‘Anat finds Mot, cleaves him with a sword, burns him with fire, and throws his remains to the birds. But the earth is still cracked with drought until Shapsh fetches Ba‘al back. Seven years later Mot returns and attacks Ba‘al, but the battle is quelled when Shapsh tells Mot that El now supports Ba’al. Mot surrenders to Ba‘al and recognizes him as king. In

1312-543: Is dead and warmth is assured. A later passage refers to Ba‘al's victory over Lotan , the many-headed sea dragon. Due to gaps in the text it is not known whether Lotan is another name for Yamm or a character in a similar story. These stories may have been allegories of crops threatened by the winds, storms, and floods from the Mediterranean sea. A palace is built for Ba‘al with silver, gold, and cedar wood from Mount Lebanon and Sirion . In his new palace Ba‘al hosts

1394-549: Is no empty space in-between the art. The mihrab in the Great Mosque of Cordoba is a highly decorated piece of art that draws one's attention. It is a contribution made by Al-Hakam II that is not just used for prayer. It is used as a place of convergence in the mosque, where visitors could be amazed by its beauty and gilded designs. The entrance is covered in mosaics "which links to the Byzantium tradition, produced by

1476-591: Is sometimes the son of Iškur and Shala. He is identified with the Anatolian storm-god Teshub , whom the Mitannians designated with the same Sumerogram IM . Occasionally he is identified with the Amorite god Amurru . The Babylonian center of Adad/Iškur's cult was Karkara in the south, his chief temple being É.Kar.kar.a ; his spouse Shala was worshipped in a temple named É.Dur.ku . In Assyria , Adad

1558-549: The hijra period (2 AH or 624 CE ), when the orientation of the qibla was changed towards Mecca. This mihrab also marked the spot where Muhammad would plant his lance ( 'anaza or ḥarba ) prior to leading prayers. During the reign of the Umayyad caliph Al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik (Al-Walid I, r. 705–715), the Mosque of the Prophet was renovated and the governor ( wāli ) of Medina, Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz , ordered that

1640-548: The Abbasids to the Great Mosque of al-Mansur in Baghdad. It was then moved again to the al-Khassaki Mosque built in the 17th century, where it was later found and transferred to the museum. This mihrab features a combination of Classical or Late Antique motifs, with the niche flanked by two spiral columns and crowned by a scalloped shell-like hood. Eventually, the niche came to be universally understood to identify

1722-739: The Amherst Papyrus , Baal Zephon (Hadad) is identified with the Egyptian god Horus : "May Baal from Zephon bless you", Amherst Papyrus 63 , 7:3 and in 11:13–14: "and from Zephon may Horus help us". Classical sources translate this name as Zeus Kasios , since in Pelusium, the statue of Zeus Kasios was considered the image of Harpocrates (Horus the Child). Zeus Casius had inherited some traits from Apollo as well. They also recall his conflict with Typhon over that mountain ( Mount Casius on

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1804-548: The Baal Cycle from Ugarit are fragmentary and assume much background knowledge. The supreme god El resides on Mount Lel (Night?) where the assembly of the gods meets. At the beginning of the cycle, there appears to a feud between El and Ba‘al. El appoints one of his sons, called both prince Yamm (Sea) and judge Nahar (River), as king over the gods and changes Yamm's name from yw to mdd ’il (darling of El). El tells his son that he will have to drive off Ba‘al to secure

1886-611: The Kaaba in Mecca towards which Muslims should face when praying. The wall in which a mihrab appears is thus the " qibla wall". The minbar , which is the raised platform from which an imam (leader of prayer) addresses the congregation, is located to the right of the mihrab . The origin of the word miḥrāb is complicated, and multiple explanations have been proposed by different sources and scholars. It may come from Old South Arabian (possibly Sabaic ) 𐩣𐩢𐩧𐩨 mḥrb meaning

1968-651: The Levant , Hadad was introduced to Mesopotamia by the Amorites , where he became known as the Akkadian ( Assyrian - Babylonian ) god Adad. Adad and Iškur are usually written with the logogram 𒀭𒅎 IM —the same symbol used for the Hurrian god Teshub . Hadad was also called Rimon/Rimmon , Pidar , Rapiu , Baal-Zephon , or often simply Baʿal (Lord), but this title was also used for other gods. The bull

2050-566: The Muslim conquest of the Levant . Written sources document repairs being made on the citadel after a major earthquake. Little is known about the citadel in the period of early Christianity and Islam, except that Aleppo was a frontier town on the edges of the Byzantine , Ummayad and Abbasid empires. Sayf al-Dawla , a Hamdanid prince, conquered the city in 944 CE, and it subsequently rose to

2132-505: The Qur'an , the word (when in conjunction with the definite article) is mostly used to indicate the Holy of Holies . The term is used, for example, in the verse "then he [i.e. Zechariah ] came forth to his people from the mihrab " . The earliest mihrabs generally consisted of a simple stripe of paint or a flat stone panel in the qibla wall. They may have originally had functions similar to

2214-709: The Syrian civil war , the citadel was a tourist attraction and a site of archaeological digs and studies. The amphitheater was often used for musical concerts or cultural events. In August 2012 CE, during the Battle of Aleppo of the Syrian Civil War , the external gate of the citadel was damaged after being shelled during a clash between the Free Syrian Army and the Syrian Army to gain control over

2296-595: The Targum , the death of Ahab at the hands of Hadadrimmon). But even before the discovery of the Ugaritic texts, some suspected that Hadad-rimmon might be a dying-and-rising god like Adonis or Tammuz , perhaps even the same as Tammuz, and the allusion could then be to mournings for Hadad such as those of Adonis festivals. T. K. Cheyne pointed out that the Septuagint reads simply Rimmon, and argues that this may be

2378-576: The mihrab does not follow the qibla direction, such as is the Masjid al-Qiblatayn , or the Mosque of the Two Qiblas, where Muhammad received the command to change the direction of prayer from Jerusalem to Mecca, thus it had two prayer niches. In 1987 the mosque was renovated, the old prayer niche facing Jerusalem was removed, and the one facing Mecca was left. Mihrabs are a relevant part of Islamic culture and mosques. Since they are used to indicate

2460-509: The mihrab of the Companions of the Prophet in the eastern half and the great mihrab at the end of the transept". The mihrab is decorated similarly to the rest of the mosque in golden vines and vegetal imagery. The lamp that once hung in the mihrab has been theorized as the motif of a pearl, due to the indications that dome of the mihrab has scalloped edges. There have been other mosques that have mihrabs similar to this that follow

2542-426: The qibla wall, and so came to be adopted as a feature in other mosques. A sign was no longer necessary. Today, mihrabs vary in size, but are usually ornately decorated. It was common for mihrabs to be flanked with pairs of candlesticks, though they would not have lit candles. In Ottoman mosques, these were made of brass, bronze or beaten copper and their bases had a distinctive bell shape. In exceptional cases,

Citadel of Aleppo - Misplaced Pages Continue

2624-659: The 7th century CE, the population of Aleppo is said to have taken refuge in the Citadel because the city wall was in a deplorable state. Currently, very few remains from the Byzantine period have been found on the Citadel Hill, although the two mosques inside the Citadel are known to be converted from churches originally built by the Byzantines. Aleppo was captured by the Arab armies in 636 CE, during

2706-816: The Egyptian Horus in that capacity (comparable to Baalshamin as well). The different interpretation could also be based on the fact that Set had been associated with Hadad by the Hyksos . Most likely originally Set referred to another deity also addressed by the title "Baal" (one of the many; an example of this would be the Baal of Tyre ) who happened to display storm-like traits especially in Egypt since they were foreign and as such duly emphasized; when instead his weather features probably weren't all that prominent in other cultures who worshipped equivalents of him, but given that

2788-534: The Egyptian land who brought their gods with them, and their main god happened to display storm-like traits and was also associated with these foreigners who came to Egypt , a characteristic that would make him similar to the perception that the Egyptians had of Set. This would once again echo the mythological motif of a previous chief of the Pantheon who gets replaced by the new generation of deities represented by

2870-551: The King of Jerusalem, Baldwin II , who was held for two years. In addition to his many works in both Aleppo and Damascus, Nur ad-Din rebuilt the Aleppo city walls and fortified the citadel. Arab sources report that he also made several other improvements, such as a high, brick-walled entrance ramp, a palace, and a racecourse likely covered with grass. Nur ad-Din additionally restored or rebuilt

2952-469: The South Arabian root, does not however carry any relation to religious rituals) thus leading some to interpret it to mean a "fortress", or "place of battle (with Satan )," the latter due to mihrabs being private prayer chambers. The latter interpretation though bears similarity to the nature of the 𐩢𐩧𐩨 ḥrb ritual. The word mihrab originally had a non-religious meaning and simply denoted

3034-533: The Syrian–Turkish border or Casion near Pelusium in Egypt). The reason why Baal could be both identified with Horus and his rival Set ; is because in Egypt the element of the storm was considered foreign as Set was a god of strangers and outsiders, thus because the Egyptians had no better alternative to identify their native god Set with another neighboring deity, they tentatively associated him with Hadad since he

3116-419: The advice of the sun goddess Shapash , Ba‘al mates with a heifer and dresses the resultant calf in his own clothes as a gift to Mot, and then himself prepares to go down to the underworld in the guise of a helpless shade. News of Ba‘al's apparent death leads even El to mourn. Ba‘al's sister ‘ Anat finds Ba‘al's corpse, presumably really the dead calf, and she buries the body with a funeral feast. The god ‘Athtar

3198-489: The ceremonies to determine the divine will: through inspecting a sacrificial animal's liver, the action of oil bubbles in a basin of water, or the movements of the heavenly bodies. They are similarly addressed in royal annals and votive inscriptions as bele biri (lords of divination). In religious texts, Ba‘al /Hadad is the lord of the sky who governs rain and crops, master of fertility and protector of life and growth. His absence brings drought, starvation, and chaos. Texts of

3280-524: The citadel as a defense fortress slowly diminished as the city began to grow outside the city walls and was taking its form as a commercial metropolis. The Citadel was still used as a barracks for Ottoman soldiers, although it is not known exactly how many were stationed there. An anonymous Venetian traveler mentions some 2,000 people living in the Citadel in 1556 CE. In 1679 CE, the French consul d’Arvieux reports 1,400 people there, 350 of whom were Janissaries,

3362-767: The citadel hill. After the decline of the Neo-Hittite Empire centered in Aleppo, the Neo-Assyrian Empire ruled the area (8th–7th century BCE), followed by the Neo-Babylonian Empire and the Achaemenid Empire (539–333 BCE). After Aleppo was conquered by the armies of Alexander the Great , the area was ruled by Seleucus I Nicator , who undertook the revival of the city under the name Beroia. Medieval Arab historians say that

Citadel of Aleppo - Misplaced Pages Continue

3444-581: The citadel. In July 2015 CE, a bomb was set off in a tunnel under one of the outer walls causing further damage to the citadel, in an attempt for the Free Syrian Army to dislodge the Syrian Army. During the conflict, the Syrian Army used the Citadel as a military base, and according to the opposition fighters, with the walls acting as cover while shelling surrounding areas and ancient arrow slits in walls being used by snipers to target rebels. As

3526-460: The conflict but is defeated, at which point unfortunately no more is said of this matter. Sanchuniathion agrees with Ugaritic tradition in making Muth, the Ugaritic Mot, whom he also calls "Death", the son of El. Mihrab Mihrab ( Arabic : محراب , miḥrāb , pl. محاريب maḥārīb ) is a niche in the wall of a mosque that indicates the qibla , the direction of

3608-478: The control of nature, tends to imbue him with some traits of a solar deity. According to Alberto Green, descriptions of Adad starting in the Kassite period and in the region of Mari emphasize his destructive, stormy character and his role as a fearsome warrior deity, in contrast to Iškur's more peaceful and pastoral character. Shamash and Adad jointly became the gods of oracles and divination, invoked in all

3690-408: The cosmos. In one litany, Iškur is proclaimed again and again as "great radiant bull, your name is heaven" and also called son of Anu , lord of Karkara; twin-brother of Enki , lord of abundance, lord who rides the storm, lion of heaven. In other texts Adad/Iškur is sometimes son of the moon god Nanna/Sin by Ningal and brother of Utu /Shamash and Inanna /Ishtar. He is also sometimes described as

3772-474: The craftsmen sent by Emperor Nicephorus II. These mosaics extend along the voussoirs with a geometric and plant-based design, but also in the inscriptions which record verses from the Koran". This mihrab is also a bit different from a normal mihrab due to its scale. It takes up a whole room instead of just a niche. This style of mihrab set a standard for other mihrab construction in the region. The use of

3854-500: The crown. It was later restored under the rule of Sultan Abdülmecid in 1850 CE – 1851 CE. A windmill, also on the northern edge of the crown, was probably built around the same time. Soldiers continued to be stationed in the citadel during the French Mandate (1920 CE – 1945 CE). The French began archaeological excavations and extensive restoration work in the 1930s CE, particularly on the perimeter wall. The Mamluk Throne Hall

3936-412: The deity's original name. The word Hadad-rimmon (or Hadar-rimmon ) in the phrase "the mourning of (or at) Hadad-rimmon ", has aroused much discussion. According to Jerome and the older Christian interpreters, the mourning is for something that occurred at a place called Hadad-rimmon ( Maximianopolis ) in the valley of Megiddo . This event was generally held to be the death of Josiah (or, as in

4018-479: The direction for prayer, they serve as an important focal point in the mosque. They are usually decorated with ornamental detail that can be geometric designs, linear patterns, or calligraphy. This ornamentation also serves a religious purpose. The calligraphy decoration on the mihrabs are usually from the Qur'an and are devotions to God so that God's word reaches the people. Common designs amongst mihrabs are geometric foliage that are close together so that there

4100-438: The earthquake. Also other phases of the citadel’s restoration have been revealed, including the entrance, the minaret of Great Ayyubid Mosque, and the façade of Throne Hall. There are many structural remains inside the citadel. Notable sites include: The enormous stone bridge constructed by Sultan Ghazi over the moat led to an imposing bent entrance complex. Would-be assailants to the castle would have to take over six turns up

4182-464: The elite military corps in the service of the Ottoman Empire. Sultan Süleyman ordered a restoration of the citadel in 1521 CE. Aleppo and the citadel were heavily damaged in the earthquake of 1822 . After the earthquake only soldiers lived in the citadel. The Ottoman Governor of the time, Ibrahim Pasha , used stones from destroyed buildings in the citadel to build a barracks in the north of

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4264-505: The entrance block) and supporting elements (water cisterns and granaries). The most prominent renovation is the entrance block rebuilt in 1213 CE. Sultan Ghazi also had the two mosques on the Citadel restored, and expanded the city walls to include the southern and eastern suburbs, making the citadel the centre of the fortifications, rather than alongside the wall. The citadel was damaged by the Mongol invasion of 1260 CE and again destroyed by

4346-485: The excavation of Ugarit , an ancient city in modern-day Syria . The storm god Adad and the sun god Shamash jointly became the patron gods of oracles and divination in Mesopotamia. In Akkadian, Adad is also known as Rammanu ("Thunderer") cognate with Imperial Aramaic : רעמא Raˁmā and Hebrew : רַעַם Raˁam , a byname of Hadad. Many scholars formerly took Rammanu to be an independent Akkadian god, but he

4428-634: The fortified gateway, accessible though an arched bridge. This feature was an addition from the Mamluk government in the 16th century CE. A succession of five right-angle turns and three large gates (with carved figures) leads to the main inner castle entrance. In the interior of the Citadel, are the Weapons' Hall, the Byzantine Hall and the Throne Hall, with a restored decorated ceiling. Prior to

4510-484: The god Dagon while she is pregnant by Sky. This appears to be an attempt to combine two accounts of Hadad's parentage, one of which is the Ugaritic tradition that Hadad was son of Dagon. The cognate Akkadian god Adad is also often called the son of Anu ("Sky"). The corresponding Hittite god Teshub is likewise son of Anu (after a fashion). In Sanchuniathon's account, it is Sky who first fights against Pontus ("Sea"). Then Sky allies himself with Hadad. Hadad takes over

4592-687: The history of the citadel as a fortified acropolis began under Seleucus I Nicator. In some areas of the citadel there are up to two meters of remains of Hellenistic settlement. A colonnaded street led up to the citadel hill from the west, where the south area of Aleppo still retains the Hellenistic grid street plan . After the Romans destroyed the Seleucid dynasty in 64 BCE, the citadel hill continued to have religious significance. Emperor Julian , in his 363 CE visit to Aleppo noted "I stayed there for

4674-469: The horseshoe arch, carved stucco , and glass mosaics made an impression for the aesthetic of mihrabs , "although no other extant mihrab in Spain or western North Africa is as elaborate." The Great Mosque of Damascus was started by al-Walid in 706. It was built as a hypostyle mosque, built with a prayer hall leading to the mihrab, "on the back wall of the sanctuary are four mihrabs , two of which are

4756-475: The invasion led by the Turco-Mongol leader Timur which swept through Aleppo in 1400 CE – 1401 CE. In 1415 CE, the Mamluk governor of Aleppo, prince Sayf al-Din, was authorized to rebuild the citadel, which by then stood at the centre of a significant trading city of between 50,000–100,000 inhabitants. Sayf al-Din's additions included two new advance towers on the north and south slopes of the citadel, and

4838-478: The list of gods found at Shuruppak but was of far less importance, perhaps because storms and rain were scarce in Sumer and agriculture there depended on irrigation instead. The gods Enlil and Ninurta also had storm god features that diminished Iškur's distinct role, and he sometimes appears as the assistant or companion of these more prominent gods. When Enki distributed the destinies, he made Iškur inspector of

4920-462: The new Mamluk palace built on top of the higher of the two entrance towers. The Ayyubid palace was almost completely abandoned during this period. The Mamluk period also administered restoration and preservation projects on the Citadel. The final Mamluk sultan, al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri , replaced the flat ceiling of the Throne Hall with nine domes. During the Ottoman period, the military role of

5002-407: The one hand, he brings rain in due season to fertilize the land; on the other, he sends storms to wreak havoc and destruction. He is pictured on monuments and cylinder seals (sometimes with a horned helmet ) with the lightning and the thunderbolt (sometimes in the form of a spear), and in hymns his sombre aspects predominate. His association with the sun-god Shamash, with the two deities alternating in

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5084-584: The only storm-god available for identification in Semitic culture was Hadad and in Hittite Sutekh (a war-god who's been hypothesized to be an alternative name of Teshub , but it remains unclear), the traits matched the characteristics of the Egyptian deity, and an association between the two was considered plausible, also given by the fact that both the Hittites and Semitic Hyksos were foreigners in

5166-424: The palace hammam has three sections. The first was used for dressing, undressing, and resting. The second was an unheated but warmer room, and this was followed by a hot room, and a steam room equipped with alcoves. Hot and cold water was piped through to the hammam with earthenware pipes. The construction in the citadel was not confined to above-ground. Several wells penetrate down to 125 m (410 ft) below

5248-676: The peak of its importance in the period during and after the Crusader presence in the Near East. Zengid ruler Imad ad-Din Zengi – followed by his son Nur ad-Din (ruled 1147 CE – 1174 CE) – successfully unified Aleppo and Damascus and held back the Crusaders from their repeated assaults on the cities. Several famous crusaders were imprisoned in the citadel, among them Count of Edessa , Joscelin II , who died there, Raynald of Châtillon , and

5330-437: The queen, but it was later rebuilt and today stands as one of the most important and impressive monuments in the citadel crown. The Ayyubids were not the first to build a palace on the citadel. Today, numerous architectural details remain from the Ayyubid period, including an entrance portal with muqarnas, or honeycomb vaulting, and a courtyard on the four-iwan layout , with tiling. Laid out in traditional medieval Islamic style,

5412-403: The son of Enlil. The bull was portrayed as Adad/Iškur's sacred animal starting in the Old Babylonian period (early 2nd millennium BCE). Adad/Iškur's consort (both in early Sumerian and the much later Assyrian texts) was the grain goddess Shala , who is also sometimes associated with the god Dagānu . She was also called Gubarra in the earliest texts. The fire god Gibil (Girra in Akkadian)

5494-438: The surface of the crown. Underground passageways connect to the advance towers and possibly under the moat to the city. Hadad Hadad ( Ugaritic : 𐎅𐎄 , romanized:  Haddu ), Haddad , Adad ( Akkadian : 𒀭𒅎 IM , pronounced as Adād ), or Iškur ( Sumerian ) was the storm and rain god in the Canaanite and ancient Mesopotamian religions . He was attested in Ebla as "Hadda" in c. 2500 BCE. From

5576-448: The throne. In this battle Ba‘al is somehow weakened, but the divine craftsman Kothar-wa-Khasis crafts two magic clubs for Ba’al as weapons that help Ba’al strike down Yamm and Ba'al is supreme. ‘Athtart proclaims Ba‘al's victory and salutes Ba‘al/Hadad as lrkb ‘rpt (Rider on the Clouds), a phrase applied by editors of modern English Bibles to Yahweh in Psalm 68.4. At ‘Athtart's urging Ba‘al "scatters" Yamm and proclaims that he

5658-401: The top this ellipse measures 285 metres (935 feet) by 160 metres (520 feet) with the height of this slanting foundation measuring 50 metres (160 feet). In the past, the entire mound was covered with large blocks of gleaming limestone, some of which still remain today. The mound is surrounded by a 22-metre-deep (72-foot) and 30-metre-wide (98-foot) moat , dating from the 12th century. Notable is

5740-412: The tribute of statue of Ishtar from the king of Mari , to be displayed in the temple of Hadad in Halab Citadel. Hadad is called "the god of Aleppo " on a stele of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser I . The element Hadad appears in a number of theophoric names borne by kings of the region. Hadad son of Bedad, who defeated the Midianites in Moab, was the fourth king of Edom. Hadadezer ("Hadad-is-help")

5822-434: The twelve sons of Ishmael is also named Hadad. A set of related bynames include Aramaic rmn , Old South Arabic rmn , Hebrew rmwn , and Akkadian Rammānu ("Thunderer"), presumably originally vocalized as Ramān in Aramaic and Hebrew. The Hebrew spelling rmwn with Masoretic vocalization Rimmôn is identical with the Hebrew word meaning ' pomegranate ' and may be an intentional misspelling and/or parody of

5904-455: The two mosques and donated an elaborate wooden mihrab (prayer niche) to the Mosque of Abraham. The mihrab disappeared during the French Mandate when it was destroyed. Saladin 's son, al-Zahir al-Ghazi , ruled Aleppo between 1193 CE and 1215 CE. During this time, the citadel went through major reconstruction, fortification and addition of new structures that create the complex of the Citadel in its current form today. Sultan Ghazi strengthened

5986-548: The walls, smoothed the surface of the outcrop and covered sections of the slope at the entrance area with stone cladding. The depth of the moat was increased, connected with water canals and spanned by a tall bridge-cum-viaduct, which today still serves as the entrance into the Citadel. During the first decade of the 13th century CE, the citadel evolved into a palatial city that included functions ranging from residential (palaces and baths), religious (mosque and shrines), military installations (arsenal, training ground, defence towers and

6068-504: The younger ascendant ruler and newly appointed chief of the gods, as is the case also for the Hittite "Cycle of Kumarbi " where Teshub displaces the previously established father of the gods Kumarbi. In Amherst XII/15 the same identification as before is once again stated: "Baal from Zephon, Horus" (BT mn Şpn Hr). In the second millennium BCE, the king of Yamhad or Halab (modern Aleppo ), who claimed to be "beloved of Hadad", received

6150-436: Was a storm-god, but when the god Baal (Hadad) is not specifically attributed the traits of rain and thunder and is instead perceived as a god of the sky generically, which is what is embodied by his form "Baal Zaphon" as the chief deity who resides on the mountain (for example a 14th-century letter from the king of Ugarit to the Egyptian pharaoh places Baʿal Zaphon as equivalent to Amun also), in that case he's more similar to

6232-408: Was also completely restored during this time and given a new flat roof decorated in 19th-century CE Damascene style. A modern amphitheater was constructed on a section of an unexcavated surface of the citadel in 1980 to hold events and concerts. The citadel in its present form is on a mound, which has an elliptical base with a length of 450 metres (1,480 feet) and width of 325 metres (1,066 feet). At

6314-613: Was developed along with his warrior aspect. During the Middle Assyrian Empire , from the reign of Tiglath-Pileser I (1115–1077 BCE), Adad had a double sanctuary with Anu in Assur , and the two are often associated in invocations. The name Adad and various alternate forms ( Dadu , Bir , Dadda ) are often found in Assyrian king names. Adad/Iškur presents two aspects in hymns, incantations, and votive inscriptions. On

6396-491: Was later identified with Hadad. Though originating in northern Mesopotamia, Adad was identified by the same Sumerogram IM that designated Iškur in the south. His worship became widespread in Mesopotamia after the First Babylonian dynasty . A text dating from the reign of Ur-Ninurta characterizes the two sides of Adad/Iškur as threatening in his stormy rage, and benevolent in giving life. Iškur appears in

6478-455: Was possibly Baʿal Shamem (Lord of the Heavens), a title most often applied to Hadad. In Sanchuniathon 's account Hadad is once called Adodos, but is mostly named Demarûs. This is a puzzling form, probably from Ugaritic dmrn , which appears in parallelism with Hadad, or possibly a Greek corruption of Hadad Ramān . Sanchuniathon's Hadad is son of Sky by a concubine who is then given to

6560-598: Was the Aramean king defeated by David . Later Aramean kings of Damascus seem to have habitually assumed the title of Ben-Hadad (son of Hadad). One was Ben-Hadad , the king of Aram whom the Judean king Asa sent to invade the northern Kingdom of Israel . A votive basalt stele from the 9th or 8th century, BCE found in Bredsh north of Aleppo, is dedicated to Melqart and bears the name Ben-Hadad, king of Aram. The seventh of

6642-670: Was the symbolic animal of Hadad. He appeared bearded, often holding a club and thunderbolt and wearing a bull-horned headdress. Hadad was equated with the Greek god Zeus , the Roman god Jupiter ( Jupiter Dolichenus ), as well as the Babylonian Bel. The Baal Cycle or Epic of Baal is a collection of stories about the Canaanite Baal, also referred to as Hadad. It was composed between 1400 and 1200 B.C. and rediscovered in

6724-579: Was then followed by a mihrab added to the Mosque of 'Amr ibn al-'As in Fustat in 710–711. Subsequently, concave mihrabs became widespread across the Muslim world and were adopted as a standard feature of mosques. The oldest surviving concave mihrab today is a marble mihrab housed at the Iraq Museum . It is believed to date from the 8th century, possibly made in northern Syria before being moved by

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