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77-481: Alfalfa ( / æ l ˈ f æ l f ə / ) ( Medicago sativa ), also called lucerne , is a perennial flowering plant in the legume family Fabaceae . It is cultivated as an important forage crop in many countries around the world. It is used for grazing , hay , and silage , as well as a green manure and cover crop . The name alfalfa is used in North America. The name lucerne is more commonly used in

154-443: A century plant can live for 80 years and grow 30 meters tall before flowering and dying. However, most perennials are polycarpic (or iteroparous ), flowering over many seasons in their lifetime. Perennials invest more resources than annuals into roots, crowns, and other structures that allow them to live from one year to the next. They often have a competitive advantage because they can commence their growth and leaf out earlier in

231-410: A genetically modified variety, was released by Forage Genetics International in 2005. This was developed through the insertion of a gene owned by Monsanto Company that confers resistance to glyphosate , a broad-spectrum herbicide, also known as Roundup . Although most grassy and broadleaf plants, including ordinary alfalfa, are killed by Roundup, growers can spray fields of Roundup Ready alfalfa with

308-940: A photolyase and the other, a protein involved in nucleotide excision repair ). Perennials that are cultivated include: woody plants like fruit trees grown for their edible fruits; shrubs and trees grown as landscaping ornamentals ; herbaceous food crops like asparagus , rhubarb , strawberries ; and subtropical plants not hardy in colder areas such as tomatoes , eggplant , and coleus (which are treated as annuals in colder areas). Perennials also include plants grown for their flowering and other ornamental value including bulbs (like tulips, narcissus, and gladiolus); lawn grass, and other groundcovers , (such as periwinkle and Dichondra ). Each type of plant must be separated differently; for example, plants with fibrous root systems like daylilies, Siberian iris, or grasses can be pried apart with two garden forks inserted back to back, or cut by knives. However, plants such as bearded irises have

385-405: A swather cuts the alfalfa and arranges it in windrows . In areas where the alfalfa does not immediately dry out on its own, a machine known as a mower-conditioner is used to cut the hay. The mower-conditioner has a set of rollers or flails that crimp and break the stems as they pass through the mower, making the alfalfa dry faster. After the alfalfa has dried, a tractor pulling a baler collects

462-455: A tetraploid genome. The word alfalfa is a Spanish modification of the Arabic word al-faṣfaṣa . Alfalfa is considered an insectary, a place where insects are reared, and has been proposed as helpful to other crops, such as cotton , if the two are interplanted, because the alfalfa harbours predatory and parasitic insects that would protect the other crop. Harvesting the alfalfa by mowing

539-684: A combination of many favourable attributes. Plant breeding efforts use scientific methodology and technology to strive for new improved varieties. The L. Teweles Seed Company claimed it created the world's first hybrid alfalfa. Wisconsin and California and many other states publish alfalfa variety trial data. A complete listing of state variety testing data is provided by the North American Alfalfa Improvement Conference (NAAIC) State Listing , as well as additional detailed alfalfa genetic and variety data published by NAAIC . Roundup Ready alfalfa (RRA),

616-457: A depth of more than 15 m (49 ft) to reach groundwater. Typically the root system grows to a depth of 2–3 m (7–10 ft) depending on subsoil constraints. Alfalfa is a small-seeded crop and has a slowly growing seedling, but after several months of establishment, it forms a tough "crown" at the top of the root system. This crown contains shoot buds that enable alfalfa to regrow many times after being grazed or harvested. Alfalfa has

693-528: A large part of the world's output, the word "alfalfa" has been slowly entering other languages. When alfalfa is to be used as hay , it is usually cut and baled . Loose haystacks are still used in some areas, but bales are easier for use in transportation, storage, and feed. Ideally, the first cutting should be taken at the bud stage, and the subsequent cuttings just as the field is beginning to flower, or one-tenth bloom because carbohydrates are at their highest. When using farm equipment rather than hand-harvesting,

770-605: A letter to Agriculture Secretary Tom Vilsack asking him to immediately allow limited planting of genetically engineered alfalfa. However the USDA did not issue interim deregulatory measures, instead focusing on completing the EIS. Their 2,300-page EIS, published in December 2010, concluded that RRA would not affect the environment. Three of the biggest natural food brands in the US lobbied for

847-699: A partial deregulation of RRA but this was also rejected by the District Court. Planting of RRA was halted. In June 2009, a divided three-judge panel on the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the District Court's decision. Monsanto and others appealed to the US Supreme Court . On 21 June 2010, in Monsanto Co. v. Geertson Seed Farms , the Supreme Court overturned the District Court decision to ban planting RRA nationwide as there

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924-464: A partial deregulation of RRA, but in January 2011, despite protests from organic groups, Secretary Vilsack announced that the USDA had approved the unrestricted planting of genetically modified alfalfa and planting resumed. Secretary Vilsack commented, "After conducting a thorough and transparent examination of alfalfa ... APHIS [ Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service ] has determined that [RRA]

1001-470: A root system of rhizomes; these root systems should be planted with the top of the rhizome just above ground level, with leaves from the following year showing. The point of dividing perennials is to increase the amount of a single breed of plant in your garden. In the United States more than 900 million dollars worth of potted herbaceous perennial plants were sold in 2019. Although most of humanity

1078-546: A solitary but gregarious bee species, it does not build colonies or store honey, but is a very efficient pollinator of alfalfa flowers. Nesting is in individual tunnels in wooden or plastic material, supplied by the alfalfa seed growers. The leafcutter bees are used in the Pacific Northwest , while western honeybees dominate in California alfalfa seed production. M. rotundata was unintentionally introduced into

1155-479: A very few (e.g. Zostera ) occurring in shallow sea water. Herbaceous perennial plants are particularly dominant in conditions too fire-prone for trees and shrubs, e.g., most plants on prairies and steppes are perennials; they are also dominant on tundra too cold for tree growth. Nearly all forest plants are perennials, including trees and shrubs. Perennial plants are usually better long-term competitors, especially under stable, resource-poor conditions. This

1232-409: Is also susceptible to downy mildew caused by the oomycete species Peronospora aestivalis . Alfalfa is widely grown throughout the world as forage for cattle , and is most often harvested as hay , but can also be made into silage , grazed, or fed as greenchop. Alfalfa usually has the highest feeding value of all common hay crops. It is used less frequently as pasture . When grown on soils where it

1309-490: Is as safe as traditionally bred alfalfa." About 20 million acres (8.1 million hectares) of alfalfa were grown in the US, the fourth-biggest crop by acreage, of which about 1% were organic. Some biotechnology officials forecast that half of the US alfalfa acreage could eventually be planted with GM alfalfa. The National Corn Growers Association , the American Farm Bureau Federation , and

1386-444: Is chopped finely and fermented in silos , trenches, or bags, where the oxygen supply can be limited to promote fermentation . The anaerobic fermentation of alfalfa allows it to retain high nutrient levels similar to those of fresh forage, and is also more palatable to dairy cattle than dry hay. In many cases, alfalfa silage is inoculated with different strains of microorganisms to improve the fermentation quality and aerobic stability of

1463-417: Is commercially available as a dietary supplement in several forms, such as tablets, powders and tea. Fresh alfalfa can cause bloating in livestock, so care must be taken with livestock grazing on alfalfa because of this hazard. Like other legumes, its root nodules contain bacteria, Sinorhizobium meliloti , with the ability to fix nitrogen , producing a high-protein feed regardless of available nitrogen in

1540-687: Is cultivated as an animal feed and consumed in both fresh and dried forms. It is from the Arabic that the Spanish name alfalfa was derived. In the 16th century, Spanish colonizers introduced alfalfa to the Americas as fodder for their horses. In the North American colonies of the eastern US in the 18th century, it was called "lucerne", and many trials at growing it were made, but generally without sufficiently successful results. Relatively little

1617-591: Is cut three to four times a year, but it can be harvested up to 12 times per year in Arizona and southern California. Total yields are typically around 8 tonnes per hectare ( 3 + 1 ⁄ 2 short tons per acre) in temperate environments, but yields have been recorded up to 20 tonnes per hectare (9 short tons per acre). Yields vary with region, weather, and the crop's stage of maturity when cut. Later cuttings improve yield, but with reduced nutritional content. Alfalfa seems to have originated in south-central Asia, and

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1694-423: Is difficult for alfalfa seed to grow in existing stands of alfalfa. Therefore, alfalfa fields are recommended to be rotated with other species (for example, corn or wheat) before reseeding. The exact mechanism of autotoxicity is unclear, with medicarpins and phenols both seeming to play a role. Levels of autotoxicity in soil depends on soil type (clay soils maintain autotoxicity for longer), cultivar and age of

1771-783: Is due to the development of larger root systems which can access water and soil nutrients deeper in the soil and to earlier emergence in the spring. Annual plants have an advantage in disturbed environments because of their faster growth and reproduction rates. Each section contains a short list of species related to that topic, these are an example as the true lists would fill several books. Perennials grown for their decorative flowers include very many species and types. Some examples include: The majority of fruit bearing plants are perennial even in temperate climates. Examples include: Many herbs are perennial, including these examples: Many vegetable plants can grow as perennials in tropical climates, but die in cold weather. Examples of some of

1848-483: Is fed by the re-sowing of the seeds of annual grain crops, (either naturally or by the manual efforts of humans), perennial crops provide numerous benefits. Perennial plants often have deep, extensive root systems which can hold soil to prevent erosion , capture dissolved nitrogen before it can contaminate ground and surface water, and out-compete weeds (reducing the need for herbicides ). These potential benefits of perennials have resulted in new attempts to increase

1925-541: Is grown in the southeastern US today. Lucerne (or luzerne ) is the name for alfalfa in Britain, Australia, France , Germany , and a number of other countries. Alfalfa seeds were imported to California from Chile in the 1850s. That was the beginning of a rapid and extensive introduction of the crop over the western US and introduced the word "alfalfa" to the English language. Since North and South America now produce

2002-727: Is more common in indoor plants due to overwatering, heavy potting media, or containers with poor drainage . The leaves of plants experiencing root rot often yellow and die, and if allowed to continue, the condition can be fatal to the plant. To avoid root rot, it is best to only water plants when the soil becomes dry, and to put the plant in a well-drained pot. Using a dense potting media such as one dug up from outdoors can also cause root rot. Plants from different environments have different tolerances for soil moisture: plants evolved for desert conditions will experience root rot at lower moisture levels than plants evolved for tropical conditions. In both indoor and outdoor plants, it can be lethal and there

2079-426: Is native to warmer temperate climates . It has been cultivated as livestock fodder since at least the era of the ancient Greeks and Romans . Alfalfa is a perennial forage legume which normally lives four to eight years, but can live more than 20 years, depending on variety and climate . The plant grows to a height of up to 1 metre ( 3 + 1 ⁄ 2 feet), and has a deep root system, sometimes growing to

2156-464: Is no effective treatment, though some plants can be propagated so they will not be lost completely. Many cases of root rot are caused by members of the water mold genus Phytophthora ; perhaps the most aggressive is P. cinnamomi . Spores from root rot causing agents do contaminate other plants, but the rot cannot take hold unless there is adequate moisture. Spores are not only airborne , but are also carried by insects and other arthropods in

2233-573: Is not always enough due to constant resistance evolution. Lucerne grown in Australia prior to the 1970s was from seed brought from Great Britain in the early years of colonization, with production most successful in the Hunter and Peel river valleys. Hunter River cv. was the first lucerne variety developed for the Australian environment and was bred from selections of pre-existing lucerne stands in

2310-528: Is reason to believe are plant pests. Monsanto had to seek deregulation to conduct field trials of RRA, because the RRA contains a promoter sequence derived from the plant pathogen figwort mosaic virus. The USDA granted the application for deregulation, stating that the RRA with its modifications: "(1) Exhibit no plant pathogenic properties; (2) are no more likely to become weedy than the nontransgenic parental line or other cultivated alfalfa; (3) are unlikely to increase

2387-429: Is too cold or dry. In many parts of the world, seasonality is expressed as wet and dry periods rather than warm and cold periods, and deciduous perennials lose their leaves in the dry season. Some perennial plants are protected from wildfires because they have underground roots that produce adventitious shoots, bulbs, crowns , or stems ; other perennials like trees and shrubs may have thick cork layers that protect

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2464-729: Is well-adapted, alfalfa is often the highest-yielding forage plant, but its primary benefit is the combination of high yield per hectare and high nutritional quality. Its primary use is as feed for high-producing dairy cows , because of its high protein content and highly digestible fiber, and secondarily for beef cattle , horses , sheep , and goats . Alfalfa hay is a widely used protein and fiber source for meat rabbits. In poultry diets, dehydrated alfalfa and alfalfa leaf concentrates are used for pigmenting eggs and meat, because of their high content in carotenoids, which are efficient for colouring egg yolk and body lipids. Humans also eat alfalfa sprouts in salads and sandwiches. Dehydrated alfalfa leaf

2541-464: The United Kingdom , South Africa , Australia , and New Zealand . The plant superficially resembles clover (a cousin in the same family), especially while young, when trifoliate leaves comprising round leaflets predominate. Later in maturity, leaflets are elongated. It has clusters of small purple flowers followed by fruits spiralled in two to three turns containing 10–20 seeds. Alfalfa

2618-475: The astronomical symbol for the planet Jupiter . Perennial plants can be short-lived (only a few years) or long-lived. They include a wide assortment of plant groups from non-flowering plants like ferns and liverworts to highly diverse flowering plants like orchids , grasses , and woody plants . Plants that flower and fruit only once and then die are termed monocarpic or semelparous ; these species may live for many years before they flower. For example,

2695-440: The introduction of the spotted alfalfa aphid ( Therioaphis maculata ) in 1977 all varieties grown there must be resistant to it. South Australia is home to 83% of all lucerne seed production in Australia. Much of this seed industry is centred around the town of Keith, South Australia , also encompassing the neighbouring localities of Tintinara, Bordertown, Willalooka, Padthaway and Naracoorte. Alfalfa seed production requires

2772-449: The soil . Its nitrogen-fixing ability (which increases soil nitrogen) and its use as an animal feed greatly improve agricultural efficiency. Alfalfa can be sown in spring or fall, and does best on well-drained soils with a neutral pH of 6.8–7.5. Alfalfa requires sustained levels of potassium and phosphorus to grow well. It is moderately sensitive to salt levels in both the soil and irrigation water, although it continues to be grown in

2849-606: The "alfalfa without any restrictions flies in the face of the interests of conventional and organic farmers, preservation of the environment, and consumer choice". In addition to House Agriculture Committee Chairman Frank Lucas , Senator Debbie Stabenow (Chairwoman of the Senate Agriculture Committee ) and Senator Richard Lugar strongly supported the decision, respectively stating that it would give growers "the green light to begin planting an abundant, affordable and safe crop" and give farmers and consumers

2926-447: The "choice ... in planting or purchasing food grown with GM technology, conventionally, or organically". In a joint statement, US Senator Patrick Leahy and Representative Peter DeFazio said the USDA had the "opportunity to address the concerns of all farmers", but instead "surrender[ed] to business as usual for the biotech industry". Perennial plant Perennials (especially small flowering plants ) that grow and bloom over

3003-791: The Council for Biotech Information warmly applauded this decision. Christine Bushway, CEO of the Organic Trade Association , said, "A lot of people are shell-shocked. While we feel Secretary Vilsack worked on this issue, which is progress, this decision puts our organic farmers at risk." The Organic Trade Association issued a press release in 2011 saying that the USDA recognized the impact that cross-contamination could have on organic alfalfa and urged them to place restrictions to minimize any such contamination. However, organic farming groups, organic food outlets, and activists responded by publishing an open letter saying that planting

3080-559: The GM alfalfa could cross-pollinate with their organic alfalfa, making their crops unsalable in countries that ban the growing of GM crops. The District Court ruled that the USDA's environmental assessment did not address two issues concerning RRA's effect on the environment, and in 2007, required the USDA to complete a much more extensive environmental impact statement (EIS). Until the EIS was completed, they banned further planting of RRA but allowed land already planted to continue. The USDA proposed

3157-400: The US during the 1940s, and its management as a pollinator of alfalfa has led to a three-fold increase in seed production in the U.S. The synchronous emergence of the adult bees of this species during alfalfa blooming period in combination with such behaviors as gregarious nesting, and utilization of leaves and nesting materials that have been mass-produced by humans provide positive benefits for

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3234-429: The United States in 2012, the leading alfalfa-growing states were California, Idaho , and Montana . Alfalfa is predominantly grown in the northern and western US; it can be grown in the southeastern US, but leaf and root diseases, poor soils, and a lack of well-adapted varieties are often limitations. In California, varieties resistant to the spotted alfalfa aphid ( Therioaphis maculata ) are necessary, but even that

3311-643: The Upper Hunter River (New South Wales) region. Pest burdens from the spotted alfalfa aphid in the 1970s caused significant destruction of NSW lucerne paddocks, with surviving populations being used as parents for Hunterfield cv. (released 1983). This variety showed significant improvement of resistance to spotted alfalfa aphid. Grazing is the most commonly used form of pasture management in Australia, with many varieties of lucerne specifically being bred for low rainfall, high grazing pressure. New South Wales produces 40% of Australia's lucerne. Due to

3388-554: The Upper Midwest, Canada, and the Northeast. 'Nondormant' varieties can be higher-yielding, but they are susceptible to winter-kill in cold climates and have poorer persistence. Most alfalfa cultivars contain genetic material from sickle medick ( M.   falcata ), a crop wild relative of alfalfa that naturally hybridizes with M. sativa to produce sand lucerne ( M. sativa ssp. varia ). This species may bear either

3465-446: The advantage of generating larger seedlings that can better compete with other plants. Perennials also produce seeds over many years. An important aspect of cold acclimation is overexpression of DNA repair genes. In Thinopyrum intermedium a perennial relative of common wheat Triticum aestivum , conditions of freezing stress were shown to be associated with large increases in expression of two DNA repair genes (one gene product

3542-554: The arid southwestern United States , where salinity is an emerging issue. Soils low in fertility should be fertilized with manure or a chemical fertilizer, but correction of pH is particularly important. Usually a seeding rate of 13–20 kg/ha (12–18 lb/acre) is recommended, with differences based upon region, soil type, and seeding method. A nurse crop is sometimes used, particularly for spring plantings, to reduce weed problems and soil erosion, but can lead to competition for light, water, and nutrients. In most climates, alfalfa

3619-425: The beekeeper stocks the field at a very high rate to maximize the number of young bees. However, Western honey bee colonies may suffer protein stress when working alfalfa only, because alfalfa pollen protein is deficient in isoleucine , one of the amino acids essential in the diet of honeybee larvae . Today, the alfalfa leafcutter bee ( Megachile rotundata ) is increasingly used to circumvent these problems. As

3696-510: The dormancy period is over and new growth begins. In climates that are warm all year long, perennials may grow continuously. Annuals which complete their life cycle in one growing season, in contrast with perennials, produce seeds as the next generation and die; the seeds may survive cold or dry periods or germinate soon after dispersal depending on the climate. Some perennials retain their foliage year-round; these are evergreen perennials. Deciduous perennials shed all their leaves part of

3773-450: The entire crop area destroys the insect population, but this can be avoided by mowing in strips so that part of the growth remains. Owing to its deep root system, it helps to improve soil nitrogen fertility and protect from soil erosion . This depth of root system, and perenniality of crowns that store carbohydrates as an energy reserve, make it very resilient, especially to droughts . This plant exhibits autotoxicity , which means it

3850-497: The fields at bloom time. The rusty patched bumble bee, Bombus affinis , is important to the agricultural industry as well as for the pollination of alfalfa. It is known that members of this species pollinate up to 65 different species of plants, and it is the primary pollinator of key dietary crops, such as cranberries , plums , apples , onions , and alfalfa. Considerable research and development has been done with this important plant. Older cultivars such as 'Vernal' have been

3927-588: The glyphosate herbicide and kill the weeds without harming the alfalfa crop. In 2005, after completing a 28-page environmental assessment the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) granted RRA nonregulated status under Code of Federal Regulations Title 7 Part 340, which regulates, among other things, the introduction (importation, interstate movement, or release into the environment) of organisms and products altered or produced through genetic engineering that are plant pests or that there

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4004-410: The ground for large herds of cattle. The bales can be loaded and stacked with a tractor using a spike, known as a bale spear that pierces the center of the bale, or they can be handled with a grapple (claw) on the tractor 's front-end loader . When used as feed for dairy cattle, alfalfa is often made into haylage by a process known as ensiling . Rather than being dried to make dry hay, the alfalfa

4081-541: The growing season, and can grow taller than annuals. In doing so they can better compete for space and collect more light. Perennials typically grow structures that allow them to adapt to living from one year to the next through a form of vegetative reproduction rather than seeding. These structures include bulbs , tubers , woody crowns, rhizomes , turions , woody stems, or crowns which allows them to survive periods of dormancy over cold or dry seasons; these structures typically store carbohydrates which are used once

4158-872: The hay into bales. Several types of bales are commonly used for alfalfa. For small animals and individual horses, the alfalfa is baled into small, two-string bales, commonly named by the strands of string used to wrap it. Other bale sizes are three-string, and so on up to half-ton (six-string) "square" bales – actually rectangular, and typically about 40 cm × 45 cm × 100 cm (16 in × 18 in × 39 in). Small square bales weigh from 25 to 30 kg (55 to 66 lb) depending on moisture, and can be easily hand separated into "flakes". Cattle ranches use large round bales, typically 1.4 to 1.8 m ( 4 + 1 ⁄ 2 to 6 ft) in diameter and weighing from 500 to 1,000 kg (1,100 to 2,200 lb). These bales can be placed in stable stacks or in large feeders for herds of horses or unrolled on

4235-471: The head repeatedly and learn to defeat this action by drawing nectar from the side of the flower. The bees thus collect the nectar, but carry no pollen, so do not pollinate the next flower they visit. Because older, experienced bees do not pollinate alfalfa well, most pollination is accomplished by young bees that have not yet learned the trick of robbing the flower without tripping the head-knocking keel. When western honey bees are used to pollinate alfalfa,

4312-620: The hormones produced due to environmental situations (i.e., seasons), reproduction, and stage of development to begin and halt the ability to grow or flower. There is also a distinction between the ability to grow and the actual task of growth. For example, most trees regain the ability to grow during winter but do not initiate physical growth until the spring and summer months. The start of dormancy can be seen in perennial plants through withering flowers, loss of leaves on trees, and halting of reproduction in both flowering and budding plants. Perennial species may produce relatively large seeds that have

4389-419: The more completely perennial vegetables are: Many aquatic plants are perennial even though many do not have woody tissue. Examples include: Root rot Root rot is a condition in which anoxic conditions in the soil or potting media around the roots of a plant cause them to rot. This occurs due to excessive standing water around the roots. It is found in both indoor and outdoor plants, although it

4466-637: The plant in the US. The granting of deregulation was opposed by many groups, including growers of non-GM alfalfa who were concerned about gene flow into their crops. In 2006, the Center for Food Safety , a US non-governmental organization that is a critic of biotech crops, and others, challenged this deregulation in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California . Organic growers were concerned that

4543-440: The presence of pollinators when the fields of alfalfa are in bloom. Alfalfa pollination is somewhat problematic, however, because western honey bees , the most commonly used pollinator, are less than ideal for this purpose; the pollen-carrying keel of the alfalfa flower trips and strikes pollinating bees on the head, which helps transfer the pollen to the foraging bee . Western honey bees, however, do not like being struck in

4620-482: The previous crop. A soil assay can be used to measure autotoxicity. Resistance to autotoxicity also varies by cultivar, a tolerant one being 'WL 656HQ'. Like most plants, alfalfa can be attacked by various pests and pathogens. Diseases often have subtle symptoms which are easily misdiagnosed and can affect leaves, roots, stems and blossoms. Some pests, such as the alfalfa weevil , aphids , and potato leafhopper , can reduce alfalfa yields dramatically, particularly with

4697-453: The production of more leaves. Multileaf alfalfa varieties have more than three leaflets per leaf. Alfalfa growers or lucerne growers have a suite of varieties or cultivars to choose from in the seed marketplace and base their selection on a number of factors including the dormancy or activity rating, crown height, fit for purpose (i.e., hay production or grazing), disease resistance, insect pest resistance, forage yield, fine leafed varieties and

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4774-446: The purple flowers of alfalfa or the yellow of sickle medick, and is so called for its ready growth in sandy soil. Traits for insect resistance have also been introduced from M. glomerata and M. prostrata , members of alfalfa's secondary gene pool . Most of the improvements in alfalfa over the last decades have consisted of better disease resistance on poorly drained soils in wet years, better ability to overwinter in cold climates, and

4851-556: The remainder. The US was the largest alfalfa producer in the world by area in 2009, with 9 million hectares (22 million acres), but considerable production area is found in Argentina (6.9 million hectares; 17 million acres), Canada (2 million hectares; 4.9 million acres), Russia (1.8 million hectares; 4.4 million acres), Italy (1.3 million hectares; 3.2 million acres), and China (1.3 million hectares; 3.2 million acres). In

4928-475: The second cutting when weather is warmest. Spotted alfalfa aphid, broadly spread in Australia, not only sucks sap but also injects salivary toxins into the leaves. Registered insecticides or chemical controls are sometimes used to prevent this and labels will specify the withholding period before the forage crop can be grazed or cut for hay or silage. Alfalfa is also susceptible to root rots , including Phytophthora , Rhizoctonia , and Texas root rot . Alfalfa

5005-465: The seed yield of perennial species, which could result in the creation of new perennial grain crops. Some examples of new perennial crops being developed are perennial rice and intermediate wheatgrass . A perennial rice developed in 2018, was reported in 2023, to have provided a similar yield to replanted annual rice when evaluated over eight consecutive harvests. Perennial plants dominate many natural ecosystems on land and in fresh water, with only

5082-602: The silage. During the early 2000s, alfalfa was the most cultivated forage legume in the world. Worldwide production was around 436 million tons in 2006. In 2009, alfalfa was grown on approximately 30 million hectares (74 million acres) worldwide; of this North America produced 41% (11.9 million hectares; 29 million acres), Europe produced 25% (7.12 million hectares; 17.6 million acres), South America produced 23% (7 million hectares; 17 million acres), Asia produced 8% (2.23 million hectares; 5.5 million acres), and Africa and Oceania produced

5159-410: The soil. It can be controlled by drenching carbendazim . Root rot can occur in hydroponic applications, if the water is not properly aerated . This is usually accomplished by use of an air pump , air stones , air diffusers and by adjustment of the frequency and length of watering cycles where applicable. Hydroponic air pumps function in much the same way as aquarium pumps , which are used for

5236-668: The spring and summer, die back every autumn and winter, and then return in the spring from their rootstock or other overwintering structure, are known as herbaceous perennials . However, depending on the rigours of the local climate (temperature, moisture, organic content in the soil, microorganisms), a plant that is a perennial in its native habitat, may be treated by a gardener as an annual and planted out every year, from seed, from cuttings, or from divisions. Tomato vines, for example, live several years in their natural tropical/ subtropical habitat but are grown as annuals in temperate regions because their above-ground biomass does not survive

5313-476: The standard for years, but many public and private varieties better adapted to particular climates are available. Private companies release many new varieties each year in the US. Most varieties go dormant in the fall, with reduced growth in response to low temperatures and shorter days. 'Nondormant' varieties that grow through the winter are planted in long-season environments such as Mexico, Arizona, and Southern California, whereas 'dormant' varieties are planted in

5390-431: The stems. Herbaceous perennials from temperate and alpine regions of the world can tolerate the cold during winter. Perennial plants may remain dormant for long periods and then recommence growth and reproduction when the environment is more suitable, while most annual plants complete their life cycle during one growing period, and biennials have two growing periods. The meristem of perennial plants communicates with

5467-414: The use of these bees in pollinating alfalfa. A smaller amount of alfalfa produced for seed is pollinated by the alkali bee , mostly in the northwestern US . It is cultured in special beds near the fields. These bees also have their own problems. They are not portable like honey bees, and when fields are planted in new areas, the bees take several seasons to build up. Honey bees are still trucked to many of

5544-449: The weediness potential of any other cultivated or wild species with which it can interbreed; (4) will not cause damage to raw or processed agricultural commodities; (5) will not harm threatened or endangered species or organisms that are beneficial to agriculture; and (6) should not reduce the ability to control pests and weeds in alfalfa or other crops." Monsanto started selling RRA and within two years, more than 300,000 acres were devoted to

5621-405: The winter. There is also a class of evergreen perennials which lack woody stems, such as Bergenia which retain a mantle of leaves throughout the year. An intermediate class of plants is known as subshrubs , which retain a vestigial woody structure in winter, e.g. Penstemon . The symbol for a perennial plant, based on Species Plantarum by Linnaeus , is [REDACTED] , which is also

5698-468: The year ... It may be given to cattle, but new provender is at first to be administered very sparingly, because it bloats up the cattle." The medieval Arabic agricultural writer Ibn al-'Awwam , who lived in Spain in the later 12th century, discussed how to cultivate alfalfa, which he called الفصفصة ( al-fiṣfiṣa ). A 13th-century general-purpose Arabic dictionary, Lisān al-'Arab , says that alfalfa

5775-439: The year. Deciduous perennials include herbaceous and woody plants; herbaceous plants have stems that lack hard, fibrous growth, while woody plants have stems with buds that survive above ground during dormancy. Some perennials are semi-deciduous, meaning they lose some of their leaves in either winter or summer. Deciduous perennials shed their leaves when growing conditions are no longer suitable for photosynthesis, such as when it

5852-530: Was first cultivated in Central Asia . According to Pliny (died 79 AD) , it was introduced to Greece in about 490 BC when the Persians invaded Greek territory . Alfalfa cultivation is discussed in the fourth-century AD book Opus Agriculturae by Palladius , stating: "One sow-down lasts ten years. The crop may be cut four or six times a year ... A jugerum of it is abundantly sufficient for three horses all

5929-684: Was no evidence of irreparable injury. They ruled that the USDA could partially deregulate RRA before an EIS was completed. The Supreme Court did not consider the District Court's ruling disallowing RRA's deregulation and consequently RRA was still a regulated crop waiting for USDA's completion of an EIS. This decision was welcomed by the American Farm Bureau Federation , Biotechnology Industry Organization , American Seed Trade Association , American Soybean Association, National Alfalfa and Forage Alliance, National Association of Wheat Growers , National Cotton Council, and National Potato Council. In July 2010, 75 members of Congress from both political parties sent

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