Social Interest Birth Order
184-491: Alfred Adler ( / ˈ æ d l ər / AD -lər ; German: [ˈalfʁeːt ˈʔaːdlɐ] ; 7 February 1870 – 28 May 1937) was an Austrian medical doctor, psychotherapist , and founder of the school of individual psychology . His emphasis on the importance of feelings of belonging, relationships within the family, and birth order set him apart from Freud and others in their common circle. He proposed that contributing to others (social interest or Gemeinschaftsgefühl )
368-576: A book. Rank was one of Freud's six collaborators brought together in a secret "committee" or " ring " to defend the psychoanalytic mainstream as disputes with Alfred Adler and Carl Jung developed. Rank was the most prolific author in the "ring" besides Freud himself, extending psychoanalytic theory to the study of legend , myth , art, creativity and The Double ("Doppelgänger"). He worked closely with Freud, contributing two chapters on myth and legend to Freud's key monograph The Interpretation of Dreams . Rank's name appeared underneath Freud's on
552-547: A century. "[T]hose who had the misfortune to be analyzed by [Rank] were required to undergo a second analysis in order to qualify" for membership in the American Psychoanalytic Association (Lieberman, 1985, p. 293). In May 1926, having made the feeling relationship in the "here-and-now" central to his practice of psychotherapy, Rank moved to Paris where he became a psychotherapist for artists such as Henry Miller and Anaïs Nin and lectured at
736-517: A chance meeting in 1926 at Penn Station in New York. "He was my best friend and he refused to speak to me," Rank said (Taft, 1958, p. xvi). Ferenczi's rupture with Rank cut short radical innovations in practice, and left no one in the inner circle who would champion relational, pre-Oedipal or "here-and-now" psychotherapy. Classical psychoanalysis, along the lines of Freud's 1911–15 technical writings, would now be entrenched in training institutes around
920-481: A characteristic governed under the overall style of life. Hence American Adlerians such as Harold Mosak have made use of Adler's typology in this provisional sense: These 'types' are typically formed in childhood and are expressions of the Style of Life. Adler placed great emphasis upon the interpretation of early memories in working with patients and school children, writing that, "Among all psychic expressions, some of
1104-425: A child who has outgrown a toy, he discards the old parts of himself for which he has no further use ….The ego continually breaks away from its worn-out parts, which were of value in the past but have no value in the present. The neurotic [who cannot unlearn, and, therefore, lacks creativity] is unable to accomplish this normal detachment process … Owing to fear and guilt generated in the assertion of his own autonomy, he
1288-401: A close examination of his writings on the subject is not only apposite but is itself philosophically rewarding ... Rank was a Freudian dissident who, in introducing the concept of immortality ideologies, traced out historical and psychological roots of 'soul-belief' ( Seelenglaube )... [My chapter] points up the extraordinary cogency of Rank's distinction between the rational and the irrational to
1472-594: A colleague over the matter, he stated, "I don't understand your sympathy for Adler. For a Jewish boy out of a Viennese suburb a death in Aberdeen is an unheard of career in itself and a proof of how far he had got on. The world really rewarded him richly for his service in having contradicted psychoanalysis." In 1929 Adler showed a reporter with the New York Herald a copy of the faded postcard that Freud had sent him in 1902. He wanted to prove that he had never been
1656-405: A compensation for the feelings of excessive responsibility "the weight of the world on one's shoulders" (e.g. having to look after the younger ones) and the melancholic loss of that once supremely pampered position. As a result, he predicted that this child was the most likely to end up in jail or an asylum. Youngest children would tend to be overindulged, leading to poor social empathy. Consequently,
1840-452: A country of great poets, writers, and novelists. It was the home of novelists Arthur Schnitzler , Stefan Zweig , Thomas Bernhard , and Robert Musil , and of poets Georg Trakl , Franz Werfel , Franz Grillparzer , Rainer Maria Rilke , and Adalbert Stifter . Famous contemporary Austrian playwrights and novelists include Elfriede Jelinek and Peter Handke . Writers of philosophy include Ernst Mach , Ludwig Wittgenstein , Karl Popper and
2024-815: A cultural shift within families and communities that leads to the eradication of pampering and neglect (especially corporal punishment). Adler's popularity was related to the comparative optimism and comprehensibility of his ideas. He often wrote for the lay public. Adler always retained a pragmatic approach that was task-oriented. These "Life tasks" are occupation/work, society/friendship, and love/sexuality. Their success depends on cooperation. The tasks of life are not to be considered in isolation since, as Adler famously commented, "they all throw cross-lights on one another". In his bestselling book, Man's Search for Meaning , Dr. Viktor E. Frankl compared his own "Third Viennese School of Psychotherapy" (after Freud's and Adler's schools) to Adler's analysis: According to logotherapy ,
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#17327918372852208-575: A dilemma about their identity which prompted the Social Democratic Leader Otto Bauer to state that the dilemma was "the conflict between our Austrian and German character." The state as a whole tried to work out a sense of a distinctively Austrian identity. The Austro-Hungarian Empire created ethnic conflict between the German Austrians and the other ethnic groups of the empire. Many pan-German movements in
2392-532: A disciple of Freud's but rather that Freud had sought him out to share his ideas. Adler founded the Society for Individual Psychology in 1912 after his break from the psychoanalytic movement. Adler's group initially included some orthodox Nietzschean adherents (who believed that Adler's ideas on power and inferiority were closer to Nietzsche than Freud's). Their enmity aside, Adler retained a lifelong admiration for Freud's ideas on dreams and credited him with creating
2576-402: A favorable position, enjoying the full attention of the eager new parents until the arrival of a second child. This second child would cause the first born to suffer feelings of dethronement, no longer being the center of attention. Adler (1908) believed that in a three-child family, the oldest child would be the most likely to suffer from neuroticism and substance addiction which he reasoned was
2760-693: A form of "water-poisoning" that made the use of diuretics necessary. Adler and his wife's pragmatic approach, and the seemingly high success rates of their treatment were based on their ideas of social functioning and well-being. Clearly, life style choices and situations were emphasized, for example the need for relaxation or the negative effects of early childhood conflicts were examined, which compared to other authoritarian or religious treatment regimens, were clearly modern approaches. Certainly some of his observations, for example that psychopaths were more likely to be drug addicts are not compatible with current methodologies and theories of substance abuse treatment, but
2944-482: A great deal when it comes to understanding an individual's psychological make-up and functioning. This aspect of Adlerian psychology holds a high level of synergy with the field of community psychology , especially given Adler's concern for what he called "the absolute truth and logic of communal life". However, Adlerian psychology, unlike community psychology, is holistically concerned with both prevention and clinical treatment after-the-fact. Hence, Adler can be considered
3128-484: A higher metaphysical principle (holism). The sense of connection and one-ness revered in various religious traditions (among these, Christianity, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Islam, Buddhism and Baha'i) finds a strong complement in Adler's thought. The pragmatic and materialist aspects to contextualizing members of communities, the construction of communities and the socio-historical-political forces that shape communities matter
3312-434: A human to be an indivisible whole, an individuum . He also imagined a person to be connected or associated with the surrounding world. Austrians Austrians ( German : Österreicher , pronounced [ˈøːstɐraɪçɐ] ) are the citizens and nationals of Austria . The English term Austrians was applied to the population of Habsburg Austria from the 17th or 18th century. Subsequently, during
3496-462: A language for intuition, feeling, instincts which are, in themselves, elusive, subtle, and wordless" (Nin, 1966, p. 276). According to Rank, all feelings are grounded in the present. In Will Therapy, published in German in 1929–31, Rank uses the term "here and now" for the first time in the psychotherapeutic literature: "Freud made the repression historical, that is, misplaced it into the childhood of
3680-483: A late work, Social Interest: A Challenge to Mankind (1938), Adler turns to the subject of metaphysics , where he integrates Jan Smuts' evolutionary holism with the ideas of teleology and community: " sub specie aeternitatis ". Unabashedly, he argues his vision of society: "Social feeling means above all a struggle for a communal form that must be thought of as eternally applicable... when humanity has attained its goal of perfection... an ideal society amongst all mankind,
3864-716: A less affluent part of Vienna across from the Prater , a combination of amusement park and circus. His clients included circus people, and it has been suggested that the unusual strengths and weaknesses of the performers led to his insights into "organ inferiorities" and compensation . In his early career, Adler wrote an article in defence of Freud's theory after reading one of Freud's most well known works, The Interpretation of Dreams . In 1902, because of his defense article, Adler received an invitation from Sigmund Freud to join an informal discussion group that included Rudolf Reitler [ de ] and Wilhelm Stekel . The group,
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#17327918372854048-466: A maximum degree of individuation (or "difference") within a maximum degree of connectedness (or "likeness"). Human beings need to experience both separation and union, without endlessly vacillating between the two poles. Foreshadowing the central themes of Piaget , Kohlberg , McClelland , Erikson and Robert Kegan , Rank was the first to propose that human development is a lifelong construction, which requires continual negotiation and renegotiation of
4232-562: A member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society he developed a theory of organic inferiority and compensation that was the prototype for his later turn to phenomenology and the development of his famous concept, the inferiority complex. Adler was also influenced by the philosophies of Immanuel Kant , Friedrich Nietzsche , Rudolf Virchow and the statesman Jan Smuts (who coined the term " holism "). Adler's School, known as "Individual Psychology"—an arcane reference to
4416-672: A monument in Vienna in 1860 to Archduke Charles , victor over Napoleon in the Battle of Aspern-Essling in 1809, it carried the dedication "To the persistent fighter for Germany's honour", to underline the Germanic mission of the House of Austria. The idea of uniting all ethnic Germans into one nation-state began to be challenged in Austria by the rise of Austrian nationalism , especially within
4600-609: A new obviousness," and his lack of a large and well organized following. In collaboration with Sigmund Freud and a small group of Freud's colleagues, Adler was among the co-founders of the psychoanalytic movement and a core member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society : indeed, to Freud he was "the only personality there". He was the first major figure to break away from psychoanalysis to form an independent school of psychotherapy and personality theory, which he called individual psychology because he believed
4784-473: A rapid rise of German nationalism within the German Confederation , especially in the two most powerful German states, Austria and Prussia. The question of how a unified Germany was to be formed was a matter of debate. The German Question was to be solved by either unifying all German-speaking peoples under one state as the "Greater German solution" ( Großdeutsche Lösung ), which was promoted by
4968-477: A rivalry with his older brother. This rivalry was spurred on because Adler believed his mother preferred his brother over him. Despite his good relationship with his father, he still struggled with feelings of inferiority in his relationship with his mother. Alfred was an active, popular child and an average student who was also known for the competitive attitude toward his older brother, Sigmund. Early on, he developed rickets , which kept Alfred from walking until he
5152-493: A safe container is created by a learning coach, questions allow group members to "step out of the frame of the prevailing ideology," as Rank wrote in Art and Artist (1932/1989, p. 70), reflect on their assumptions and beliefs, and reframe their choices. The process of "stepping out" of a frame, out of a form of knowing – a prevailing ideology – is analogous to the work of artists as they struggle to give birth to fresh ways of seeing
5336-431: A scheme of so-called personality types, which were however always to be taken as provisional or heuristic since he did not, in essence, believe in personality types, and at different times proposed different and equally tentative systems. The danger with typology is to lose sight of the individual's uniqueness and to gaze reductively, acts that Adler opposed. Nevertheless, he intended to illustrate patterns that could denote
5520-535: A scientific approach to their clinical utilization (Fiebert, 1997). Nevertheless, even regarding dream interpretation, Adler had his own theoretical and clinical approach. The primary differences between Adler and Freud centered on Adler's contention that the social realm (exteriority) is as important to psychology as is the internal realm (interiority). The dynamics of power and compensation extend beyond sexuality, and gender and politics can be as important as libido. Moreover, Freud did not share Adler's socialist beliefs,
5704-476: A sense of a common German national identity , and also by a fear that the new state, stripped of its one-time imperial possessions, and surrounded by potentially hostile nation-states, would not be economically viable. An Austrian identity emerged to some degree during the First Republic, and although Austria was still considered part of the "German nation" by most, Austrian patriotism was encouraged by
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5888-407: A slight release for a physical need while avoiding a greater obligation. A transient partner of your own sex is a better known road and requires less courage than a permanent contact with an "unknown" sex.... Adler taught that men cannot be judged from within by their "possessions," as he used to call nerves, glands, traumas, drives et cetera, since both judge and prisoner are liable to misconstrue what
6072-418: A strict geneticist, believing siblings are raised in a shared environment, may claim any differences in personality would be caused by subtle variations in the individuals' genetics, Adler showed through his birth order theory that children do not grow up in the same shared environment, but the oldest child grows up in a family where they have younger siblings, the middle child with older and younger siblings, and
6256-539: A stricter nationality law enacted by the Austrian legislature. During the 2000s, an average number of 27,127 foreign nationals per year was naturalized as Austrian citizens, compared to an average 67,688 children per year born with Austrian nationality. Today, the largest group of foreign nationals are Germans. As of January 2018 - 186,891 Germans lived in Austria. Vienna , the capital city of Austria has long been an important center of musical innovation. Composers of
6440-600: A successful career as a lecturer, writer, and therapist in France and the United States. Rank was born in 1884 as Otto Rosenfeld , the son of a Jewish craftsman in Vienna. In 1905, at the age of 21, he impressed Freud with a study that he invited Rank to become Secretary of the emerging Vienna Psychoanalytic Society . Rank thus became the first paid member of the psychoanalytic movement, and Freud's "right-hand man" for almost 20 years. Freud considered Rank, with whom he
6624-631: A succession of immortality ideologies. Through the influence of Ernest Becker's writings, Rank's dialectic between "life fear and death fear" has been tested experimentally in Terror Management Theory by Skidmore College psychology professor Sheldon Solomon , University of Arizona psychology professor Jeff Greenberg , and University of Colorado at Colorado Springs psychology professor Tom Pyszczynski . The American priest and theologian, Matthew Fox , founder of Creation Spirituality and Wisdom University, considers Rank to be one of
6808-451: A time when Freud believed that early sexual development was the primary determinant of the making of character, with which Adler took issue. Adler proposed that the sexual and aggressive drives were "two originally separate instincts which merge later on". Freud at the time disagreed with this idea. When Freud in 1920 proposed his dual instinct theory of libido and aggressive drives in Beyond
6992-478: A young man who was " living in sin " with an older man in New York City. Adler asked her, "Is he happy, would you say?" "Oh yes," McDowell replied. Adler then stated, "Well, why don't we leave him alone." According to the novelist Phyllis Bottome , who wrote Adler's Biography (after Adler himself laid upon her that task): "He always treated homosexuality as lack of courage. These were but ways of obtaining
7176-903: Is Gemeinschaftsgefühl , a community feeling whereby one feels he or she belongs with others and has also developed an ecological connection with nature (plants, animals, the crust of this earth) and the cosmos as a whole, sub specie aeternitatis. Clearly, Adler himself had little problem with adopting a metaphysical and spiritual point of view to support his theories. Much of Adler's theories have been absorbed into modern psychology without attribution. Psychohistorian Henri F. Ellenberger writes, "It would not be easy to find another author from which so much has been borrowed on all sides without acknowledgement than Alfred Adler." Ellenberger posits several theories for "the discrepancy between greatness of achievement, massive rejection of person and work, and wide-scale, quiet plagiarism..." These include Adler's "imperfect" style of writing and demeanor, his "capacity to create
7360-657: Is a latinization of Österreich , the German name for Austria. This word is derived from Ostarrîchi , which first appears in 996. This, in turn, is probably a translation of the Latin Marcha Orientalis , which means "eastern borderland" (viz. delimiting the eastern border of the Holy Roman Empire ). It was a margraviate of the Duchy of Bavaria , ruled by the House of Babenberg from AD 976. During
7544-492: Is a mere succession of separations. Beginning with birth, going through several weaning periods and the development of the individual personality, and finally culminating in death – which represents the final separation. At birth, the individual experiences the first shock of separation, which throughout his life he strives to overcome. In the process of adaptation, man persistently separates from his old self, or at least from those segments off his old self that are now outlived. Like
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7728-402: Is invisible and incalculable; but that he can be judged, with no danger from introspection, by how he measures up to the three common life tasks set before every human being between the cradle and the grave: work (employment), love or marriage (intimacy), and social contact (friendships.)" Adler emphasized both treatment and prevention. With regard to psychodynamic psychology, Adlerians emphasize
7912-469: Is likely to develop inferiority or superiority complexes and various concomitant compensation strategies. These strategies exact a social toll by seeding higher divorce rates, the breakdown of the family, criminal tendencies, and subjective suffering in the various guises of psychopathology. Adlerians have long promoted parent education groups, especially those influenced by the famous Austrian/American Adlerian Rudolf Dreikurs (Dreikurs & Soltz, 1964). In
8096-499: Is little reason to believe, therefore, that any of the other writers credited with helping to invent object relations theory ( Melanie Klein or Donald Winnicott , for example) ever read the German text of this lecture, published as Zur Genese der Object-beziehung in Vol. 1 of Rank's Genetische Psychologie (1927, pp. 110–122). Rank died in New York City in 1939 from a kidney infection, one month after Freud's physician-assisted suicide on
8280-490: Is often referred to as "a pupil of Freud", in fact this was never true; they were colleagues, Freud referring to him in print in 1909 as "My colleague Dr Alfred Adler". The association of Adler and Freud lasted a total of 9 years, and they never saw each other after the separation. Freud continued to dislike Adler even after the separation and tended to do so with other defectors from psychoanalysis. Even after Adler's death, Freud maintained his distaste for him. When conversing with
8464-416: Is one example of this. Austrian cuisine is known primarily in the rest of the world for its pastries and sweets. The majority of Austrians are traditionally Catholic . Catholicism in Austria has played a significant role both in the culture and in the politics of Austria . It enabled the House of Habsburg to rule Spain and its empire as a Catholic Monarchy from the 16th century, and it determined
8648-413: Is psychodynamic in nature. Unlike Freud's metapsychology that emphasizes instinctual demands, human psychology is guided by goals and fueled by a yet unknown creative force. Like Freud's instincts, Adler's fictive goals are largely unconscious. These goals have a "teleological" function. Constructivist Adlerians, influenced by neo-Kantian and Nietzschean ideas, view these "teleological" goals as "fictions" in
8832-468: Is rooted in narcissism or Jung 's view of expressions of contrasexuality vis-à-vis the archetypes of the Anima and Animus . There is evidence that Adler may have moved towards abandoning the hypothesis. Towards the end of Adler's life, in the mid-1930s, his opinion towards homosexuality began to shift. Elizabeth H. McDowell, a New York state family social worker recalls undertaking supervision with Adler on
9016-404: Is unable to free himself, and instead remains suspended upon some primitive level of his evolution" (Rank, 1996, p. 270). Reframing "resistance" as a creative function, not as opposition to interpretations offered by the psychoanalyst, Rank defined counterwill in the therapeutic relationship as a positive trait that defends the integrity of the self and helps in individuation, unlearning and
9200-544: The Austrian State Treaty between Austria and them was signed to end occupation and to regain Austrian sovereignty. Immediately after 1945 the majority of Austrians still saw themselves as Germans, as a broader Austrian national identity took time to develop. In a 1956 survey, 46% of Austrians still considered themselves to be Germans. Another survey carried out in 1964 revealed that only 15% of Austrians still considered themselves to be Germans. In contrast,
9384-724: The Christian Social Party that identified Austrians on the basis of their predominantly Catholic religious identity as opposed to the predominantly Protestant religious identity of the Prussians. Habsburg influence over the German Confederation, which was strongest in the southern member states, was rivalled by the increasingly powerful Prussian state. Political manoeuvering by the Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck resulted in military defeat of
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#17327918372859568-704: The German Empire in 1871, which was Prussian-dominated, without the inclusion of Austria and the German Austrians. After Austria was excluded from Germany in 1866, the following year Austria joined Hungary as a dual empire known as the Austro-Hungarian Empire . A further major change resulted from a reorganisation of the Austrian Empire in 1867 into a dual monarchy , acknowledging the Kingdom of Hungary as an independent state bound to
9752-664: The Holy Roman Empire and the German Confederation until the Austro-Prussian War in 1866 which resulted in Prussia expelling the Austrian Empire from the Confederation. Thus, when Germany was founded as a nation-state in 1871 , Austria was not a part of it . In 1867, Austria was reformed into the Austro-Hungarian Empire . After the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918 at
9936-634: The Hungarians to the east. The unification of the various territories of Austria outside of the March of Austria proper (i.e. parts of Bavaria, Swabia and Carinthia) was a gradual process of feudal politics during the High and Late Middle Ages, at first in the Archduchy of Austria under the House of Babenberg during the 12th to 13th centuries, and under the House of Habsburg after 1278 and throughout
10120-571: The Jewish Day of Atonement . "Komisch" (strange, odd, comical), Rank said on his deathbed (Lieberman, 1985, p. 389). Rollo May , a pioneer of existential psychotherapy in the United States, was deeply influenced by Rank's post-Freudian lectures and writings and always considered Rank to be the most important precursor of existential therapy. Shortly before his death, Rollo May wrote the foreword to Robert Kramer's edited collection of Rank's American lectures. "I have long considered Otto Rank to be
10304-652: The Sorbonne (Lieberman, 1985). Nin was transformed by her therapy with Rank. On her second visit to Rank, she reflects on her desire to be "re-born," feelingly, as a woman and artist. Rank, she observes, helped her move back and forth between what she could verbalize in her journals and what remained unarticulated. She discovered the quality and depth of her feelings in the wordless transitions between what she could say and what she could not say. "As he talked, I thought of my difficulties with writing, my struggles to articulate feelings not easily expressed. Of my struggles to find
10488-565: The "Wednesday Society" ( Mittwochsgesellschaft ), met regularly on Wednesday evenings at Freud's home and was the beginning of the psychoanalytic movement, expanding over time to include many more members. Each week a member would present a paper and after a short break of coffee and cakes, the group would discuss it. The main members were Otto Rank , Max Eitingon , Wilhelm Stekel , Karl Abraham , Hanns Sachs , Fritz Wittels , Max Graf , and Sandor Ferenczi . In 1908, Adler presented his paper, "The aggressive instinct in life and in neurosis", at
10672-486: The "failures of life". In 1917, he began his writings on homosexuality with a 52-page magazine, and sporadically published more thoughts throughout the rest of his life. The Dutch psychologist Gerard J. M. van den Aardweg underlines how Alfred Adler came to his conclusions for, in 1917, Adler believed that he had established a connection between homosexuality and an inferiority complex towards one's own gender. This point of view differed from Freud's theory that homosexuality
10856-410: The "first community psychologist", a discourse that formalized in the decades following Adler's death (King & Shelley, 2008). Adlerian psychology, Carl Jung 's analytical psychology , Gestalt therapy and Karen Horney 's psychodynamic approach are holistic schools of psychology. These discourses eschew a reductive approach to understanding human psychology and psychopathology. Adler developed
11040-646: The 12th century, the Marcha Orientalis under the Babenbergs became independent of Bavaria. What is today known as Lower Austria corresponds to the Marcha Orientalis , while Upper Austria corresponds to the eastern half of the core territory of Bavaria (the western half forming part of the German state of Bavaria ). The adjective Austrian entered the English language in the early 17th century, at
11224-478: The 14th and 15th centuries. The various populations of these territories were not unified under the single name of "Austrians" before the early modern period . The Habsburg , who had ruled the territory of Austria since the Late Middle Ages , greatly increased their political prestige and power with the acquisition of the lands of the crowns of Hungary and Bohemia in 1526. The Hungarian aristocracy
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#173279183728511408-522: The 15th district of the city. He was second of the seven children of a Jewish couple, Pauline (Beer) and Leopold Adler. Leopold Adler was a Hungarian -born grain merchant . Leopold's nephew was Victor Adler , a leader of the labour movement and founder of the Social Democratic Workers' Party ( SDAP ). Alfred's younger brother died in the bed next to him when Alfred was only three years old, and throughout his childhood, he maintained
11592-591: The 18th and 19th centuries were drawn to the city by the patronage of the Habsburgs , and made Vienna the European capital of classical music. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart , Franz Schubert and Johann Strauss, Jr. , among others, were associated with the city. During the Baroque period, Slavic and Hungarian folk forms influenced Austrian music. Complementing its status as a land of artists, Austria has always been
11776-488: The 1970s. As with Germany , the largest immigrant group are Turks . An estimated total of 350,000 ethnic Turks lived in Austria in 2010, accounting for 3% of the Austrian population. The rate of naturalization has increased after 1995, since which dates Turks in Austria could retain their citizenship in Turkey after naturalization in Austria ( dual citizenship ). After 2007, the rate of naturalizations has decreased due to
11960-412: The 1980s. An estimated 66% of Austrians adhered to Roman Catholicism in 2009, compared to 78% in 1991 and 89% in 1961. There is a traditional Lutheran minority, accounting for 4% of the population in 2009 (down from 6% in 1961). An estimated 17% are nonreligious (as of 2005). Islam in Austria has grown rapidly during the 1990s and 2000s, rising from 0.8% in 1971 to an estimated 6% in 2010, overtaking
12144-581: The 19th century, it referred to the citizens of the Empire of Austria (1804–1867), and from 1867 until 1918 to the citizens of Cisleithania . In the closest sense, the term Austria originally referred to the historical March of Austria , corresponding roughly to the Vienna Basin in what is today Lower Austria . Historically, Austrians were regarded as Germans and viewed themselves as such. The Austrian lands (including Bohemia) were part of
12328-613: The Analysis of the Ego (S.E., 18: 90), "is an expression taken from the theory of the emotions." Emotion is the cause of neurotic disorder. Increases in emotion, according to Freud, are unpleasurable. Cure, for Freud, means analyzing, "working through" and eventually uprooting the emotions of the patient, "like the draining of the Zuyder Zee" (Freud, S.E., 22:80). The analyst makes the unconscious conscious by providing cognitive insight to
12512-507: The Austrian Empire and its supporters. On the other hand, the "Lesser German solution" ( Kleindeutsche Lösung ) advocated only to unify the northern German states and exclude Austria; this proposal was favored by the Kingdom of Prussia and its supporters. This debate became known as German dualism . The lands later called Cisleithania (except Galicia and Dalmatia ) were members of the German Confederation since 1815 as they had been part of
12696-545: The Austrian lands, let the state turn away from Germany and turn its gaze towards the Balkan Peninsula . Thereby the influence of pan-Germanism was diminished in the Habsburg territories, but as the term "Austrians" still was used supra-national, German-speaking Austrians considered themselves Germans (and were counted as such in the censuses). After Bismarck had excluded Austria from Germany, many Austrians faced
12880-564: The Austrian parliament, elected in 1911, met in Vienna to found the Provisional National Assembly of German Austria ("Provisorische Nationalversammlung für Deutschösterreich"). On October 30, 1918, they installed the first German Austrian government, leaving the question "monarchy or republic" open. ( German nationalists and social democrats favoured the republic, the Christian Socialists wanted to keep
13064-498: The Austrian political elite referred to their experiences in concentration camps and in prison, which had brought out a desire for the lost independence of the Austrian state. Kreissler (1993) writes: "It was not until after the (long dark) night of the Third Reich that Austrian identity was brought back to consciousness by resistance and exile". Austrians developed a self-image unambiguously separate from their German neighbour. It
13248-584: The Austrians in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and the collapse of the Confederation, both effectively ending any future Austrian influence on German political events. When asked by Edward VII to abandon Austria-Hungary's alliance with Germany for co-operation with England, Franz Joseph replied "I am a German prince." The Franco-Prussian War and the establishment of a German Empire in 1871, headed by Prussia and pointedly excluding any of
13432-610: The German language. The sole official language at the federal level of Austria is German, and the standard used is called Austrian German since German is considered a pluricentric language , like English. Austrian German is defined by the Austrian Dictionary ( German : Österreichisches Wörterbuch ), published under the authority of the Austrian Federal Ministry of Education, Arts and Culture . Thus, all websites, official announcements and most of
13616-610: The Holy Roman Empire until 1806. Until 1848, Austria and its chancellor Prince Metternich unanimously dominated the confederation. The developing sense of a German nationality had been accelerated massively as a consequence of the political turmoil and wars that engulfed Central Europe following the French Revolution and the rise to power of Napoleon Bonaparte . Although the years of peace after Napoleon's fall quickly saw German nationalism largely pushed out of
13800-477: The Latin individuals meaning indivisibility, a term intended to emphasize holism—is both a social and community psychology as well as a depth psychology. Adler was an early advocate in psychology for prevention and emphasized the training of parents, teachers, social workers and so on in democratic approaches that allow a child to exercise their power through reasoned decision making whilst co-operating with others. He
13984-617: The Nazi capitulation, they accepted the Declaration of Independence which Austrian politicians had signed at Vienna's city hall on April 27, 1945, and they made the first national elections possible in the autumn of that year. By the end of 1945, Austria, under the supervision of the Allied Council in Vienna, had a democratic parliament and government again, acknowledged by all four allied occupation zones. The Austrian resistance to
14168-563: The Nazi rule started with the Anschluss in 1938. Historians estimate that there were about 100,000 members of resistance facing 700,000 NSDAP members in Austria. The sign of the Austrian resistance was O5, where the 5 stands for E and OE is the abbreviation of Österreich with Ö as OE. The end of World War II in 1945 saw the re-establishment of an independent Austria, although the Allied Powers remained in occupation until 1955, when
14352-572: The Pleasure Principle , without citing Adler, he was reproached that Adler had proposed the aggressive drive in his 1908 paper (Eissler, 1971). Freud later commented in a 1923 footnote he added to the Little Hans case that, "I have myself been obliged to assert the existence of an aggressive instinct" (1909, p. 140, 2), while pointing out that his conception of an aggressive drive differs from that of Adler. A long-serving member of
14536-522: The allies declared that they would reestablish an independent Austrian state after their victory (the Moscow Declaration of 1943) the only Austrians who heard them were those secretly listening to enemy broadcasts ("Feindsender"), which was a criminal offence and heavily prosecuted. Though the Allied forces treated Austria as a belligerent party in the war and maintained occupation of it after
14720-402: The anti-Nazi/anti-Socialist clerico-authoritarianist state ideology known as Austrofascism from 1934 to 1938. The Engelbert Dollfuss / Kurt von Schuschnigg government accepted that Austria was a "German state" and believed Austrians were "better Germans", but strongly opposed the annexing of Austria to Nazi Germany. By March 1938, with Nazi governments in control of both Berlin and Vienna,
14904-491: The basis of psychic compensation and lead to mental health difficulties. Adler also spoke of "safeguarding tendencies" and neurotic behavior long before Anna Freud wrote about the same phenomena in her book The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense . Adlerian-based scholarly, clinical and social practices focus on the following topics: Adler created Adlerian Therapy, because he believed that one's psyche should be studied in
15088-559: The calm, unemotional reserve; the unruffled assurance that one knows better; and the theories, the seeking and finding of the causes of failure in the patient instead of partly in ourselves … and finally the pessimistic view, shared only with a few, that neurotics are a rabble [ Gesindel ], good only to support us financially and to allow us to learn from their cases: psychoanalysis as a therapy may be worthless" (Ferenczi, 1995, pp. 185–186). After Freud turned against Rank, Ferenczi publicly rejected The Trauma of Birth , shunning Rank during
15272-545: The case histories to find how such differences between people were then absent from the literature." (Roazen & Swerdloff, 1995, pp. 82–83) All emotional experience by human beings was being reduced by analysis to a derivative, no matter how disguised, of libido. For Freud, emotion was always sexual, derived from a dangerous Id that must be surgically uprooted: "Where Id was [ Wo es war ]," Freud said famously, "there ego shall be [ soll ich werden ]" (S.E., 22:80). "Libido," according to Freud's 1921 work on Group Psychology and
15456-643: The central government set up in Vienna in the mid-18th century. The term Austrian in these times was used for identifying subjects of the Domus Austriae, the House of Austria, as the dynasty was called in Europe, regardless of their ethnic ancestry. Although not formally a united state, the lands ruled by the Habsburgs would sometimes be known by the name "Austria". In reality they remained a disparate range of semi-autonomous states, most of which were part of
15640-682: The city only rose to importance in the High Middle Ages as the chief settlement of the March of Austria (the March river just east of Vienna marks the ancient border between Francia and the Avars). After the defeat of the Magyars at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955, the East March or March of Austria came to be the easternmost portion of the Holy Roman Empire , bordering on Moravia to
15824-523: The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire , the Social Democratic Party of Austria came to power in the newly-formed Austrian Republic. The Social Democrats supported welfare programs with a particular focus on childhood educational reform. The resulting climate enabled Adler and his associates to establish 28 child guidance clinics, and Vienna became the first city in the world to provide schoolchildren with free educational therapy. At
16008-466: The complex network of states that was the Holy Roman Empire (the imperial institutions of which were themselves controlled for much of their later existence by the Habsburgs). However, the second half of the 18th century saw an increasingly centralised state begin to develop under the reign of Maria Theresa of Austria and her son Joseph II . After the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon ,
16192-409: The context of that person's environment. In one of his earliest and most famous publications, "Study of Organ Inferiority and Its Psychical Compensation," Adler outlined the basics for what would be the beginning foundation of his personality theory. The article focuses mainly on the topics of organ inferiority and compensation. Organ inferiority is when one organ, or portion of the body, is weaker than
16376-419: The country was annexed to Germany ( Anschluss ) as Ostmark . In 1942 the name was changed to the "Alpen-und Donau-Reichsgaue" ("Alpine and Danubian Gaue"), thus eradicating any links with a special Austrian past. Some of the most prominent Nazis were native Austrians, including Adolf Hitler , Ernst Kaltenbrunner , Arthur Seyss-Inquart , Franz Stangl , Otto Skorzeny , and Odilo Globocnik , as were 40% of
16560-463: The creative will, and "neurosis as a failure in creativity" (Rank, 1996). Just as Erik Erikson was the first analyst to focus on identity and adulthood, Rank was the first to propose that separation from outworn thoughts, feelings and behaviors is the quintessence of psychological growth and development. In the late 1920s, after he left Freud's inner circle, Rank explored how human beings can learn to assert their will within relationships, and advocated
16744-525: The cultural anthropologist Ernest Becker won the Pulitzer prize for The Denial of Death (1973), which was based on Rank's post-Freudian writings, especially Will Therapy (1929–31), Psychology and the Soul (1930) and Art and Artist (1932/1989). Becker's posthumously published book, Escape from Evil (1975) was devoted in large measure to exploring Rank's psychoanalysis rooted in the idea of history as
16928-420: The defeat of Nazi Germany and the end of World War II in Europe , both the political ideology of pan-Germanism and the union with Germany have become associated with Nazism , resulting in Austrians developing their own separate and distinct national identity . Today, the vast majority of Austrians do not identify as German. The English word Austrian is a derivative of the proper name Austria, which
17112-466: The discovery of willing. According to Rank (1932/1989), unlearning or breaking out of our shell from the inside is "a separation [that] is so hard, not only because it involves persons and ideas that one reveres, but because the victory is always, at bottom, and in some form, won over a part of one's ego" (p. 375). In the organizational context, learning how to unlearn is vital because what we assume to be true has merged into our identity. We refer to
17296-462: The drama therapy program at New York University], who attempted to conceptualize balance as an integration of role and counterrole" (Landy, 2008, p. 29). Rank was the first to see therapy as a learning and unlearning experience focusing on feelings. The therapeutic relationship allows the patient to: (1) learn more creative ways of thinking, feeling and being in the here-and-now; and (2) unlearn self-destructive ways of thinking, feeling and being in
17480-501: The dual yearnings for individuation and connection, the will to separate and the will to unite. Decades before Ronald Fairbairn , now credited by many as the inventor in the 1940s of modern object-relations theory, Rank's 1926 lecture on "The Genesis of the Object Relation" marks the first complete statement of this theory (Rank, 1996, pp. 140–149). By 1926, Rank was persona non grata in the official psychoanalytic world. There
17664-469: The dynasty, the term "German Austria" (Deutschösterreich) was a term used in the press to mean all the Austrian districts with an ethnic German majority among the inhabitants. Austrian pan-Germans such as Georg Ritter von Schönerer and his followers agitated against the "multi-national" Austro-Hungarian Empire and advocated for German Austria to join the German Empire. Although many Austrians shared
17848-528: The early 1930s, after most of Adler's Austrian clinics had been closed due to his Jewish heritage (despite his conversion to Christianity), Adler left Austria for a professorship at the Long Island College of Medicine in the US, in 1934. Adler was influenced by the mental construct ideas of the philosopher Hans Vaihinger ( The Philosophy of 'As if' ) and the literature of Dostoyevsky . While still
18032-657: The east. In the 8th century, the former territories of Raetia and Noricum fell under Carolingian rule , and were divided into the duchies of Swabia , Bavaria and principality Carantania . Pannonia until the end of the 8th century was part of the Avar Khaganate . The " East March " ( Ostmark ) during the 9th century was the boundary region separating East Francia from the Avars and the Magyars . The site of Vienna had been settled since Celtic times (as Vindobona ), but
18216-601: The emperor Franz II formally founded the Austrian Empire in 1804 and became as Franz I the first Austrian emperor. For the first time the citizens of the various territories were now subjects of the one same state, while most of the German states, Prussia excluded, still cultivated their Kleinstaaterei and did not succeed in forming a homogenous empire. Following Prussia's victory in the Austro-Prussian war in 1866, Otto von Bismarck successfully unified
18400-469: The empire desired the reinforcement of an ethnic German identity and that the empire would collapse and allow for a quick annexation of Austria to Germany. Although it was precisely because of Bismarck's policies that Austria and the German Austrians were excluded from Germany, many Austrian pan-Germans idolized him. While the high bureaucracy of Austria and many Austrian army officers considered themselves "black-yellow" (the Habsburg colours), i.e. loyal to
18584-568: The end of World War I, Austria was reduced to a rump state and adopted and briefly used the name the Republic of German-Austria ( German : Republik Deutschösterreich ) in an attempt for union with Germany, but was forbidden due to the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) . The First Austrian Republic was founded in 1919. Nazi Germany annexed Austria with the Anschluss in 1938. After
18768-540: The entire profession of counseling. The New York writer Paul Goodman , who was co-founder with Fritz Perls of the Gestalt method of psychotherapy that makes Otto Rank's "here-and-now" central to its approach, described Rank's post-Freudian ideas on art and creativity as "beyond praise" in Gestalt Therapy (Perls, Goodman and Hefferline, 1951, p. 395). Erving Polster, another well-known Gestalt therapist,
18952-409: The family. It is important to note the difference between psychological and ordinal birth order (e.g. in some families, a second child might behave like a firstborn, in which case they are considered to be an ordinal secondborn but a psychological firstborn). Mosak, H.H. & Maniacci, M. P. (1999). A primer of Adlerian Psychology. Taylor and Francis. Adler believed that the firstborn child would be in
19136-533: The fictive final goal can serve a persecutory function that is ever-present in subjectivity (though its trace springs are usually unconscious). The end goal of being "thin" is fictive, however, since it can never be subjectively achieved. Teleology serves another vital function for Adlerians. Chilon's "hora telos" ("see the end, consider the consequences") provides for both healthy and maladaptive psychodynamics. Here we also find Adler's emphasis on personal responsibility in mentally healthy subjects who seek their own and
19320-446: The final form of humanity – of an imagined state in which all the problems of life are solved and all our relations to the external world rightly adjusted – is a regulative ideal, a goal that gives our direction. This goal of perfection must bear within it the goal of an ideal community, because all that we value in life, all that endures and continues to endure, is eternally the product of this social feeling. This social feeling for Adler
19504-745: The first biography of Rank and had a profound understanding of his thinking on how the creative will emerges from the empathic relationship between client and social worker. In addition, it was Jessie Taft and Frederick Allen's work at the Philadelphia Child Guidance Clinic that introduced Carl Rogers , then a psychologist in the Child Study Department of the Rochester Society for the Prevention of Cruelty Children, to "relationship therapy" as
19688-413: The foundational importance of childhood in developing personality and any tendency towards various forms of psychopathology. The best way to inoculate against what are now termed "personality disorders" (what Adler had called the "neurotic character"), or a tendency to various neurotic conditions (depression, anxiety, etc.), is to train a child to be and feel an equal part of the family. The responsibility of
19872-716: The foundational source of all art, myth, religion, philosophy, therapy – indeed of all human culture and civilization. It was the first time that anyone in the inner circle had dared to suggest that the Oedipus complex might not be the supreme causal factor in psychoanalysis. Rank coined the term "pre-Oedipal" in a public psychoanalytic forum in 1925. In a 1930 self-analysis of his own writings, Rank observes that "the pre-Oedipal super-ego has since been overemphasized by Melanie Klein , without any reference to me." After some hesitation, Freud distanced himself from The Trauma of Birth, signaling to other members of his inner circle that Rank
20056-557: The great unacknowledged genius in Freud's circle," said May (Rank, 1996, p. xi). In 1924, Jessie Taft , an early feminist philosopher, social worker, and student of George H. Mead , met Otto Rank. After becoming his patient, she was inspired to develop "relationship therapy" and eventually, the "functional model of social work" at the Pennsylvania School of Social Work, both explicitly based on Rank's ideas. Taft (1958) wrote
20240-617: The group, he made many more beyond this 1908 pivotal contribution to the group, and Adler became president of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society eight years later (1910). He remained a member of the Society until 1911, when he and a group of his supporters formally disengaged from Freud's circle, the first of the great dissenters from orthodox psychoanalysis (preceding Carl Jung 's split in 1914). This departure suited both Freud and Adler, since they had grown to dislike each other. During his association with Freud, Adler frequently maintained his own ideas which often diverged from Freud's. While Adler
20424-539: The here-and-now. Patterns of self-destruction ("neurosis") represent a failure of creativity and not, as Freud assumed, a retreat from sexuality. Rank's psychoanalysis of creativity has recently been applied to action learning , an inquiry-based process of group problem solving, team building, leader development and organizational learning (Kramer 2007; 2008). Transformative action learning, synthesized by Robert Kramer from Rank's writings on art and spirituality, involves real people, working on real problems in real time. Once
20608-482: The idea of organ inferiority was replaced with feelings of inferiority instead. As Adler's theory progressed, he continued evolving his theory and key ideas. Adler's book, Über den nervösen Charakter ( The Neurotic Character ) defines his earlier key ideas. He argued that human personality could be explained teleologically : parts of the individual's unconscious self ideally work to convert feelings of inferiority to superiority (or rather completeness). The desires of
20792-413: The identity of an individual as a "mindset." We refer to the identity of an organizational group as a "culture." Action learners learn how to question, probe and separate from, both kinds of identity—i.e., their "individual" selves and their "social" selves. By opening themselves to critical inquiry, they begin to learn how to emancipate themselves from what they "know" – they learn how to unlearn. In 1974,
20976-425: The ideology which they have themselves fostered," according to Art and Artist (Rank, 1932/1989, p. 368). Through the lens of Otto Rank's work on understanding art and artists, transformative action learning can be seen as the never-completed process of learning how to "step out of the frame" of any mindset, whether one's own or the culture's – in other words, of learning how to unlearn. (Kramer, 2012). Comparing
21160-490: The importance of the social element in the re-adjustment process of the individual and to carry psychiatry into the community. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Adler as the 67th most eminent psychologist of the 20th century. Adler was born on February 7, 1870 at Mariahilfer Straße 208 in Rudolfsheim , a village on the western fringes of Vienna , a modern part of Rudolfsheim-Fünfhaus ,
21344-401: The incalculable number of impressions that an individual receives, she chooses to remember only those which she considers, however dimly, to have a bearing on her problems." Adler often emphasized one's psychological birth order as having an influence on the style of life and the strengths and weaknesses in one's psychological make up. Birth order referred to the placement of siblings within
21528-472: The incomplete and confused theory of emotions in psychoanalysis. "[S]uch comments persisted through to the 1990s" (Weinstein, 2001, p. 40). "The emotional impoverishment of psychoanalysis," wrote Ernest Becker (1973) in The Denial of Death , which was strongly influenced by Rank's ideas, "must extend also to many analysts themselves and to psychiatrists who come under its ideology. This fact helps explain
21712-422: The individual and then wanted to release it from there, while as a matter of fact the same tendency is working here and now" (Rank, 1929–31, p. 39). Instead of the word "Verdrängung" ("repression"), which laid stress on unconscious repression of the past, Rank preferred to use the word "Verleugnung" ("denial"), which focused instead on the emotional will to remain ill in the present: "The neurotic lives too much in
21896-427: The inter-war period. Proponents who recognize Austrians as a nation claim that Austrians have Celtic heritage, as Austria is the location of the first characteristically Celtic culture to exist. It is said that Celtic Austria became culturally Romanized under Roman rule and later culturally Germanized after Germanic invasions. Contemporary Austrians express pride in having Celtic heritage and Austria possesses one of
22080-513: The intersubjective relationship, two first-person experiences, within the analytic situation. According to Sandor Rado , an influential analyst in New York who helped found the psychoanalytic center at Columbia University, "The characteristic of that time was a neglect of a human being's emotional life ... Everybody was looking for oral, pregenital, and genital components in motivation. But that some people are happy, others unhappy, some afraid, or full of anger, and some loving and affectionate – read
22264-586: The languages of the Tyrol , Carinthia , and Styria and the former including the dialects of Vienna , Burgenland , Upper Austria , and Lower Austria . The vast majority of Austrians are however able to speak Austrian Standard German in addition to their native dialect, as it is taught in all modern day schools. The minority languages Slovene , Croatian and Hungarian are spoken and officially recognized by some states of Austria. Like most of Central Europe , Austria has had high levels of immigration since
22448-489: The largest collections of Celtic artifacts in Europe. Austria's multicultural history and geographical location has resulted in post-Soviet era immigration from Slovenia , the Czech Republic , Hungary , Slovakia , Romania , and Poland . As with neighbouring Germany, there has also been heavy immigration from Turkey and former Yugoslav states such as Croatia and Serbia . Austrians have historically spoken
22632-514: The latter's wife being for example an intimate friend of many of the Russian Marxists such as Leon Trotsky . In 1927, entrusted the founding of the Adler's Society to Dimitrije Mitrinović , a Serbian philosopher, revolutionary and mystic. In Berlin, in summer 1930, Adler met with English occultist Aleister Crowley . Their connection was through Karl Germer , a German and American businessman and occultist known as Frater Saturnus, who
22816-739: The media are carried out in Austrian German. In terms of native language, it is generally not Austrian German that is used, but instead local dialects of the Austro-Bavarian and Allemannic (in Vorarlberg and the Tiroler Außerfern) family. The Austro-Bavarian dialects are considered to belong either to the Central Austro-Bavarian or Southern Austro-Bavarian subgroups, with the latter encompassing
23000-467: The members of the Vienna circle . Austrian cuisine, which is often incorrectly equated with Viennese cuisine, is derived from the cuisine of the Austro-Hungarian Empire . In addition to native regional traditions it has been influenced above all by German, Hungarian , Czech , Jewish , Italian and Polish cuisines, from which both dishes and methods of food preparation have often been borrowed. Goulash
23184-407: The middle child, who would experience neither dethronement nor overindulgence, was most likely to develop into a successful individual yet also most likely to be a rebel and to feel squeezed-out. Adler himself was the third (some sources credit second) in a family of six children. Adler never produced any scientific support for his interpretations on birth order roles, nor did he feel the need to. Yet
23368-400: The monarchy.) This government in the first days of November took over the duties of the last imperial-royal government in a peaceful way. Initially the new state adopted the name " German Austria ", reflecting the republic being the German part of the old Austria and showing the popular desire to unite with the new German republic. On November 12, 1918, the provisional national assembly voted for
23552-614: The most important psychologists of the 20th century. Stanislav Grof , a founder of transpersonal psychology , based much of his work in prenatal and perinatal psychology on Rank's The Trauma of Birth (Kripal, 2007, pp. 249–269). In 2008, the philosopher Maxine Sheets-Johnstone published The Roots of Morality (Pennsylvania State University Press). She compares Rank's thought favorably to that of René Descartes, Martin Heidegger and Jacques Derrida: "Because immortality ideologies were originally recognized and in fact so named by Rank,
23736-440: The most revealing are the individual's memories." Adler viewed memories as expressions of "private logic" and as metaphors for an individual's personal philosophy of life or "lifestyle". He maintained that memories are never incidental or trivial; rather, they are chosen reminders: "(A person's) memories are the reminders she carries about with her of her limitations and of the meanings of events. There are no 'chance' memories. Out of
23920-452: The nations of Austria to create national councils, with the aim to instigate a restructuring of the state under Habsburg rule. The nations followed the invitation (the Czechs had founded their national council already before the invitation) but ignored the will of the emperor to keep them in a restructured Austrian state. Their goal was total independence. On October 21, the German members of
24104-406: The new Austrian state, as well as in the southern part of Tyrol which now found itself part of Italy. In total, more than 3.5 million German-speaking Austrians were forced to remain outside the Austrian state. The collapse of the empire caused an apparent struggle for some German Austrians between an "Austrian" and a "German" character. The idea of unifying Austria with Germany was motivated both by
24288-521: The north and on the Kingdom of Hungary to the east. As a consequence, the national character of the Austro-Bavarian speaking majority population of Austria throughout their early modern and modern history remained characterized by their neighbourhood to the West Slavs ( Czechs , Slovaks ) to the north, the South Slavs ( Slovenes , Carinthian Slovenes , Burgenland Croats ) to the south, and
24472-415: The optimal development of the child is not limited to the mother or father, but rather includes teachers and society more broadly. Adler argued therefore that teachers, nurses, social workers, and so on require training in parent education to complement the work of the family in fostering a democratic character. When a child does not feel equal and is enacted upon (abused through pampering or neglect) he or she
24656-625: The past [and] to that extent he actually does not live. He suffers … because he clings to [the past], wants to cling to it, in order to protect himself from experience [ Erlebnis ], the emotional surrender to the present" (Rank, 1929–31, p. 27). In France and later in America, Rank enjoyed great success as a therapist and writer from 1926 to 1939. Traveling frequently between France and America, Rank lectured at universities such as Harvard , Yale , Stanford , and University of Pennsylvania on relational, experiential and "here-and-now" psychotherapy, art,
24840-562: The patient, thereby subduing the pressing drive for the irrational, for emotions – for the Id – to emerge from the patient's unconscious (Kramer, 2019, pp. 45–48). In a 1927 lecture, Rank (1996) observes that "surgical therapy is uprooting and isolates the individual emotionally, as it tries to deny the emotional life" (p. 169), the same attack he and Ferenczi had leveled against psychoanalytic practice in their joint work. Reducing all emotional experience—all feeling, loving, thinking, and willing—to sex
25024-493: The practical application of Rank's ideas. In 1936 Carl Rogers , influenced by social workers on his staff trained at the University of Pennsylvania School of Social Work, invited Otto Rank to give a series of lectures in New York on Rank's post-Freudian models of experiential and relational therapy. Rogers was transformed by these lectures and always credited Rank with having profoundly shaped "client-centered" therapy and
25208-431: The process of unlearning to the "breaking out" process of birth, Rank was the first psychologist to suggest that a continual capacity to separate from "internal mental objects" – from internalized institutions, beliefs and neuroses; from the restrictions of culture, social conformity and received wisdom – is the sine qua non for lifelong creativity. In a 1938 lecture at the University of Minnesota, Rank said: "Life in itself
25392-493: The public political arena by reactionary absolutism, the Revolutions of 1848 established it as a significant political issue for a period of nearly hundred years. Political debate now centred on the nature of a possible future German state to replace the Confederation, and part of that debate concerned the issue of whether or not the Austrian lands had a place in the German polity. When Emperor Franz Joseph I ordered to build
25576-400: The question of the human need for immortality ideologies" (Sheets-Johnstone, 2008, p. 64). Sheets-Johnstone concludes her book on a note reminiscent of Rank's plea for the human value of mutual love over arid intellectual insight: "Surely it is time for Homo sapiens sapiens to turn away from the pursuit of domination over all and to begin cultivating and developing its sapiential wisdom in
25760-625: The remaining part of the empire, as well independent, by a personal and real union, the Emperor of Austria being the Apostolic King of Hungary (with both titles on the same level). The Austrian half, a patchwork of crown-lands, broadly coterminous with the modern-day Austria, the Czech Republic , and parts of Slovenia , Poland , Ukraine , Italy , and Croatia , was bound together by the common constitution of 1867, stating that all subjects now would carry "uniform Austrian citizenship" and have
25944-563: The republic and for unification with Germany with a large majority. The creation of the Czecho-Slovak and South Slav states , the dissolution of the real union with Hungary , and the post-war treaties imposed by the victorious Allies combined to see the newly established Austrian republic both with the boundaries it has today, and a largely homogeneous German-speaking population. In the Treaty of Saint-Germain , in September 1919
26128-443: The rest. Adler postulated that the body's other organs would work together in order to compensate for the weakness of this "inferior" organ. When compensation occurs, other areas of the body make up for the function lacking in the inferior portion. In some cases, the weakness may be overcompensated transforming it into a strength. An example would be an individual with a weak leg becoming a great runner later on. As his theory progressed,
26312-461: The role of Habsburg Austria in the Thirty Years' War . The music in the tradition of Viennese classicism is sacral to a significant extent, including works such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 's Great Mass in C minor , Joseph Haydn 's masses (1750-1802), Ludwig van Beethoven 's Mass in C major (1807), down to Anton Bruckner 's Te Deum (1903). Secularism has been on the rise since
26496-705: The same fundamental rights. These non-Hungarian lands were not officially called the Austrian Empire. Until 1915, they were officially called "the Kingdoms and States Represented in the Imperial Council" and politicians used the technical term Cisleithania (labelling the Hungarian lands as Transleithania ). The general public called them Austria, and in 1915, the non-parliamentary Cisleithanian government decreed to use this term officially, too. The idea of grouping all Germans into one nation-state gave way to
26680-399: The same time, from 1921 onwards, Adler was a frequent lecturer in Europe and the United States, becoming a visiting professor at Columbia University in 1927. His clinical treatment methods for adults were aimed at uncovering the hidden purpose of symptoms using the therapeutic functions of insight and meaning. Adler was concerned with the overcoming of the superiority/inferiority dynamic and
26864-552: The same views, a lot of them still showed allegiance to the Habsburg monarchy and hoped for Austria to remain an independent country. Although not as radical as Schönerer and his followers, populists such as Karl Lueger used anti-semitism and pan-Germanism as a form of populism to further their own political purposes. The last year of World War I saw the collapse of Habsburg authority throughout an increasingly greater part of its empire. On October 16, 1918, emperor Karl I invited
27048-423: The self ideal were countered by social and ethical demands. If the corrective factors were disregarded and the individual overcompensated, then an inferiority complex would occur, fostering the danger of the individual becoming egocentric, power-hungry and aggressive or worse. Common therapeutic tools include the use of humor, historical instances, and paradoxical injunctions. Adler maintained that human psychology
27232-411: The self-centered attributes of the illness and the clear escapism from social responsibilities by pathological addicts put Adler's treatment modalities clearly into a modern contextual reasoning. Adler's ideas regarding non- heterosexual sexuality and various social forms of deviance have long been controversial. Along with prostitution and criminality, Adler had classified 'homosexuals' as falling among
27416-422: The sense that Hans Vaihinger spoke of ( fictio ). Usually there is a fictional final goal which can be deciphered alongside of innumerable sub-goals. The inferiority/superiority dynamic is constantly at work through various forms of compensation and overcompensation. For example, in anorexia nervosa the fictive final goal is to "be perfectly thin" (overcompensation on the basis of a feeling of inferiority). Hence,
27600-401: The sexual sphere, therefore his sexualization in reality means emotionalization" (p. 165), two experiences that psychoanalysts continued to conflate for half a century after Freud's death. Psychoanalysis had no theory of emotional experience and, by extension, no theory of emotional intelligence . Weinstein (2001) identified over two dozen articles in the major psychoanalytic journals criticizing
27784-399: The significance of Rank's pre-Oedipal theory but not on Rank's objections to classical analytic technique. The recommendation in Freud's technical papers for analysts to be emotionless, according to Ferenczi and Rank (1924), had led to "an unnatural elimination of all human factors in the analysis" (pp. 40–41), and to "a theorizing of experience [ Erlebnis ]" (p. 41): the feeling experience of
27968-438: The social good. As a psychodynamic system, Adlerians excavate the past of a client/patient in order to alter their future and increase integration into community in the 'here-and-now'. The 'here-and-now' aspects are especially relevant to those Adlerians who emphasize humanism and/or existentialism in their approaches. Metaphysical Adlerians emphasize a spiritual holism in keeping with what Jan Smuts articulated (Smuts coined
28152-469: The staff at Nazi extermination camps . During the war, Austrians' infatuation with Germany faded as Austrian-born Hitler 's series of victories ended. When social democrat Adolf Schärf , from 1945 party president and vice-chancellor and from 1957 federal president of Austria, was visited by German friends who wanted to talk about post-war government, he spontaneously explained to his surprised visitors, "love for Germany has been put out in Austrians". When
28336-411: The striving to find a meaning in one's life is the primary motivational force in man. That is why I speak of a will to meaning in contrast to the "pleasure principle" (or, as we could also term it, the will to pleasure ) on which Freudian psychoanalysis is centered, as well as in contrast to the will to power on which Adlerian psychology, using the term "striving for superiority," is focused. In
28520-457: The subject's Style of Life. In sum, the subjective experiences of sibling positionality and inter-relations are important in terms of the dynamics of psychology, for Adlerian therapists and personality theorists, not the cookbook predictions that may or may not have been objectively true in Adler's time. For Adler, birth order answered the question, "Why do children, who are raised in the same family, grow up with very different personalities?" While
28704-399: The term "holism"), that is, the spiritual sense of one-ness that holism usually implies (etymology of holism: from ὅλος holos, a Greek word meaning all, entire, total) Smuts believed that evolution involves a progressive series of lesser wholes integrating into larger ones. Whilst Smuts' text Holism and Evolution is thought to be a work of science, it actually attempts to unify evolution with
28888-468: The terrible deadness of emotion that one experiences in psychiatric settings, the heavy weight of the character armor erected against the world" (p. 195n). Written privately in 1932, Ferenczi's Clinical Diary identified the "personal causes for the erroneous development of psychoanalysis" (Ferenczi, 1995, p. 184). According to Ferenczi, "… One learned from [Freud] and from his kind of technique various things that made one's life and work more comfortable:
29072-455: The time referring to Habsburg Austria in the sense of "members of the Austrian branch of the House of Habsburg " (the junior branch emerging from the dynastic split into Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs in 1521), but from the 18th century also "a native or inhabitant of Austria". The territory of what is today Austria in the Roman era was divided into Raetia , Noricum and Pannonia . Noricum
29256-513: The title page of Freud's greatest work from 1914 until 1930. Between 1915 and 1918, Rank served as Secretary of the International Psychoanalytical Association which Freud had founded in 1910. Everyone in the small psychoanalytic world understood how much Freud respected Rank and his prolific creativity in expanding psychoanalytic theory. Freud announced to his inner circle, full of jealous rivals, that Rank
29440-467: The traditional size of the Lutheran community in Austria. This rapid growth was due to the significant immigration to Austria from Turkey and Yugoslavia during the 1990s to 2000s. Otto Rank Otto Rank ( / r ɑː ŋ k / ; Austrian German: [ʀaŋk] ; né Rosenfeld ; 22 April 1884 – 31 October 1939) was an Austrian psychoanalyst , writer, and philosopher. Born in Vienna , he
29624-419: The ultimate fulfillment of evolution." Adler follows this pronouncement with a defense of metaphysics: I see no reason to be afraid of metaphysics; it has had a great influence on human life and development. We are not blessed with the possession of absolute truth; on that account we are compelled to form theories for ourselves about our future, about the results of our actions, etc. Our idea of social feeling as
29808-579: The union with Germany was prohibited, and the new republic's name "Deutschösterreich" was prohibited by the treaty; instead the term "Republic of Austria" was used. The westernmost province Vorarlberg 's wish to unite with Switzerland was also ignored. On October 21, 1919, the state changed its name accordingly. Many German Austrian communities were left scattered throughout the other new states, especially in Czechoslovakia, where more than 3 million German Bohemians had not been allowed to become part of
29992-437: The value of the hypothesis was to extend the importance of siblings in marking the psychology of the individual beyond Freud's more limited emphasis on the mother and father. Hence, Adlerians spend time therapeutically mapping the influence that siblings (or lack thereof) had on the psychology of their clients. The idiographic approach entails an excavation of the phenomenology of one's birth order position for likely influence on
30176-438: The way for encounter to become accepted as a deep therapeutic agent" (Polster, 1968, p. 6). Rank also affected the practice of action-oriented and reflective therapies such as dramatic role-playing and psychodrama. "Although there is no evidence of a direct influence, Rank's ideas found new life in the work of such action psychotherapists as Moreno, who developed a psychodrama technique of doubling ... and Landy [director of
30360-595: The world, perspectives that allow them to see aspects of the world that no artists, including themselves, have ever seen before. The heart of transformative action learning, as developed by Kramer, is asking powerful questions to promote the unlearning or letting go of taken-for-granted assumptions and beliefs. The most creative artists, such as Rembrandt , Michelangelo and Leonardo , know how to separate even from their own greatest public successes, from earlier artistic incarnations of themselves. Their "greatness consists precisely in this reaching out beyond themselves, beyond
30544-618: The world. The attack leveled in 1924 by Ferenczi and Rank on the increasing "fanaticism for interpretation" and the "unnatural elimination of all human factors" from the practice of analysis would be forgotten (Kramer, 2019, p. 19). Relational, expressive and "here-and-now" therapy would not be acceptable to most members of the American Psychoanalytic Association or the International Psychoanalytic Association for half
30728-520: The youngest with older siblings. The position in the family constellation, Adler said, is the reason for these differences in personality and not genetics: a point later taken up by Eric Berne . Adler's insight into birth order, compensation and issues relating to the individuals' perception of community also led him to investigate the causes and treatment of substance abuse disorders, particularly alcoholism and morphinism , which already were serious social problems of his time. Adler's work with addicts
30912-417: Was "my heir." In 1924, Rank published Das Trauma der Geburt (translated into English as The Trauma of Birth in 1929), exploring how art, myth, religion, philosophy and therapy were illuminated by separation anxiety in the "phase before the development of the Oedipus complex." But there was no such phase in Freud's theories. The Oedipus complex , Freud explained, was the nucleus of the neurosis and
31096-652: Was a Celtic kingdom, while the Pannonii were of Illyrian stock. The Raetians were an ancient alpine people probably akin to the Etruscans . During the Migration period ( c. 6th century ), these territories were settled by the Bavarians and other Germanic groups in the west ( Alemanni in Vorarlberg , Lombards in Tyrol ), and by Slavic groups (principality Carantania ), Huns and Avars in
31280-487: Was a social idealist, and was known as a socialist in his early years of association with psychoanalysis (1902–1911). Adler was pragmatic and believed that lay people could make practical use of the insights of psychology. Adler was also an early supporter of feminism in psychology and the social world, believing that feelings of superiority and inferiority were often gendered and expressed symptomatically in characteristic masculine and feminine styles. These styles could form
31464-460: Was also strongly influenced by Rank's practice of focusing on the "here-and-now": "Rank brought the human relationship directly into his office. He influenced analysts to take seriously the actual present interaction between therapist and patient, rather than maintain the fixed, distant, 'as though' relationship that had given previous analysts an emotional buffer for examining the intensities of therapeutic sensation and wish. Rank's contributions opened
31648-637: Was based on cultural achievements of the past, the Moscow Declaration , geopolitical neutrality, language variation, the Habsburg legacy, and the separation of the two empires in the late 19th century. The German Empire was formed without Austria and the Austro-Hungarian Empire in the arrangement known as the Kleindeutsche Lösung or "the Little Germany Solution". It proved favourable for Austrians not to be held guilty for World War II, genocide and war crimes, since Austria
31832-403: Was considered a victim of Nazi Germany , although some historians call this a "big lie" and have challenged this statement. Unlike earlier in the 20th century, in 1987 only 6% of Austrians identified themselves as "Germans". Today over 90% of the Austrians see themselves as an independent nation. The logic of the existence of an independent Austrian state is no longer questioned as it was in
32016-688: Was four years old. At the age of four, he developed pneumonia and heard a doctor say to his father, "Your boy is lost". Along with being run over twice and witnessing his younger brother's death, this sickness contributed to his overall fear of death. At that point, he decided to be a physician. He was very interested in the subjects of psychology, sociology and philosophy. After studying at the University of Vienna , he specialized as an eye doctor , and later in neurology and psychiatry. Adler began his medical career as an ophthalmologist , but he soon switched to general practice, and established his surgery in
32200-420: Was how the individual feels a sense of worth and belonging in the family and society. His earlier work focused on inferiority, coining the term inferiority complex , an isolating element which he argued plays a key role in personality development. Alfred Adler considered a human being as an individual whole, and therefore he called his school of psychology "Individual Psychology". Adler was the first to emphasize
32384-465: Was more intimate intellectually than his own sons, to be the most brilliant of his Viennese disciples. Encouraged and supported by Freud, Rank completed the "Gymnasium" or college-preparatory high school, attended the University of Vienna, and was awarded his PhD in literature in 1912. His thesis, on the Lohengrin saga, was published in 1911, the first Freudian doctoral dissertation to be published as
32568-480: Was more successful at retaining the Magyars ' cultural and political preponderance in multi-ethnic Hungary than Bohemia, on three sides surrounded by German neighbours, which underwent a period of intense German colonisation, germanizing the leading classes of the Czech people as well. The common German identity of lands such as Carinthia, Styria, or Tyrol, and the ruling dynasty made it easier for these lands to accept
32752-426: Was one of Sigmund Freud 's closest colleagues for 20 years, a prolific writer on psychoanalytic themes, editor of the two leading analytic journals of the era, including Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse (“International Journal of Psychoanalysis”), managing director of Freud's publishing house, and a creative theorist and therapist. In 1926, Rank left Vienna for Paris and, for the remainder of his life, led
32936-472: Was one of Adler’s patients. Crowley later claimed to “know [Adler] personally” and even to have “handled” some of his Berlin patients and to have “put a lot of my own theory and practice into it.” Following Adler's break from Freud, he enjoyed considerable success and celebrity in building an independent school of psychotherapy and a unique personality theory . He traveled and lectured for a period of 25 years promoting his socially oriented approach. His intent
33120-471: Was one of Freud's biggest mistakes, according to Rank, who first pointed out this confusion in the mid-twenties. Emotions, said Rank, are relationships. Denial of the emotional life leads to denial of the will, the creative life, as well as denial of the interpersonal relationship in the analytic situation (Rank, 1929–31). For Freud, said Rank in Will Therapy (1929–31), "the emotional life develops from
33304-411: Was one of the first psychotherapists to discard the analytic couch in favor of two chairs. This allows the clinician and patient to sit together more or less as equals. Clinically, Adler's methods are not limited to treatment after-the-fact but extend to the realm of prevention by preempting future problems in the child. Prevention strategies include encouraging and promoting social interest, belonging, and
33488-530: Was perilously close to anti-Oedipal heresy. "I am boiling with rage," Freud told Sándor Ferenczi , then Rank's best friend (Kramer, 2015). Confronted with Freud's decisive opposition, Rank resigned in protest from his positions as Vice-President of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, director of Freud's publishing house, and co-editor of Imago and Zeitschrift . Ferenczi, with whom Rank had collaborated from 1920 through 1924 on new experiential, object-relational and "here-and-now" approaches to therapy, vacillated on
33672-577: Was significant since most other prominent proponents of psychoanalysis invested relatively little time and thought into these widespread ills of the modern and post-modern age. In addition to applying his individual psychology approach of organ inferiority, for example, to the onset and causes of addictive behaviors, he also tried to find a clear relationship of drug cravings to sexual gratification or their substitutions. Early pharmaco-therapeutic interventions with non-addictive substances, such as neuphyllin were used, since withdrawal symptoms were explained by
33856-499: Was to build a movement that would rival, even supplant, others in psychology by arguing for the holistic integrity of psychological well-being with that of social equality. Adler's efforts were halted by World War I , during which he served as a doctor with the Austro-Hungarian Army . After the conclusion of the war, his influence increased greatly. In 1919, Adler started the first Child Guidance clinic in Vienna. With
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