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148-396: [REDACTED] Member State of the African Union [REDACTED] Member State of the Arab League The Algerian Communist Party ( French : Parti Communiste Algérien ; Arabic : الحزب الشيوعي الجزائري ) was a communist party in Algeria . The PCA emerged in 1920 as an extension of the French Communist Party (PCF) and eventually became a separate entity in 1936. Despite this, it

296-525: A military coup . On 9 October of the same year, the Peace and Security Council of the African Union lifted the suspension imposed on Mali, citing progress made to return to democracy. The country was again suspended on 1 June 2021, following its second military coup within nine months. Guinea's membership was also suspended by the African Union on 10 September 2021, after a military coup deposed

444-411: A military coup in late July that deposed democratically elected president Mohamed Bazoum ; this has since also led to the 2023 Nigerien crisis . Gabon's membership was suspended by the African Union on 31 August 2023 following a military coup that deposed president Ali Bongo Ondimba . The African Union has a number of official bodies: These institutions have not yet been established; however,

592-632: A revolutionary left-wing , a moderate center-wing , and a more reformist right-wing . Lenin condemned much of the center as "social pacifists" for several reasons, including their vote for war credits despite publicly opposing the war. Lenin's term "social pacifist" aimed in particular at Ramsay MacDonald , leader of the Independent Labour Party in Britain, who opposed the war on grounds of pacifism but did not actively fight against it. Discredited by its apathy towards world events,

740-519: A close link throughout the PCA's existence, and much of early PCA policy was dictated by the demands of the PCF. The PCA came into existence in 1920 as an Algerian section of the PCF, but in 1936 was granted autonomy and became an independent party. The PCF, for a large part of the PCA's existence, placed an emphasis on Maurice Thorez 's "nation in formation" thesis, which rejected Algerian nationalism and compelled

888-829: A defense of the Soviet state. In that year, Joseph Stalin took power in Moscow and upheld the thesis of socialism in one country , detailed by Nikolai Bukharin in his brochure Can We Build Socialism in One Country in the Absence of the Victory of the West-European Proletariat? (April 1925). The position was finalized as the state policy after Stalin's January 1926 article On the Issues of Leninism . Stalin made

1036-692: A disciplined fashion whatever decision was made. In this period, the Comintern was promoted as the general staff of the world revolution . Ahead of the Second Congress of the Communist International, held in July through August 1920, Lenin sent out a number of documents, including his Twenty-one Conditions to all socialist parties. Congress adopted the 21 conditions as prerequisites for any group wanting to become affiliated with

1184-408: A formal international organization, they continued to maintain close relations with each other through a series of international forums. In the period directly after the Comintern's dissolution, periodical meetings of communist parties were held in Moscow. Moreover, World Marxist Review , a joint periodical of the communist parties, played an important role in coordinating the communist movement up to

1332-728: A heated debate in Accra, the Assembly of Heads of State and Government agreed in the form of a declaration to review the state of affairs of the AU with a view to determining its readiness towards a Union Government. In particular, the Assembly agreed to: The declaration lastly noted the "importance of involving the African peoples, including Africans in the Diaspora , in the processes leading to

1480-923: A higher proportion of the KPD Politburo membership had died in the Soviet Union than in Nazi Germany. Weitz also noted that hundreds of German citizens, most of them Communists, were handed over to the Gestapo by Stalin's administration. The Research Institutes 100 and 205 worked for the International and later were moved to the International Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of

1628-530: A lack of democracy and leaders who refuse to step down, discrimination against minorities (including LGBT people, religious groups and ethnicities) and corruption. He suggested an intensified democratization and free trade to significantly increase living quality for Africans. Member states of the African Union cover almost the entirety of continental Africa, except for several territories held by Spain ( Ceuta , Melilla , and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera ). In addition, European countries have dependencies among

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1776-720: A lesser extent Portuguese and Arabic are used. The Constitutive Act , for example, is written in English, French and Arabic, while the protocol amending the Constitutive Act is written in English, French and Portuguese. As of 2020, the AU website is available in its entirety in English, partially in French and minimally in Arabic. Portuguese and Swahili versions were added as "coming soon" ( em breve ) in April 2019. According to

1924-831: A member state was the May 2003 deployment of a peacekeeping force of soldiers from South Africa, Ethiopia , and Mozambique to oversee the implementation of the various agreements in Burundi . AU troops were also deployed in the Sudan for peacekeeping during the Darfur Conflict , before the mission was handed over to the United Nations on 1 January 2008 via UNAMID . The AU has a peacekeeping mission in Somalia , consisting of troops from Uganda and Burundi. The AU has adopted

2072-677: A number of important new documents establishing norms at continental level, to supplement those already in force when it was created. These include the African Union Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption (2003), the African Charter on Democracy, Elections and Governance (2007), the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) and its associated Declaration on Democracy, Political, Economic and Corporate Governance. The historical foundations of

2220-572: A one party system over the PCA's endorsement of a pluralist, multi-party democracy. By the end of the war in 1962 the PCA was organizationally still intact but had diminished significantly in membership due to its effective merger with the FLN. Following the end of the Algerian War, the PCA began agitating openly again, capitalizing on the absence of rival newspapers to extend the popularity of its publications Alger républicain and El-Hourriya . After

2368-434: A part of Asia), accounting for slightly less than 2% of the total area. The total population of the African Union, as of 2017 , is estimated at more than 1.25 billion, with a growth rate of more than 2.5% p.a. The official languages of the African Union are Arabic, English, French, Portuguese, Spanish, Swahili , and "any other African language". The primary working languages of the African Union are English and French. To

2516-501: A party concerned primarily with anti-fascism in Europe. Despite the Comintern outwardly supporting anti-imperialism, the PCA's ties to it - until its dissolution in 1943 - also meant the PCA's program was often being designed in support of Soviet aims, rather than Algerian ones. During the 1930s, the PCA was forced, along with the PCF, to support "popular front" aims and therefore reduce the emphasis on Algerian independence to avoid weakening

2664-548: A policy of non-intervention , declaring on November 6 that the conflict was an imperialist war between various national ruling classes on both sides, much like World War I had been, and that the main culprits were Britain and France. This period only ended on 22 June 1941 with the invasion of the Soviet Union , when the Comintern changed its position to one of active support for the Allies . During these two years, many communists turned their backs on their Comintern sections, and

2812-646: A unit in itself or to integration of the sub-regions. The 1980 Lagos Plan of Action for the Development of Africa and the 1991 treaty to establish the African Economic Community (also referred to as the Abuja Treaty), proposed the creation of Regional Economic Communities (RECs) as the basis for African integration, with a timetable for regional and then continental integration to follow. Currently, there are eight RECs recognised by

2960-536: A wider, non-communist movement, agreed to combine its military wing - the Combattants de la Libération (CDL) - with the FLN's National Liberation Army (ALN) (though it insisted on remaining politically separate). Importantly, the FLN insisted on marginalizing the possible communist influence on its power and maintain support from non-communist countries such as the US by keeping this collaboration private. The FLN viewed

3108-473: Is intended to facilitate the harmonisation of policies and ensure compliance with the Abuja Treaty and Lagos Plan of Action time frames. In 2006, the AU decided to create a Committee "to consider the implementation of a rotation system between the regions" in relation to the presidency. Controversy arose at the 2006 summit when Sudan announced its candidacy for the AU's chairmanship, as a representative of

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3256-743: The 1923 insurrection . However, this proposal was rejected by the Politburo which was controlled by Stalin, Zinoviev, and Kamenev who decided to send a commission of lower-ranking Russian Communist party members. The dream of a world revolution was abandoned after the failures of the Spartacist uprising in Germany and of the Hungarian Soviet Republic and the failure of all revolutionary movements in Europe such as in Italy, where

3404-553: The Battle of Algiers . Despite having subsumed itself militarily within the ALN, the PCA began objecting to the FLN's increasing focus on military struggle and neglect of political organisation. Though agreeing to an alliance with the PCA out of necessity, the FLN remained distrustful of any communist influence within the movement and began speaking more openly about its intention to "liquidate" communist elements following independence, favoring

3552-634: The Chinese Communist Party and the Kuomintang were supported by the Comintern. However, after the definite break with Chiang Kai-shek in 1927, Joseph Stalin sent personal emissaries to help organize revolts which at this time failed. The Fourth World Congress was coincidentally held within days of the March on Rome by Benito Mussolini and his PNF in Italy . Karl Radek lamented

3700-600: The Communist Party of Poland in 1938). Above all, the Comintern exploited Soviet prestige in sharp contrast to the weaknesses of local parties that rarely had political power. Communist front organizations were set up to attract non-members who agreed with the party on certain specific points. Opposition to fascism was a common theme in the popular front era of the mid-1930s. The well-known names and prestige of artists, intellectuals and other fellow travelers were used to advance party positions. They often came to

3848-699: The Far Eastern Bureau of the Communist International was established in Siberia to develop their political influence in the Far East . Soon after its establishment, the bureau's manager Grigori Voitinsky arrived in Peking and established contact with local communist vanguard Li Dazhao . Li arranged for Voitinsky to meet with another Communist leader, Chen Duxiu , in Shanghai and began to establish

3996-550: The Nazi government 's propaganda against the Soviet Union and the Comintern, a treaty of assistance was concluded between Germany and Japan in 1936, the Anti-Comintern Pact . In it, the two states agreed to fight the Comintern and assured each other that they would not sign any treaties with the Soviet Union that would contradict the anti-communist spirit of the agreement. However, this did not prevent Hitler from signing

4144-505: The Nazi invasion of Poland beginning 1 September 1939, and France's declaration of war on Nazi Germany , the PCA, along with numerous other Algerian political parties and organisations, faced severe repression by the French authorities. On 26 September 1939 the French government banned both the domestic PCF, the PCA and Messali Hadj's PPA on the ground of national security, and by November it had granted itself powers to arrest any individual seen to threaten national security, severely hindering

4292-785: The Nazi-Soviet Pact with Stalin in August 1939, which in turn meant the end of the Popular Front policy and, in fact, that of the Comintern as well. The German-Soviet non-aggression treaty contained far-reaching agreements on spheres of interest , which the two totalitarian powers implemented over the next two years using military means. On 3 September 1939, France and the United Kingdom declared war on Germany after its invasion of Poland , beginning World War II in Europe . The Comintern sections now found themselves in

4440-579: The New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) was also established. The African Union was launched in Durban on 9 July 2002 by its first chairperson, former South African head of state Thabo Mbeki , at the first session of the Assembly of the African Union. The second session of the Assembly was held in Maputo in 2003 and the third session in Addis Ababa was held on 6 July 2004. Since 2010,

4588-666: The Paris Commune had been crushed by force of arms in 1871. The Bolsheviks believed that this required a new international to foment revolution in Europe and around the world. During this early period (1919–1924), known as the First Period in Comintern history, with the Bolshevik Revolution under attack in the Russian Civil War and a wave of revolutions across Europe , the Comintern's priority

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4736-659: The Popular Front led by Manuel Azaña winning the 1936 election in Spain , and with Léon Blum 's 1936 election which led to the Popular Front government in France . Stalin's purges of the 1930s affected Comintern activists living in both the Soviet Union and overseas. At Stalin's direction, the Comintern was thoroughly infused with Soviet secret police and foreign intelligence operatives and informers working under Comintern guise. One of its leaders, Mikhail Trilisser , using

4884-773: The Sahara and the Nile . The primary working languages are Arabic , English , French , Portuguese , Spanish , and Swahili . Within the African Union, there are official bodies, such as the Peace and Security Council and the Pan-African Parliament . At a G20 (Group of 20) meeting held in Delhi , India in 2023, the African Union was admitted as a member to the G20 like the European Union . The objectives of

5032-677: The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR). Morocco , which claims sovereignty over the Western Sahara , withdrew from the Organisation of African Unity in 1984 due to the admission of the SADR as a member. On 30 January 2017, the AU readmitted Morocco as a member state. Somaliland 's 2005 application to join the AU is still pending. Mali was suspended from the African Union on 19 August 2020 following

5180-888: The Second International dissolved in 1916. In 1917, after the February Revolution overthrew the Romanov Dynasty , Lenin published the April Theses which openly supported revolutionary defeatism , where the Bolsheviks hoped that Russia would lose the war so that they could quickly cause a socialist insurrection. The victory of the Russian Communist Party in the Bolshevik Revolution of November 1917

5328-589: The fascist squadristi broke the strikes during the Biennio Rosso and quickly assumed power following the 1922 March on Rome . This period up to 1928 was known as the Second Period, mirroring the shift in the Soviet Union from war communism to the New Economic Policy . At the Fifth World Congress of the Comintern in July 1924, Zinoviev condemned both Marxist philosopher Georg Lukács 's History and Class Consciousness , published in 1923 after his involvement in Béla Kun 's Hungarian Soviet Republic , and Karl Korsch 's Marxism and Philosophy . Zinoviev himself

5476-414: The military coup of Houari Boumediene in 1965, and it would never recover the influence it once commanded. During the Algerian War, the PCA initially operated independently through the creation of its own combatant units called Combattants de la Libération (CDL). However, due to intense repression by the French authorities and a heavy blow against these units in June 1956, the PCA and the FLN agreed on

5624-402: The popular front against fascism . This policy argued that communist parties should seek to form a popular front with all parties that opposed fascism and not limit themselves to forming a united front with those parties based in the working class. There was no significant opposition to this policy within any of the national sections of the Comintern. It would have momentous consequences, with

5772-466: The 18th AU summit. The complex was built by China State Construction Engineering Corporation as a gift from the Chinese government , and accommodates, among other facilities, a 2,500-seat plenary hall and a 20-story office tower. The tower is 99.9 meters high to signify the date 9 September 1999, when the Organisation of African Unity voted to become the African Union. The building cost US$ 200 million to construct. On 26 January 2018, five years after

5920-471: The 1919 Comintern founding congress. Trotsky, who was also marginalized and persecuted by Stalin, and other communists founded the Fourth International in 1938 as an oppositional alternative to the Stalin-dominated Comintern. In the years that followed, however, their sections rarely got beyond the status of the smallest cadre or splinter parties. Although the General Association of German Anti-Communist Associations had existed in Berlin since 1933 as part of

6068-460: The 1930s the PCA began to gain influence again after the failure in proliferating its message in the 1920s. Recognizing the weakness in attempting to administer the Algerian section of the PCF from France, the PCA was officially launched as a distinct organisation on 17–18 October 1936. The 1930s saw both a growth in the PCA's importance and marked the advent of some of its tactical mistakes in gaining public support. Particularly important to this period

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6216-496: The AU are made by the Assembly of the African Union , a semi-annual meeting of the heads of state and government of its member states. The AU's secretariat, the African Union Commission , is based in Addis Ababa . The largest city in the AU is Lagos, Nigeria while the largest urban agglomeration is Cairo, Egypt . The African Union has more than 1.3 billion people and an area of around 30 million km (12 million sq mi) and includes world landmarks such as

6364-412: The AU, each established under a separate regional treaty. They are: The membership of many of the communities overlaps, and their rationalisation has been under discussion for several years—and formed the theme of the 2006 Banjul summit. At the July 2007 Accra summit the Assembly finally decided to adopt a Protocol on Relations between the African Union and the Regional Economic Communities. This protocol

6512-432: The AU—over thirty states have ratified the Kampala Convention , the only continental treaty focusing on internally displaced persons in the world. Beginning in 2016, the African Union introduced continent-wide passports. The individual member states of the African Union coordinate foreign policy through this agency, in addition to conducting their own international relations on a state-by-state basis. The AU represents

6660-459: The African Union are: The African Union is made up of both political and administrative bodies. The highest decision-making organ is the Assembly of the African Union , made up of all the heads of state or government of member states of the AU. The Assembly is chaired by Félix Tshisekedi , President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo . The AU also has a representative body, the Pan-African Parliament , which consists of 265 members elected by

6808-446: The African Union eyes the establishment of a joint African space agency . Barack Obama was the first-ever sitting United States president to speak in front of the African Union in Addis Ababa on 29 July 2015. During his speech, he encouraged the world to increase economic ties via investments and trade with the continent and lauded the signs of progress made in education , infrastructure and economy . However, he also criticized

6956-424: The African Union originated in the First Congress of Independent African States , held in Accra , Ghana from 15 to 22 April 1958. The conference was aimed at establishing Africa Day to annually mark the liberation movement concerning the willingness of the African people to free themselves from colonial rule, as well as subsequent attempts to unite Africa, including the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), which

7104-449: The African Union project. There are divisions among African states on the proposals, with some (notably Libya ) following a maximalist view leading to a common government with an AU army; and others (especially the southern African states) supporting rather a strengthening of the existing structures, with some reforms to deal with administrative and political challenges in making the AU Commission and other bodies truly effective. Following

7252-415: The Algerian War, the PCF provided support for the PCA despite disagreements on Algerian independence. The CPSU commanded significant influence over the PCA's policy program through the Comintern, particularly in the 1930s due to concerns over maintaining alliances with non-communist countries in Europe in order to repel fascism. Relations with the Soviet Union were initially defined as the PCA's membership of

7400-430: The Algerian War. Despite this, the PCA suffered immensely from government repression, given its position as the most widely known radical group (the FLN was still relatively obscure in the early years of the Algerian War). Key leaders of the movement were either arrested or, in cases such as that of Henri Maillot , killed by the French army. The PCA, whilst initially reluctant to join the FLN for fear of becoming subsumed in

7548-411: The Algerian nationalist struggle without fear of weakening the PCF's struggle against fascism in France. Despite this, the party initially remained committed to campaigning for democratic liberties within a French framework, rather than for Algerian independence. Towards the end of the 1940s, and due to its failure in the June elections of the National Assembly elections of 1946, the PCA began recognising

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7696-406: The Algerian population and precluding stronger alliances with Algerian nationalist movements such as the PPA and Friends of the Manifesto and Liberty (AML). Though the PCA continued to grow in popularity - doubling in membership between 1939 and 1944 - the growth in membership and popularity continued to be concentrated among European populations. Towards the end of the war, the PCA's hostility towards

7844-497: The Algerian population, leading it to firmly announce its support for an Algerian Republic at its fifth congress in May 1949. Support for Algerian nationalist movements such as the Special Organisation (SO) finally began to be reciprocated, and in July 1951 the PCA, UDMA, Movement for the Triumph of Democratic Liberties (MTLD) and the ' ulama united in the form of the Algerian Front. This unity, however, proved short-lived, as disagreements over strategies frustrated cooperation between

7992-419: The Chairman of the Executive. Zinoviev was assisted by Angelica Balabanoff , acting as the secretary of the International, Victor L. Kibaltchitch and Vladmir Ossipovich Mazin. Lenin, Trotsky, and Alexandra Kollontai presented material. The main topic of discussion was the difference between bourgeois democracy and the dictatorship of the proletariat . The following parties and movements were invited to

8140-406: The Comintern China Branch, which evolved into the Communist Party of China in 1921. The Third Congress of the Communist International was held between 22 June–12 July 1921 in Moscow. The Fourth Congress, held in November 1922, at which Trotsky played a prominent role, continued in this vein. In 1924, the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party joined the Comintern. At first, in China, both

8288-427: The Comintern labelled Social Democracy as social fascists and urged aligned parties to work to their destruction as the 'moderate wing of fascism'. Especially with the rise of the National Socialist Workers' Party in Germany after the 1930 federal election , this stance gave rise to some opposition inside. The Sixth World Congress also revised the policy of united front in the colonial (colonized) countries. China

8436-441: The Comintern switching emphasis away from supporting anti-colonial struggles to advocating for " popular front " strategies with all liberal parties to resist fascism. The Spanish Civil War , beginning in 1936, was particularly important for this switch in the PCA's position, and the increasing propagation of Spanish fascist propaganda to Northern Africa prompted the PCA to de-emphasize its anti-colonialist position so as not to weaken

8584-413: The Comintern. It was a network made up of the communist parties of Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, France, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Romania, the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia (led by Josip Broz Tito and expelled in June 1948). The Cominform was dissolved in 1956 following Stalin's 1953 death and the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union . While the communist parties of the world no longer had

8732-404: The Comintern. The CPSU also provided support for the PCA's war effort through provision of aid. However, during the course of the Algerian War, the Soviet Union began to turn its allegiance away from the PCA towards the National Liberation Front (FLN). The CPSU was more hesitant than the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in describing the FLN as a socialist party, but still began to support both it and

8880-423: The Constitutive Act of the African Union, The working languages of the Union and all its institutions shall be, if possible, African languages, Arabic, English, French and Portuguese. A protocol amending the Constitutive Act was adopted in 2003 and as of April 2020 has been ratified by 30 of the 37 member states needed for a two-thirds majority. It would change the above wording to, 1. The official languages of

9028-403: The Czech, Bulgarian, Yugoslav, British, French, and Swiss Communist Groups; the Dutch Social-Democratic Group; Socialist Propaganda League and the Socialist Labor Party of America; Socialist Workers' Party of China; Korean Workers' Union, Turkestan, Turkish, Georgian, Azerbaijani, and Persian Sections of the Central Bureau of the Eastern Peoples, and the Zimmerwald Commission. Zinoviev served as

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9176-405: The East African region. Several member states refused to support Sudan because of tensions over Darfur (see also below). Sudan ultimately withdrew its candidacy and President Denis Sassou-Nguesso of the Republic of the Congo was elected to a one-year term. At the January 2007 summit, Sassou-Nguesso was replaced by President John Agyekum Kufuor of Ghana, despite another attempt by Sudan to gain

9324-452: The FLN over the PCA led to Chairman Mao speaking of both the French and Algerian communists as having a hatred for the CCP. China continued to prioritize close relations with the FLN after the Algerian War, extolling the party as not only a party fighting 'against imperialism and feudalism', but also as a party practicing socialism proper. African Union The African Union ( AU ) is a continental union of 55 member states located on

9472-420: The Founding Congress: Of these, the following attended (see list of delegates of the 1st Comintern congress ): the communist parties of Russia, Germany, German Austria, Hungary, Poland, Finland, Ukraine, Latvia, Lithuania, Byelorussia, Estonia, Armenia, and the Volga German region; the Swedish Social Democratic Left Party (the opposition), Balkan Revolutionary People's of Russia; Zimmerwald Left Wing of France;

9620-509: The Free Movement Protocol. This protocol allows for free movement of people between countries that are part of the African Union. Article 14 of the Protocol to the treaty establishing the African economic community relating to the free movement of persons, right of residence, and the right of establishment discusses the free movement of workers. The African Union also has a Migration Policy Framework for Africa (MPFA). Forced displacement of people and groups has also been an area of focus for

9768-405: The French media report. Moussa Faki Mahamat , head of the African Union Commission, said the allegations in the Le Monde ' s report were false. "These are totally false allegations and I believe that we are completely disregarding them." The African Union replaced its Chinese-supplied servers and started encrypting its communications following the event. In 2018, the African Union adopted

9916-420: The International. The 21 Conditions called for the demarcation between communist parties and other socialist groups and instructed the Comintern sections not to trust the legality of the bourgeois states. They also called for the build-up of party organizations along democratic centralist lines in which the party press and parliamentary factions would be under the direct control of the party leadership. Regarding

10064-419: The OAU issued the Sirte Declaration (named after Sirte, Libya) on 9 September 1999, calling for the establishment of an African Union. The Declaration was followed by summits at Lomé in 2000, when the Constitutive Act of the African Union was adopted, and at Lusaka in 2001, when the plan for the implementation of the African Union was adopted. During the same period, the initiative for the establishment of

10212-482: The PCA condemned the nationalist side as "hiterlite" provocateurs. All this continued to alienate the Algerian masses who saw the PCA as supporting the French colonial administration in Algeria, and solidified the national/ethnic division between the European minority and the Algerian majority. Following the end of the Second World War and the dissolution of the Comintern in 1943 the PCA was given more autonomy on its approach to Algerian politics, allowing it to re-focus on

10360-406: The PCA to focus on unity with France rather than joining calls for Algerian independence. This was largely due to Soviet influence in viewing opposition to the US as paramount and all other concerns secondary. During the 1930s, the PCA was still largely subordinated to the political situation of the French communists, and this severely impacted its appeal to Algerian members, who felt marginalized in

10508-430: The PCA's organisational capacities as communist ideas, proliferated widely in French, had difficulty crossing the language barrier to the predominantly Arabic speaking, Islamic Algerian population. During the First World War male Pieds-Noirs had emigrated to France to assist in the fight on the Western front, leaving a bulk of Algeria's proletariat outside of the country and creating difficult for communist in Algeria given

10656-566: The PCA, particularly Islamic members, rejected this thesis, it influenced PCA organizational slogans and theory, and contributed to the notion that France's communist revolution would have to occur before Algeria's. This continued boosting the PPA's popularity with an Arabic population in Algeria, who felt the PCA was increasingly subordinated to the concerns of Pieds-Noirs in the industrial centers and their preoccupation with European affairs. Following

10804-472: The PCF, and thus the PCA due to its strong organizational links with the former. During the Algerian War, the CCP prioritized aid to the FLN, viewing the anti-colonial and anti-imperial struggle as of paramount importance. The Sino-Soviet split also caused tension between the PCA and CCP as the former lined up with the Soviet Union in the split, with the latter being favored by the FLN. Indeed, the CCP's preference for

10952-425: The PPA, who began to capitalise on the PCF's equivocation over the issue of independence. The PCF exerted pressure upon the PCA during this time to support PCF General Secretary Maurice Thorez's 'nation in formation' thesis which argued that Algeria was a 'nation in formation', at the early stages of its development, and thus unsuited to separation from the French nation it naturally belonged to. Whilst many members of

11100-526: The Provisional Government of Algeria (GPRA) towards the end of the Algerian War as part of its strategy to shift the global balance of power between the socialist bloc and the West. The CPSU criticized the FLN's later banning of the PCA as a blatant attempt to appeal to Western nations keen to prevent communist influence in newly liberated colonies. The CCP had a fractious relationship with

11248-558: The Russian Revolution now transmuted into dependency on Moscow and belief in Soviet infallibility. Depressing cycles of "internal rectification" began, disgracing and expelling successive leaderships, so that by the later 1920s many founding Communists had gone. This process of coordination, in a hard-faced drive for uniformity, was finalized at the next Congress of the Third International in 1928. The Comintern

11396-723: The Russian Tsar. There were exceptions, such as the socialist parties of the Balkans . To Vladimir Lenin 's surprise, even the Social Democratic Party of Germany voted in favor of war. After influential anti-war French Socialist Jean Jaurès was assassinated on 31 July 1914, the socialist parties hardened their support in France for their government of national unity . Socialist parties in neutral countries mostly supported neutrality, rather than totally opposing

11544-622: The Second International to call upon the international working class to resist war if it were declared. But after the beginning of World War I, many European socialist parties announced support for the war effort of their respective nations. Including the British Labour Party who issued a manifesto stating, "the victory of the Germans would mean the death of democracy in Europe" while making no such criticisms of

11692-560: The Soviet Government had nothing to do with Comintern. I gave up co-editing a series of documents on Russo-American relations because my Russian colleague could not or would not get over that hurdle....Even today [2020], when the Russians are more liberal in their censorship of documentary publications, one has to verify where possible through other sources independent of Moscow. And although Comintern's archives are available on

11840-577: The Soviet Union , founded at roughly the same time that the Comintern was abolished in 1943, although its specific duties during the first several years of its existence are unknown. Following the June 1947 Paris Conference on Marshall Aid , Stalin gathered a grouping of key European communist parties in September and set up the Cominform , or Communist Information Bureau, often seen as a substitute to

11988-659: The Soviet Union for propaganda tours praising the future. Under the leadership of Zinoviev, the Comintern established fronts in many countries in the 1920s and after. To coordinate their activities, the Comintern set up international umbrella organizations linking groups across national borders, such as the Young Communist International (youth), Profintern (trade unions), Krestintern (peasants), International Red Aid (humanitarian aid), Sportintern (organized sports), and more. Front organizations were especially influential in France, which in 1933 became

12136-499: The Soviet Union were liquidated, and more than a thousand were handed over to Germany. Wolfgang Leonhard , who experienced this period in Moscow as a contemporary witness, wrote about it in his political autobiography, which was published in the 1950s: "The foreign communists living in the Soviet Union were particularly affected. In a few months, more functionaries of the Comintern apparatus were arrested than had been put together by all bourgeois governments in twenty years. Just listing

12284-666: The Steering Committees working on their founding have been constituted. Eventually, the AU aims to have a single currency (the Afro ). The principal topic for debate at the July 2007 AU summit held in Accra , Ghana, was the creation of a Union Government, with the aim of moving towards a United States of Africa . A study on the Union Government was adopted in late 2006, and proposes various options for "completing"

12432-617: The US contrasted with the warmth many Algerians felt towards America in light of the Atlantic Charter of 1941, which lent legitimacy to the nationalist aim of independence. The PCA continued to lend its support to Charles de Gaulle and participate in his alternative government headquartered in Algiers . Following violence against Algerian nationalists during what came to be known as the Sétif and Guelma massacre in May and June 1945,

12580-597: The Union and all its institutions shall be Arabic, English, French, Portuguese, Spanish, Kiswahili and any other African language. 2. The Executive Council shall determine the process and practical modalities for the use of official languages as working languages. Founded in 2001 under the auspices of the AU, the African Academy of Languages promotes the usage and perpetuation of African languages among African people. In 2004 Joaquim Chissano of Mozambique addressed

12728-544: The actions of the PCA. On top of this, the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact threw the entire international communist movement into confusion, given the sudden switch from the previous emphasis on anti-fascism forced upon it by the Soviet Union through the Comintern. As the war progressed the influence of the PCF intensified and the PCA became increasingly preoccupied with the events in Europe, continuing to alienate

12876-569: The adhesion issue. The French Section of the Workers International (SFIO) thus broke away with the 1920 Tours Congress , leading to the creation of the new French Communist Party (initially called French Section of the Communist International – SFIC). The Communist Party of Spain was created in 1920, the Communist Party of Italy in 1921, the Belgian Communist Party in September 1921, and so on. In 1920,

13024-480: The alliance with the PCA as strictly pragmatic, keenly aware of the differences between its own prioritization of the peasant struggle and the PCA's belief in proletarian vanguardism. Over the course of the late 1950s, the PCA was disproportionately targeted by French authorities due to the fear of communist influence in the context of the Cold War , and was often held accountable for FLN orchestrated attacks during

13172-559: The anti-fascist alliance in France. With the advent of war in 1939, France banned both the PCA and the PCF on the grounds of national security. Following the dissolution of the Comintern and the collapse of fascism in Europe, the PCA was given more autonomy from both the Soviet Union and the PCF, and thus renewed its focus on Algerian nationalism. Despite this, the PCF continued to reject the idea of Algerian independence until 1959, largely due to its attempts in mainland France to form part of coalition governments with more liberal parties. During

13320-613: The assembly in Swahili, but had to translate his words himself. The AU declared 2006 the Year of African Languages. 2006 also marked Ghana's 55th anniversary since it founded the Bureau of Ghana Languages originally known as Gold Coast Vernacular Literature Bureau . All UN member states based in Africa and on African islands are members of the AU, as is the partially recognized state of

13468-510: The base for communist front organizer Willi Münzenberg . These organizations were dissolved in the late 1930s or early 1940s. In 1928, the Ninth Plenum of the executive committee began the so-called Third Period , which was to last until 1935. The Comintern proclaimed that the capitalist system was entering the period of final collapse and therefore all communist parties were to adopt an aggressive and militant 'left' line. In particular,

13616-464: The beginning, lacked a coherent approach to the Algerian situation and its relationship with both France and its main body in the PCF. Part of this was due to the disproportionate concentration of Pieds-Noirs in the urban centers of Algeria, and thus the numbers of Pieds-Noirs in the party, given its focus on urban organisation. The linguistic composition of Algeria also played into the difficulties of

13764-487: The break-up of the Eastern Bloc in 1989–1991. British historian Jonathan Haslam reports that even after in Moscow archives: all references to the Communist International and later the international department of the central committee, which drove the revolutionary side of foreign policy, were removed from published diplomatic documents, in order to fit in with the prevailing dogma established by Vladimir Lenin that

13912-560: The cessation of hostilities with the French army, the FLN's hostility to communism was free to bubble to the surface and in November 1962 the PCA was banned by the FLN. In 1963 the FLN was proclaimed the sole legal party through a constitutional referendum, and in 1964 the FLN took control over the PCA paper Alger républicain. Though the PCA continued to operate underground and continued to launch (unsuccessful) communist and socialist groups, its influence continued to decline, particularly after

14060-523: The chair. The year 2007 was the 50th anniversary of Ghana's independence, a symbolic moment for the country to hold the chair of the AU—and to host the mid-year summit at which the proposed Union Government was also discussed. In January 2008, President Jakaya Kikwete of Tanzania took over as chair, representing the East African region and thus apparently ending Sudan's attempt to become chair—at least till

14208-572: The colonies. Notably, some of the delegates opposed the idea of an alliance with the bourgeoisie and preferred giving support to communist movements in these countries instead. Their criticism was shared by the Indian revolutionary M. N. Roy , who attended as a delegate of the Mexican Communist Party . The Congress removed the term bourgeois-democratic in what became the 8th condition. Many European socialist parties were divided over

14356-680: The completion of the building of the AU Headquarters, the French newspaper Le Monde published an article stating that the Chinese government had heavily bugged the building, installing listening devices in the walls and furniture and setting up the computer system to copy data to servers in Shanghai daily. The Chinese government denied that they bugged the building, stating that the accusations were "utterly groundless and ridiculous." Ethiopian Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn rejected

14504-685: The continent of Africa . The AU was announced in the Sirte Declaration in Sirte, Libya , on 9 September 1999, calling for the establishment of the African Union. The bloc was launched on 9 July 2002 in Durban , South Africa . The intention of the AU was to replace the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), established on 25 May 1963 in Addis Ababa by 32 signatory governments; the OAU was disbanded on 9 July 2002. The most important decisions of

14652-418: The country's President Alpha Condé . Sudan's membership was suspended by the African Union on 27 October 2021, after a military coup deposed the civilian government led by Prime Minister Abdalla Hamdok . Burkina Faso's membership was suspended by the African Union in the aftermath of a military coup on 31 January 2022. Niger's membership was suspended by the African Union on 22 August 2023 following

14800-473: The declaration asked the member sections to approve: To dissolve the Communist International as a guiding centre of the international labor movement, releasing sections of the Communist International from the obligations ensuing from the constitution and decisions of the Congresses of the Communist International. After endorsements of the declaration were received from the member sections, the International

14948-441: The efforts of the PCF in France in constructing a popular front against domestic fascism. During this time, the PCA also faced increasing competition from Messali Hadj's Algerian People's Party (PPA), which it saw as competing for a similar base of political support in the radicalised Algerian masses. Though the PCA performed well in Algiers' local elections of 1937, thereafter its voter base steadily began to switch to supporting

15096-599: The few Algerian newspapers which had survived the Algerian War intact. However, FLN repression soon followed to quash possible rivals, solidified in Ben Bella 's constitutional referendum of 1963 declaring the FLN as the only legal party. At 1965 some of the leaders of the PCA, with the left wing of the FLN created an organization to combat the military coup of Boumediene, the Organization de la résistance populaire (OPR). The PCA and French Communist Party (PCF) shared

15244-690: The first Chairman of the Comintern's executive committee from 1919 to 1926, but its dominant figure until his death in January 1924 was Lenin, whose strategy for revolution had been laid out in What Is to Be Done? (1902). The central policy of the Comintern under Lenin's leadership was that communist parties should be established across the world to aid the international proletarian revolution . The parties also shared his principle of democratic centralism (freedom of discussion, unity of action), namely that parties would make decisions democratically, but uphold in

15392-530: The formation of the Union Government." Following this decision, a panel of eminent persons was set up to conduct the "audit review". The review team began its work on 1 September 2007. The review was presented to the Assembly of Heads of State and Government at the January 2008 summit in Addis Ababa. No final decision was taken on the recommendations, however, and a committee of ten heads of state

15540-426: The general secretary Bachir Hadj Ali . During this period, the party did emphasize a demand for Algerian independence, though this invariably resulted in harsh repression and, consequently, a diminished size and reduced organisational capacity. However, throughout the 1920s the PCA struggled to maintain an organisational foothold in Algeria, and by the late 1920s the Algerian arm of the PCF was seemingly moribund. In

15688-503: The independence movement and many of its members participated as part of the National Liberation Army (ALN). By the end of the Algerian War, the PCA had been severely organizationally damaged; many of its leadership had been killed or arrested and its decision to subsume large parts of its membership within the ALN reduced its influence significantly. The PCA re-obtained legal status following independence in 1962, but

15836-515: The integration of the CDL into the National Liberation Army (ALN), separating it from the political wing of the PCA which remained in Algiers . The FLN's preclusion of inner debate by communists severely restricted the PCA's influence, as many members were forced to put aside communist agitation for FLN activities. By 1962, however, the PCA reemerged as a key force in Algerian politics, controlling one of

15984-774: The interests of African peoples at large in intergovernmental organisations (IGOs); for instance, it is a permanent observer at the United Nations General Assembly . Both the African Union and the United Nations work in tandem to address issues of common concerns in various areas. The African Union Mission to the United Nations aspires to serve as a bridge between the two organisations. Communist International The Comintern held seven World Congresses in Moscow between 1919 and 1935. During that period, it also conducted thirteen Enlarged Plenums of its governing Executive Committee , which had much

16132-479: The morning. [...] Exactly 3 o'clock the car lights began to be seen [...] we stayed near the window and waited [to find out], where the car stopped". Among those persecuted were many KPD functionaries, such as members of the KPD Central Committee, who believed they had found safe asylum in the Soviet Union after Adolf Hitler's rise to power . Among them was Hugo Eberlein , who had been present at

16280-414: The most important sections and that other parties joining the International would have their own representatives. The Congress decided that the executive committee would elect a five-member bureau to run the daily affairs of the International. However, such a bureau was not formed and Lenin, Leon Trotsky , and Christian Rakovsky later delegated the task of managing the International to Grigory Zinoviev as

16428-503: The names would fill entire pages." Fritz Platten died in a labor camp and the leaders of the Indian ( Virendranath Chattopadhyaya or Chatto), Korean, Mexican, Iranian, and Turkish communist parties were executed. Out of 11 Mongolian Communist Party leaders, only Khorloogiin Choibalsan survived. Leopold Trepper recalled these days: "In house, where the party activists of all the countries were living, no-one slept until 3 o'clock in

16576-599: The national legislatures of the AU member states. Its president is Roger Nkodo Dang . Other political institutions of the AU include: The AU Commission , the secretariat to the political structures, is chaired by Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma of South Africa. On 15 July 2012, Dlamini-Zuma won a tightly contested vote to become the first female head of the African Union Commission, replacing Jean Ping of Gabon . Other AU structures are hosted by different member states: The AU's first military intervention in

16724-527: The nationalist movements and the PCA. During 1952 and 1953 efforts to cultivate a united front continued, and in late 1953 the MTLD and PCA announced an intention to form a new united front, though this endeavour was hindered by increasing factionalism within the MTLD between supports and opponents of Messali Hadj. By the advent of the Algerian War, the PCA had grown substantially in support, though increasingly found itself torn between its commitment to non-violence on

16872-548: The need to widen its appeal to a non-European base through advocating for Algerian nationalism. The party began releasing publications and conducting meetings in Arabic to widen its appeal, and attempted to forge closer links with nationalist movements such as the Democratic Union of the Algerian Manifesto (UDMA). The party's appeal increased substantially with Algerians, particularly young intellectuals in

17020-771: The offshore islands of Africa: Spain (the Canary Islands and the islands of the plazas de soberanía ); France ( Mayotte , Réunion , and the Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean ); Portugal (the Azores , Madeira , and the Savage Islands ); and the United Kingdom ( Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha ). The geography of the African Union is wildly diverse, including the world's largest hot desert (the Sahara ), huge jungles and savannas , and

17168-727: The one hand, and its extensive coverage, through its publication Liberté , on the success of Vietnamese anti-colonial guerillas against France during the First Indochina War on the other. As a result of their focus on non-violent struggle, the attacks orchestrated by the National Liberation Front (FLN) in November 1954 took the PCA, like most of Algerian society, by surprise. Sticking to its focus on non-violent struggle, and pressured by its pacifist-leaning European members, it released an obscure statement on 2 November condemning violence, though whether this

17316-445: The organization lost its political credibility and relevance. On 15 May 1943, a declaration of the executive committee was sent out to all sections of the International, calling for the dissolution of the Comintern. The declaration read: The historical role of the Communist International, organized in 1919 as a result of the political collapse of the overwhelming majority of the old pre-war workers' parties, consisted in that it preserved

17464-685: The other, considering the latter as an unreliable ally yet not a direct enemy. The Congress called on the Indian Communist Party to utilize the contradictions between the "national bourgeoisie" and the British Empire . The Seventh and last Congress of the Comintern was held between 25 July and 20 August 1935. It was attended by representatives of 65 communist parties. The main report was delivered by Dimitrov, other reports were delivered by Palmiro Togliatti , Wilhelm Pieck , and Dmitry Manuilsky . The Congress officially endorsed

17612-462: The outbreak of World War I was the catalyst for their separation. The Triple Alliance comprised two empires, while the Triple Entente was formed by three. Socialists had historically been anti-war and internationalist , fighting against what they perceived as militarist exploitation of the proletariat for bourgeois states. A majority of socialists voted in favor of resolutions for

17760-591: The party line clear: "An internationalist is one who is ready to defend the USSR without reservation, without wavering, unconditionally; for the USSR it is the base of the world revolutionary movement, and this revolutionary movement cannot be defended and promoted without defending the USSR". According to Russian historian Vadim Rogovin , the leadership of the German Communist Party (KPD) had requested that Moscow send Leon Trotsky to Germany to direct

17908-425: The political situation in the colonized world, the Second Congress of the Communist International stipulated that a united front should be formed between the proletariat, peasantry, and national bourgeoisie in the colonial countries. Amongst the 21 conditions drafted by Lenin ahead of the congress was the 11th thesis which stipulated that all communist parties must support the bourgeois-democratic liberation movements in

18056-553: The politically suicidal situation of having to support, for example, the Soviet invasion and subsequent annexation of Eastern Poland . The Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov declared in an October 31 speech that "as far as the European great Powers are concerned, Germany is in the position of a State which is striving for the earliest termination of war and for peace, while Britain and France [...] are in favour of continuing

18204-523: The pressure for conformity. A new policy of "Bolshevization" was adopted, which dragooned the CPs toward stricter bureaucratic centralism. This flattened out the earlier diversity of radicalisms, welding them into a single approved model of Communist organization. Only then did the new parties retreat from broader Left arenas into their own belligerent world, even if many local cultures of broader cooperation persisted. Respect for Bolshevik achievements and defense of

18352-435: The proceedings in Italy as the "largest defeat suffered by socialism and communism since the beginning of the period of world revolution", and Zinoviev programmatically announced the similarities between fascism and social democracy, laying the groundwork for the later social fascism theory. Lenin died in 1924 and the next year saw a shift in the organization's focus from the immediate activity of world revolution towards

18500-695: The pseudonym Mikhail Aleksandrovich Moskvin, was in fact chief of the foreign department of the Soviet OGPU (later the NKVD ). Numerous Comintern officials were also targeted by the dictator and became victims of show trials and political persecution, such as Grigory Zinoviev and Nikolai Bukharin . At Stalin's orders, 133 out of 492 Comintern staff members became victims of the Great Purge . Several hundred German communists and antifascists who had either fled from Nazi Germany or were convinced to relocate in

18648-490: The rotation returned to East Africa. The current chair is Mohamed Ould Ghazouani , President of Mauritania , whose term began on February 17, 2024. The main administrative capital of the African Union is in Addis Ababa , Ethiopia , where the African Union Commission is headquartered. A new headquarters complex, the AU Conference Center and Office Complex (AUCC), was inaugurated on 28 January 2012, during

18796-499: The same function as the somewhat larger and more grandiose Congresses. Joseph Stalin , leader of the Soviet Union, dissolved the Comintern in 1943 to avoid antagonizing his allies in the later years of World War II , the United States and the United Kingdom. It was succeeded by the Cominform in 1947. Differences between the revolutionary and reformist wings of the workers' movement had been increasing for decades, but

18944-463: The teachings of Marxism from vulgarisation and distortion by opportunist elements of the labor movement. But long before the war it became increasingly clear that, to the extent that the internal as well as the international situation of individual countries became more complicated, the solution of the problems of the labor movement of each individual country through the medium of some international centre would meet with insuperable obstacles. Concretely,

19092-518: The traditional focus within Marxism on the urban proletariat. The party was, throughout its existence, more popular with Europeans living in Algeria than Algerians themselves. This ethnic divide was worsened by the Code de l'indigenat which excluded non-French citizens in Algeria from joining the PCA. Despite this, some Muslims were attracted to the PCA, for example: Ben Ali Boukort , Ahmed Akkache and

19240-457: The urban centers who favored the more class-based analysis of the PCA, and by 1948 it had between 12,000 and 15,000 members. Despite this, efforts at unity with nationalist parties often stalled due to nationalist distrust of the PCA in light of its condemnation of Algerian nationalists in the wake of the Sétif and Guelma massacres in 1945. By 1949, the PCA had significantly increased its base among

19388-478: The war. On the other hand, during the 1915 Zimmerwald Conference , Lenin, then a Swiss resident refugee, organized an opposition to the " imperialist war" as the Zimmerwald Left , publishing the pamphlet Socialism and War where he called socialists collaborating with their national governments social chauvinists , i.e. socialists in word, but nationalists in deed. The Second International divided into

19536-402: The war." This position has been described as a way for the Soviet government to explain its refusal to honour proposals for economic assistance to Poland, which had been made before and at the start of the war, since "it was found impossible to determine with any degree of certainty who was the aggressor and who the victim." The weakened and decimated Comintern was then forced to officially adopt

19684-493: The world's longest river (the Nile ). The AU has an area of 29,922,059 square kilometres (11,552,972 sq mi), with 24,165 kilometres (15,015 mi) of coastline. The vast majority of this area is on continental Africa, while the only significant territories off the mainland are the island of Madagascar (the world's largest microcontinent and fourth-largest island ) and the Sinai Peninsula (geographically

19832-688: Was a failed coup in Estonia by the Communist Party of Estonia . The Comintern was founded at a Congress held in Moscow on 2–6 March 1919. It opened with a tribute to Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg , recently executed by the Freikorps during the Spartacist Uprising , against the backdrop of the Russian Civil War . There were 52 delegates present from 34 parties. They decided to form an Executive Committee with representatives of

19980-505: Was a relatively small organization, but it devised novel ways of controlling communist parties around the world. In many places, there was a communist subculture, founded upon indigenous left-wing traditions which had never been controlled by Moscow. The Comintern attempted to establish control over party leaderships by sending agents who bolstered certain factions, by judicious use of secret funding, by expelling independent-minded activists and even by closing down entire national parties (such as

20128-406: Was appointed to consider the review and report back to the July 2008 summit to be held in Egypt. At the July 2008 summit, a decision was once again deferred, for a "final" debate at the January 2009 summit to be held in Addis Ababa. One of the key debates in relation to the achievement of greater continental integration is the relative priority that should be given to integration of the continent as

20276-414: Was banned and dissolved later that year by the FLN. The Algerian communists later regrouped in groups such as the Socialist Vanguard Party (PAGS). The general secretaries of PCA were Ben Ali Boukort from 1936 to 1939, Amar Ouzegane during the period of the underground central committee, Larbi Bouhali from 1947 to 1949, and Bachir Hadj Ali  [ ar ; fr ; ru ] from 1949. The PCA, from

20424-401: Was considered to be one of such countries. However, in 1927, the Kuomintang turned on the Chinese Communist Party , which led to a review of the policy on forming alliances with the 'national bourgeoisie' in the 'colonizal countries'. The Congress did make a differentiation between the character of the Chinese Kuomintang on one hand and the Indian Swaraj Party and the Egyptian Wafd Party on

20572-407: Was directed at the perpetrators or the French administration's response to the attacks was not clear. In private, the PCA did begin supplying the newly formed FLN with arms, despite outwardly adopting a position of deliberate ambiguity so as to ensure it was given room by the French colonial administration to continue organizing publicly. In 1955, the central committee decided to wholly commit itself to

20720-442: Was dismissed in 1926 after falling out of favor with Stalin. Bukharin then led the Comintern for two years until 1928, when he too fell out with Stalin. Bulgarian communist leader Georgi Dimitrov headed the Comintern in 1934 and presided until its dissolution. Geoff Eley summed up the change in attitude at this time as follows: By the Fifth Comintern Congress in July 1924 [...] the collapse of Communist support in Europe tightened

20868-420: Was dissolved. The dissolution was interpreted as Stalin wishing to calm his World War II allies (particularly Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill ) and to keep them from suspecting the Soviet Union of pursuing a policy of trying to foment revolution in other countries. According to historian Eric D. Weitz , 60% of German exiles in the Soviet Union had been liquidated during the Stalinist terror and

21016-427: Was established on 25 May 1963, and the African Economic Community in 1991. Critics argued that the OAU in particular did little to protect the rights and liberties of African citizens from their own political leaders, often dubbing it the "Dictators' Club". The idea of creating the AU was revived in the mid-1990s under the leadership of Libyan head of state Muammar al-Gaddafi ; the heads of state and governments of

21164-440: Was exporting the October Revolution. Some communist parties had secret military wings. One example is the M-Apparat of the Communist Party of Germany . The Comintern was involved in the revolutions across Europe in this period, starting with the Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919. Several hundred agitators and financial aid were sent from the Soviet Union and Lenin was in regular contact with its leader Béla Kun . The next attempt

21312-431: Was felt throughout the world and an alternative path to power to parliamentary politics was demonstrated. With much of Europe on the verge of economic and political collapse in the aftermath of the carnage of World War I, revolutionary sentiments were widespread. The Russian Bolsheviks headed by Lenin believed that unless socialist revolution swept Europe, they would be crushed by the military might of world capitalism just as

21460-400: Was made at the time of the Ruhr crisis in spring and then again in selected parts of Germany in the autumn of 1923. The Red Army was mobilized, ready to come to the aid of the planned insurrection. Resolute action by the German government cancelled the plans, except due to miscommunication in Hamburg, where 200–300 communists attacked police stations, but were quickly defeated. In 1924, there

21608-437: Was recognized by the Comintern in 1935. Its first congress was in Algiers in July 1936, also the site of the PCA's headquarters. In the post-war period, it gained substantially in influence, increasing from around 3000 members in 1939 to between 12,000-15,000 members in 1948. In September 1955 the PCA was banned by the French administration due to the ongoing violence of the Algerian War , but remained an active part within

21756-403: Was the March Action in Germany in 1921, including an attempt to dynamite the express train from Halle to Leipzig. After this failed, the Communist Party of Germany expelled its former chairman Paul Levi from the party for publicly criticizing the March Action in a pamphlet, which was ratified by the Executive Committee of the Communist International prior to the Third Congress. A new attempt

21904-429: Was the developing international events and the communist movement's wider position on it (in particular, the attitude of the Comintern and the guidance it was giving to communist parties on priorities). During the 1930s, the party was left in disarray due to continued French repression in Algeria, as many of its leading figures were subject to arrest and police surveillance. The spread of fascism in 1930s Europe led to

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