117-546: Ali Mohamed Shein (born 13 March 1948) was the 7th President of Zanzibar , from 2010 to 2020. He was previously Vice President of Tanzania from 2001 to 2010. Shein is originally from the island of Pemba , and he is a member of the ruling Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) party. He is a medical doctor by profession. Shein was appointed by the President of Zanzibar to be a Member of the House of Representatives on 29 October 1995. He
234-864: A constitutional monarchy within the Commonwealth under the Sultan. However, just a month later, on 12 January 1964 Sultan Jamshid bin Abdullah was deposed during the Zanzibar Revolution . The Sultan fled into exile, and the Sultanate was replaced by the People's Republic of Zanzibar , a socialist government led by the Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP). Over 20,000 people were killed – mostly Arabs and Indians – and many of them escaped
351-534: A Bantu language, the Swahili language as a consequence today includes some borrowed elements, particularly loanwords from Arabic , though this was mostly a 19th-century phenomenon with the growth of Omani hegemony. Many foreign traders from Africa and Asia married into wealthy patrician families on Zanzibar. Asian men in particular, who resided on the coast for up to six months because of the prevailing monsoon wind patterns, married East African women. Since almost all
468-775: A fully autonomous state. Zanzibar has a government of national unity, with the president of Zanzibar being Hussein Ali Mwinyi , since 1 November 2020. There are many political parties in Zanzibar, but the most popular parties are the Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) and the Civic United Front (CUF). Since the early 1990s, the politics of the archipelago have been marked by repeated clashes between these two parties. Contested elections in October 2000 led to
585-425: A link between health of cardiac and smooth muscle. Low vitamin D levels have also been linked to impaired immune system and brain functions. In addition, recent studies have linked vitamin D deficiency to autoimmune diseases , hypertension , multiple sclerosis , diabetes and incidence of memory loss . Outside the tropics UVR has to penetrate through a thicker layer of atmosphere , which results in most of
702-403: A lower chance of developing skin cancer and conditions related to folate deficiency , such as neural tube defects . Dark-skinned people living in low sunlight environments have been recorded to be very susceptible to vitamin D deficiency due to reduced vitamin D synthesis . A dark-skinned person requires about six times as much UVB than lightly pigmented persons. This is not a problem near
819-449: A lower threshold of sufficiency. There is a correlation between the geographic distribution of UV radiation (UVR) and the distribution of skin pigmentation around the world. Areas that have higher amounts of UVR have darker-skinned populations, generally located nearer the equator . Areas that are further away from the equator and generally closer to the poles have a lower concentration of UVR and contain lighter-skinned populations. This
936-477: A massacre on 27 January 2001 when, according to Human Rights Watch , the army and police shot into crowds of protestors, killing at least 35 and wounding more than 600. Those forces, accompanied by ruling party officials and militias, also went on a house-to-house rampage, indiscriminately arresting, beating, and sexually abusing residents. Approximately 2,000 temporarily fled to Kenya. Violence erupted again after another contested election on 31 October 2005, with
1053-465: A mechanism of natural selection against folate (vitamin B9) depletion, and to a lesser extent, DNA damage . The primary factor contributing to the evolution of dark skin pigmentation was the breakdown of folate in reaction to ultraviolet radiation ; the relationship between folate breakdown induced by ultraviolet radiation and reduced fitness as a failure of normal embryogenesis and spermatogenesis led to
1170-471: A possession of Portugal for almost two centuries. It initially became part of the Portuguese province of Arabia and Ethiopia and was administered by a governor-general. Around 1571, Zanzibar became part of the western division of the Portuguese empire and was administered from Mozambique . It appears, however, that the Portuguese did not closely administer Zanzibar. The first English ship to visit Unguja,
1287-466: A presidential candidate for CCM in Zanzibar. Shein got 117 votes while Bilali and Shamsi Vuai Nahodha got 54 and 33 respectively and was elected a new president of Zanzibar and the only one from Pemba Island by 50.1% on 31 October 2010. Zanzibar Zanzibar is an insular semi-autonomous region which united with Tanganyika in 1964 to form the United Republic of Tanzania . It
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#17328024908161404-417: A protection. Scientists have long assumed that humans evolved melanin in order to absorb or scatter harmful sun radiation. Some researchers assumed that melanin protects against skin cancer . While high UV radiation can cause skin cancer, the development of cancer usually occurs after child-bearing age. As natural selection favours individuals with traits of reproductive success, skin cancer had little effect on
1521-523: A reference to the skin pigmentation of Indigenous Australians; today it has been embraced by Aboriginal activists as a term for shared culture and identity, regardless of skin colour. Melanesia , a subregion of Oceania , whose name means "black islands", have several islands that are inhabited by people with dark skin pigmentation. The islands of Melanesia are located immediately north and northeast of Australia as well as east coast of Papua New Guinea. The western end of Melanesia from New Guinea through
1638-460: A settled agricultural and fishing community from the 6th century at the latest. The considerable amount of daub found indicates timber buildings, and shell beads, bead grinders, and iron slag have been found at the site. There is evidence of limited engagement in long-distance trade: a small amount of imported pottery has been found, less than 1% of total pottery finds, mostly from the Gulf and dated to
1755-552: A total blockade of Zanzibar was imminent, and Barghash reluctantly signed the Anglo-Zanzibari treaty which abolished the slave trade in the sultan's territories, closed all slave markets and protected liberated slaves. The relationship between Britain and the German Empire , at that time the nearest relevant colonial power, was formalized by the 1890 Heligoland–Zanzibar Treaty , in which Germany agreed to "recognize
1872-565: Is also affected by clothing, which tends to slow it down. Indigenous Australians , as with all other populations outside of Africa, are descendants of the Out-of-Africa wave. Genetic evidence has pointed out that the Indigenous peoples of Australia are genetically dissimilar to the dark-skinned populations of Africa and that they are more closely related to other non-African populations. The term black initially has been applied as
1989-801: Is also an inter-religious body called the Joint Committee of Religious Leaders for Peace (in Swahili Juhudi za Viongozi wa Dini kuimarisha Amani ) with representatives from Muslim institutions such as the Islamic law ( Kadhi courts), religious property (the Wakf and Trust commission), education (the Muslim academy) and the Mufti ' s office as well as representatives from the Roman Catholic,
2106-823: Is also common among populations in North Africa , the Horn of Africa , West Asia , Central Asia and South Asia . Skin pigmentation is an evolutionary adaptation to various UVR levels around the world. As a consequence there are many health implications that are the product of population movements of humans of certain skin pigmentation to new environments with different levels of UVR. Modern humans are often ignorant of their evolutionary history at their peril. Cultural practices that increase problems of conditions among dark-skinned populations are traditional clothing and vitamin D -poor diet . Dark-pigmented people living in high sunlight environments are at an advantage due to
2223-760: Is an archipelago in the Indian Ocean , 25–50 km (16–31 mi) off the coast of the African mainland , and consists of many small islands and two large ones: Unguja (the main island, referred to informally as Zanzibar) and Pemba Island . The capital is Zanzibar City , located on the island of Unguja. Its historic centre, Stone Town , is a World Heritage Site . Zanzibar's main industries are spices , raffia , and tourism . The main spices produced are clove , nutmeg , cinnamon , coconut , and black pepper . The Zanzibar Archipelago, together with Tanzania's Mafia Island , are sometimes referred to locally as
2340-437: Is believed to have begun around 1.2 million years ago, in light-skinned early hominid species after they moved from the equatorial rainforest to the sunny savannas . In the heat of the savannas, better cooling mechanisms were required, which were achieved through the loss of body hair and development of more efficient perspiration . The loss of body hair led to the development of dark skin pigmentation, which acted as
2457-513: Is caused by reduced vitamin D synthesis that causes an absence of vitamin D, which then causes the dietary calcium to not be properly absorbed. This disease in the past was commonly found among dark-skinned Americans of the southern part of the United States who migrated north into low sunlight environments. The popularity of sugary drinks and decreased time spent outside have contributed to significant rise of developing rickets. Deformities of
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#17328024908162574-418: Is considerable variation between different body regions), but pigment-containing organelles, called melanosomes, are larger and more numerous in dark-skinned individuals. Keratocytes from dark skin cocultured with melanocytes give rise to a melanosome distribution pattern characteristic of dark skin. Melanosomes are not in aggregated state in darkly pigmented skin compared to lightly pigmented skin. Due to
2691-525: Is important to the development of healthy foetuses . In these abnormalities children are born with an incomplete brain or spinal cord. Nina Jablonski , a professor of anthropology and expert on evolution of human skin colouration, found several cases in which mothers' visits to tanning studios were connected to neural tube defects in early pregnancy. She also found that folate was crucial to sperm development; some male contraception drugs are based on folate inhibition. It has been found that folate may have been
2808-513: Is in turn from Persian zangbâr ( زنگبار [zæŋbɒːɾ] ), a compound of Zang ( زنگ [zæŋ] , "black") + bâr ( بار [bɒːɾ] , "coast"), cf. the Sea of Zanj . The name is one of several toponyms sharing similar etymologies , ultimately meaning "land of the blacks" or similar meanings, in reference to the dark skin of the inhabitants. The presence of microliths suggests that Zanzibar has been home to humans for at least 20,000 years, which
2925-401: Is more condensed and contains more cornified cell layers than in lightly pigmented humans. These qualities of dark skin enhance the barrier protection function of the skin. Although darkly-pigmented skin absorbs about 30 to 40% more sunlight than lightly pigmented skin, dark skin does not increase the body's internal heat intake in conditions of intense solar radiation. Solar radiation heats up
3042-426: Is produced in specialized cells called melanocytes , which are found at the lowest level of the epidermis . Melanin is produced inside small membrane-bound packages called melanosomes . People with naturally-occurring dark skin have melanosomes which are clumped, large and full of eumelanin. A four-fold difference in naturally-occurring dark skin gives seven- to eight-fold protection against DNA damage, but even
3159-688: Is the de facto national and official language of Tanzania. Many local residents also speak Arabic , English , Italian and French . The dialect of Swahili spoken in Zanzibar is called Kiunguja . Kiunguja, which has a high percentage of Arabic loanwords, enjoys the status of Standard Swahili not in Tanzania only but also in other countries, where Swahili is spoken. Three distinct varieties of Arabic are in use in Zanzibar: Standard Arabic, Omani Arabic and Hadrami Arabic . Both vernacular varieties are falling out of use, although
3276-654: Is the region in Africa situated south of the Sahara where a large number of dark-skinned populations live. Dark-skinned groups on the continent have the same receptor protein as Homo ergaster and Homo erectus had. According to scientific studies, populations in Africa also have the highest skin colour diversity. High levels of skin colour variation exists between different populations in Sub-Saharan Africa. These differences depend in part on general distance from
3393-547: Is the result of human evolution which contributed to variable melanin content in the skin to adapt to certain environments. A larger percentage of dark-skinned people are found in the Southern Hemisphere because latitudinal land mass distribution is disproportionate. The present distribution of skin colour variation does not completely reflect the correlation of intense UVR and dark skin pigmentation due to mass migration and movement of peoples across continents in
3510-511: Is true that eumelanin has antibacterial properties, its importance is secondary to 'physical adsorption' ( physisorption ) to protect against UVR-induced damage. This hypothesis is not consistent with the evidence that most of the hominid evolution took place in savanna environments and not in tropical rainforests. Humans living in hot and sunny environments have darker skin than humans who live in wet and cloudy environments. The antimicrobial hypothesis also does not explain why some populations (like
3627-412: Is used in the formation of myelin, the sheath that covers nerve cells and makes it possible to send electrical signals quickly. Folate also plays an important role in the development of many neurotransmitters, e.g. serotonin which regulates appetite, sleep, and mood. Serum folate is broken down by UV radiation or alcohol consumption. Because the skin is protected by the melanin, dark-pigmented people have
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3744-533: Is usual for polygenic traits. Data collected from studies on MC1R gene has shown that there is a lack of diversity in dark-skinned African samples in the allele of the gene compared to non-African populations. This is remarkable given that the number of polymorphisms for almost all genes in the human gene pool is greater in African samples than in any other geographic region. So, while the MC1R f gene does not significantly contribute to variation in skin colour around
3861-564: The Edward Bonaventure in 1591, found that there was no Portuguese fort or garrison. The extent of their occupation was a trade depot where produce was bought and collected for shipment to Mozambique. "In other respects, the affairs of the island were managed by the local 'king', the predecessor of the Mwinyi Mkuu of Dunga." This hands-off approach ended when Portugal established a fort on Pemba Island around 1635 in response to
3978-479: The Inuit or Tibetans ) who live far from the tropics and are exposed to high UVR have darker skin pigmentation than their surrounding populations. Dark-skinned humans have high amounts of melanin found in their skin. Melanin is derivative of the amino acid tyrosine . Eumelanin is the dominant form of melanin found in human skin. Eumelanin protects tissues and DNA from the radiation damage of UV light. Melanin
4095-656: The Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar . It is made up of the Revolutionary Council and House of Representatives . The House of Representatives has a similar composition to the National Assembly of Tanzania . Fifty members are elected directly from constituencies to serve five-year terms; 10 members are appointed by the President of Zanzibar ; 15 special seats are for women members of political parties that have representation in
4212-632: The "Spice Islands". Tourism in Zanzibar is a more recent activity, driven by government promotion that caused an increase from 19,000 tourists in 1985, to 376,000 in 2016. The islands are accessible via 5 ports and the Abeid Amani Karume International Airport , which can serve up to 1.5 million passengers per year. Zanzibar's marine ecosystem is an important part of the economy for fishing and algaculture and contains important marine ecosystems that act as fish nurseries for Indian Ocean fish populations. Moreover,
4329-433: The 13th century, houses were built with stone, and bonded with mud, and the 14th century saw the use of lime to bond stone. Only the wealthier patricians would have had stone- and lime-built houses, and the strength of the materials allowed for flat roofs. By contrast, the majority of the population lived in single-story thatched houses similar to those of the 11th and 12th centuries. According to John Middleton and Mark Horton,
4446-1071: The 1960s, and a wide range of Pentecostal-Charismatic Christian churches such as the Tanzania Assemblies of God, the Free Pentecostal Church of Tanzania, the Evangelical Assemblies of God, the Pentecostal Church of Tanzania, the Victory Church and the Pentecostal Evangelistic Fellowship of Africa. Pentecostal-Charismatic churches have been present and growing in Zanzibar since the 1980s in relation to economic liberalization and increased labour migration from mainland Tanzania in connection to Zanzibar's expanding tourist sector. There are also Seventh Day Adventist and Baptist churches. Since 2005, there
4563-465: The 5th to 8th century. The similarity to contemporary sites such as Mkokotoni and Dar es Salaam indicates a unified group of communities that developed into the first center of coastal maritime culture. The coastal towns appear to have been engaged in Indian Ocean and inland African trade at this early period. Trade rapidly increased in importance and quantity beginning in the mid-8th century and by
4680-622: The Anglican and the Lutheran church. The places of worship in the city are predominantly Muslim mosques. There are also Christian churches and temples: Roman Catholic Diocese of Zanzibar ( Catholic Church ), Anglican Church of Tanzania ( Anglican Communion ), Evangelical Lutheran Church in Tanzania ( Lutheran World Federation ), Baptist Convention of Tanzania ( Baptist World Alliance ), Assemblies of God . As an autonomous part of Tanzania , Zanzibar has its own government, known as
4797-626: The Asian traders were Muslims, their children inherited their paternal ethnic identity, though East African matrilineal traditions remained key. Vasco da Gama 's visit in 1498 marked the beginning of European influence. In 1503 or 1504, Zanzibar became part of the Portuguese Empire when Captain Rui Lourenço Ravasco Marques came ashore and received tribute from the sultan in exchange for peace. Zanzibar remained
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4914-590: The British protectorate over… the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba". In 1890, Zanzibar became a protectorate (not a colony) of Britain. This status meant it remained under the sovereignty of the Sultan of Zanzibar . Prime Minister Salisbury explained the British position: From 1890 to 1913, traditional viziers were in charge; they were supervised by advisers appointed by the Colonial Office. In 1913, this
5031-538: The CUF claiming that its rightful victory had been stolen from it. Nine people were killed. Dark skin Dark skin is a type of human skin color that is rich in melanin pigments . People with dark skin are often referred to as black people , although this usage can be ambiguous in some countries where it is also used to specifically refer to different ethnic groups or populations. The evolution of dark skin
5148-511: The House of Representatives; six members serve ex officio , including all regional commissioners and the attorney general. Five of these 81 members are then elected to represent Zanzibar in the National Assembly. Zanzibar spans 5 of the 31 regions of Tanzania . Unguja has three administrative regions: Zanzibar Central/South , Zanzibar North and Zanzibar Urban/West . Pemba has two: Pemba North and Pemba South . Concerning
5265-493: The Moresby Line, from Cape Delgado in Africa to Diu Head on the coast of India. Said lost the revenue he would have received as duty on all slaves sold, so to make up for this shortfall he encouraged the development of the slave trade in Zanzibar itself. Said came under increasing pressure from the British to abolish slavery entirely. In 1842, Britain told Said it wished to abolish the slave trade to Arabia, Oman, Persia, and
5382-525: The Omani one is spoken by a larger group of people (probably, several hundreds). In parallel to this, Standard Arabic , traditionally associated with the Quran and Islam , is very popular not only among ethnic Arabs but also among Muslims of various descent who inhabit Zanzibar. Nevertheless, Standard Arabic is mastered by very few people. This can be attributed to the aggressive policy of Swahilisation . Despite
5499-679: The Red Sea. Ships from the Royal Navy were employed to enforce the anti-slavery treaties by capturing any dhows carrying slaves, but with only four ships patrolling a huge area of sea, the British navy found it hard to enforce the treaties as ships from France, Spain, Portugal, and America continued to carry slaves. In 1856, Sultan Majid consolidated his power around the African Great Lakes slave trade. But in 1873, Sir John Kirk informed his successor, Sultan Barghash , that
5616-500: The Solomon Islands were first colonized by humans about 40,000 to 29,000 years ago. In the world, blond hair is exceptionally rare outside Europe, North Africa and West Asia, especially among dark-skinned populations. However, Melanesians are one of the dark-skinned human populations known to have naturally-occurring blond hair. The indigenous Papuan people of New Guinea have dark skin pigmentation and have inhabited
5733-644: The Sultan of Mombasa 's slaughter of Portuguese residents several years earlier. Portugal had long considered Pemba to be a troublesome launching point for rebellions in Mombasa against Portuguese rule. The precise origins of the sultans of Unguja are uncertain. However, their capital at Unguja Ukuu is believed to have been an extensive town. Possibly constructed by locals, it was composed mainly of perishable materials. The Portuguese arrived in East Africa in 1498, where they found several independent towns on
5850-527: The Sultan of Oman and Majid to become the first Sultan of Zanzibar ; the brothers quarrelled about the will, which was eventually upheld by Charles Canning, 1st Earl Canning , Great Britain's Viceroy and Governor-General of India . Until around 1890, the sultans of Zanzibar controlled a substantial portion of the Swahili coast known as Zanj , which included Mombasa and Dar es Salaam . Beginning in 1886, Great Britain and Germany agreed to allocate parts of
5967-564: The Zanzibar sultanate for their own empires. In October 1886, a British-German border commission established the Zanj as a 10 nmi-wide (19 km) strip along most of the African Great Lakes region's coast, an area stretching from Cape Delgado (now in Mozambique ) to Kipini (now in Kenya ), including Mombasa and Dar es Salaam. Over the next few years most all of the mainland territory
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#17328024908166084-658: The ancestors of most people living today likely also resided in a different place and had a different skin colour. According to Nina Jablonski, darkly-pigmented modern populations in South India and Sri Lanka are an example of this, having re-darkened after their ancestors migrated down from areas much farther north. Scientists originally believed that such shifts in pigmentation occurred relatively slowly. However, researchers have since observed that changes in skin colouration can happen in as little as 100 generations (~2,500 years), with no intermarriage required. The speed of change
6201-573: The ancestors of the Bantu Hadimu and Tumbatu , who began arriving from the African Great Lakes mainland around AD 1000. They belonged to various mainland ethnic groups and on Zanzibar, generally lived in small villages. They did not coalesce to form larger political units. During Zanzibar's brief period of independence in the early 1960s, the major political cleavage was between the Shirazi (Zanzibar Africans), who made up approximately 56% of
6318-468: The architectural style of these stone houses have no Arab or Persian elements, and should be viewed as an entirely indigenous development of local vernacular architecture. While much of Zanzibar Town's architecture was rebuilt during Omani rule, nearby sites elucidate the general development of Swahili and Zanzibari architecture before the 15th century. From the 9th century, Swahili merchants on Zanzibar operated as brokers for long-distance traders from both
6435-402: The bodies of humans faster. A few million years of evolution later, early humans had sparse body hair and more than 2 million sweat glands in their body. Hairless skin, however, is particularly vulnerable to be damaged by ultraviolet light and this proved to be a problem for humans living in areas of intense UV radiation, and the evolutionary result was the development of dark-coloured skin as
6552-515: The body's surface and not the interior. Furthermore, this amount of heat is negligible compared to the heat produced when muscles are actively used during exercise. Regardless of skin colour, humans have excellent capabilities to dissipate heat through sweating. Half of the solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface is in the form of infrared light and is absorbed similarly regardless of skin colouration. In people with naturally occurring dark skin,
6669-658: The bombardment stands as the shortest war in history. On 10 December 1963, the Protectorate that had existed over Zanzibar since 1890 was terminated by the United Kingdom. Rather, by the Zanzibar Act 1963 of the United Kingdom, the UK ended the Protectorate and made provision for full self-government in Zanzibar as an independent country within the Commonwealth. Upon the Protectorate being abolished, Zanzibar became
6786-473: The close of the 10th century, Zanzibar was one of the central Swahili trading towns. Excavations at nearby Pemba Island, but especially at Shanga in the Lamu Archipelago, provide the clearest picture of architectural development. Houses were originally built with timber (circa 1050) and later in mud with coral walls (circa 1150). The houses were continually rebuilt with more permanent materials. By
6903-427: The coast, with Muslim Arabic-speaking elites. While the Portuguese travellers describe them as "black", they made a clear distinction between the Muslim and non-Muslim populations. Their relations with these leaders were mostly hostile, but during the sixteenth century, they firmly established their power and ruled with the aid of tributary sultans. The Portuguese presence was relatively limited, leaving administration in
7020-476: The country as a consequence of the revolution. In April 1964, the republic merged with mainland Tanganyika. This United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar was soon renamed, blending the two names, as the United Republic of Tanzania , within which Zanzibar remains an autonomous region. The 2022 census is the most recent census for which results have been reported. The total population of Zanzibar
7137-489: The darkest skin colour cannot protect against all damage to DNA. Dark skin offers great protection against UVR because of its eumelanin content, the UVR-absorbing capabilities of large melanosomes, and because eumelanin can be mobilized faster and brought to the surface of the skin from the depths of the epidermis. For the same body region, light- and dark-skinned individuals have similar numbers of melanocytes (there
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#17328024908167254-400: The darkest skin pigmentation in the world. Although these people are widely separated they share similar physical environments. In both regions, they experience very high UVR exposure from cloudless skies near the equator which is reflected from water or sand. Water reflects, depending on colour, about 10 to 30% of UVR that falls on it. People in these populations spend long hours fishing on
7371-445: The development of dark skin pigmentation. Studies have found that even serious sunburns could not affect sweat gland function and thermoregulation . There are no data or studies that support that sunburn can cause damage so seriously it can affect reproductive success. Another group of hypotheses contended that dark skin pigmentation developed as antibacterial protection against tropical infectious diseases and parasites. Although it
7488-642: The diocese from 1892 to the present day. The bishop is Michael Hafidh. It is part of the Province of Tanzania, under the Archbishop of All Tanzania, based at Dodoma. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Zanzibar , with its headquarters at the St. Joseph's Cathedral in Stone Town, was established in 1980. An apostolic vicariate of Zanzibar had been established in 1906, from a much larger East African jurisdiction. This
7605-833: The driving force behind the evolution of dark skin. As humans dispersed from equatorial Africa to low UVR areas and higher latitudes sometime between 120,000 and 65,000 years ago, dark skin posed a disadvantage. Populations with light skin pigmentation evolved in climates of little sunlight. Light skin pigmentation protects against vitamin D deficiency. It is known that dark-skinned people who have moved to climates of limited sunlight can develop vitamin D-related conditions such as rickets , and different forms of cancer . A 2022 study revealed that traits such as dark skin show strong signals for Convergent evolution and selective pressure ( positive Selection ). The main other hypotheses that have been put forward through history to explain
7722-560: The effects of epistasis , which would probably increase the number of related genes. Variations in the SLC24A5 gene account for 20–25% of the variation between dark- and light-skinned populations of Africa, and appear to have arisen as recently as within the last 10,000 years. The Ala111Thr or rs1426654 polymorphism in the coding region of the SLC24A5 gene reaches fixation in Europe , and
7839-710: The equator, illustrating the complex interactions of evolutionary forces which have contributed to the geographic distribution of skin colour at any point of time. Due to frequently differing ancestry among dark-skinned populations, the presence of dark skin in general is not a reliable genetic marker , including among groups in Africa. For example, Wilson et al. (2001) found that most of their Ethiopian samples showed closer genetic affinities with lighter-skinned Armenians than with darker-skinned Bantu populations. Mohamoud (2006) likewise observed that their Somali samples were genetically more similar to Arab populations than to other African populations. South Asia has some of
7956-515: The equator, in tropical areas with intense sunlight: Africa , Australia , Melanesia , South Asia , Southeast Asia , West Asia , and the Americas . Studies into non-African populations indicates dark skin is not necessarily a retention of the pre-existing high UVR-adapted state of modern humans before the out of Africa migration, but may in fact be a later evolutionary adaptation to tropical rainforest regions. Due to mass migration and increased mobility of people between geographical regions in
8073-413: The equator; however, it can be a problem at higher latitudes. For humans with dark skin in climates of low UVR, it can take about two hours to produce the same amount of vitamin D as humans with light skin produce in 15 minutes. Dark-skinned people having a high body-mass index and not taking vitamin D supplements were associated with vitamin D deficiency. Vitamin D plays an important role in regulating
8190-455: The evolution of dark skin colouration relate to increased mortality due to skin cancers, enhanced fitness as a result of protection against sunburns, and increasing benefits due to antibacterial properties of eumelanin . Darkly pigmented, eumelanin-rich skin protects against DNA damage caused by the sunlight. This is associated with lower skin cancer rates among dark-skinned populations. The presence of pheomelanin in light skin increases
8307-518: The evolution of dark skin. Previous hypotheses suggested that sunburned nipples impeded breastfeeding, but a slight tan is enough to protect mothers against this issue. A 1978 study examined the effect of sunlight on folate —a vitamin B complex—levels. The study found that even short periods of intense sunlight are able to halve folate levels if someone has light skin. Low folate levels are correlated with neural tube defects, such as anencephaly and spina bifida . UV rays can strip away folate, which
8424-414: The evolutionary reason behind the development of dark skin pigmentation. Of all the major skin cancer types, only malignant melanoma have a major effect in a person's reproductive age. The mortality rates of melanoma have been very low (less than 5 per 100,000) before the mid-20th century. It has been argued that the low melanoma mortality rates during reproductive age cannot be the principal reason behind
8541-459: The female pelvis related to severe rickets impair normal childbirth, which leads to higher mortality of the infant, mother, or both. Vitamin D deficiency is most common in regions with low sunlight, especially in the winter. Chronic deficiencies in vitamin D may also be linked with breast , prostate , colon , ovarian , and possibly other types of cancers . The relationship between cardiovascular disease and vitamin D deficiency also suggest
8658-503: The hands of the local leaders and power structures already present. This system lasted until 1631, when the Sultan of Mombasa massacred the Portuguese inhabitants. For the remainder of their rule, the Portuguese appointed European governors. The strangling of trade and diminished local power led the Swahili elites in Mombasa and Zanzibar to invite Omani aristocrats to assist them in driving the Europeans out. In 1698, Zanzibar came under
8775-749: The hands of traders from the Indian subcontinent , whom Said bin Sultan encouraged to settle on the islands. During his 14-year reign as sultan, Majid bin Said consolidated his power around the East African slave trade . Malindi in Zanzibar City was the Swahili Coast's main port for the slave trade with the Middle East. In the mid-19th century, as many as 50,000 slaves passed annually through
8892-499: The heavily melanised melanosomes in darkly-pigmented skin, it can absorb more energy from UVR and thus offers better protection against sunburns and by absorption and dispersion UV rays. Darkly-pigmented skin protects against direct and indirect DNA damage. Photodegration occurs when melanin absorbs photons. Recent research suggest that the photoprotective effect of dark skin is increased by the fact that melanin can capture free radicals , such as hydrogen peroxide , which are created by
9009-423: The high amounts of melanin produced in their skin. The dark pigmentation protects from DNA damage and absorbs the right amounts of UV radiation needed by the body, as well as protects against folate depletion. Folate is a water-soluble vitamin B complex which naturally occurs in green, leafy vegetables, whole grains, and citrus fruits. Women need folate to maintain healthy eggs, for proper implantation of eggs, and for
9126-434: The hinterland and Indian Ocean world. Persian, Indian, and Arab traders frequented Zanzibar to acquire East African goods like gold, ivory, and ambergris and then shipped them overseas to Asia. Similarly, caravan traders from the African Great Lakes and Zambezian Region came to the coast to trade for imported goods, especially Indian cloth. Before the Portuguese arrival, the southern towns of Unguja Ukuu and Kizimkazi and
9243-486: The human immune system. Chronic deficiencies in vitamin D can make humans susceptible to specific types of cancers and many kinds of infectious diseases. Vitamin D deficiency increases the risk of developing tuberculosis five-fold and also contributes to the development of breast, prostate, and colourectal cancer. The most prevalent disease to follow vitamin D deficiency is rickets , the softening of bones in children potentially leading to fractures and deformity. Rickets
9360-556: The independence and sovereignty of Zanzibar, Tanzania Prime Minister Mizengo Pinda said on 3 July 2008 that there was "nothing like the sovereignty of Zanzibar in the Union Government unless the Constitution is changed in future". Zanzibar House of Representatives members from both the ruling party, Chama Cha Mapinduzi , and the opposition party, Civic United Front , disagreed and stood firmly in recognizing Zanzibar as
9477-498: The influence of the Sultanate of Oman . There was a brief revolt against Omani rule in 1784. Local elites invited Omani merchant princes to settle in Zanzibar in the first half of the nineteenth century, preferring them to the Portuguese. Many locals today continue to emphasise that indigenous Zanzibaris had invited Seyyid Said , the first Busaidi sultan, to their island. Claiming a patron–client relationship with powerful families
9594-426: The interaction of UVR and layers of the skin. Heavily pigmented melanocytes have greater capacity to divide after ultraviolet irradiation, which suggests that they receive less damage to their DNA. Despite this, medium-wave ultraviolet radiation ( UVB ) damages the immune system even in darker skinned individuals due to its effect on Langerhans cells . The stratum corneum of people with dark or heavily tanned skin
9711-569: The intermediate wavelength UVB reflected or destroyed en route; because of this there is less potential for vitamin D biosynthesis in regions far from the equator. Higher amount of vitamin D intake for dark-skinned people living in regions with low levels of sunlight are advised by doctors to follow a vitamin D-rich diet or take vitamin D supplements, although there is recent evidence that dark-skinned individuals are able to process vitamin D more efficiently than lighter-skinned individuals so may have
9828-472: The island for at least 40,000 years. Due to their similar phenotype and the location of New Guinea being in the migration route taken by Indigenous Australians , it was generally believed that Papuans and Aboriginal Australians shared a common origin. However, a 1999 study failed to find clear indications of a single shared genetic origin between the two populations, suggesting multiple waves of migration into Sahul with distinct ancestries. Sub-Saharan Africa
9945-486: The land ecosystem is the home of the endemic Zanzibar red colobus , the Zanzibar servaline genet , and the extinct or rare Zanzibar leopard . Pressure from the tourist industry and fishing as well as larger threats such as sea level rise caused by climate change are creating increasing environmental concerns throughout the region. The word Zanzibar came from Arabic zanjibār ( زنجبار [zandʒibaːr] ), which
10062-636: The late 20th century, but it was fully restored in 2016, at a cost of one million Euros , with a world heritage visitor centre. The restoration was supported by the Tanzanian and Zanzibari governments, and overseen by the diocese in partnership with the World Monuments Fund . The restoration of the spire, clock, and historic Willis organ are still outstanding. Historically the diocese included mainland locations in Tanganyika . In 1963, it
10179-421: The lightly pigmented because their dark skin protects them from most photoaging . Skin colour is a polygenic trait, which means that several different genes are involved in determining a specific phenotype . Many genes work together in complex, additive, and non-additive combinations to determine the skin colour of an individual. The skin colour variations are normally distributed from light to dark, as it
10296-520: The normal development of placenta after fertilization. Folate is needed for normal sperm production in men. Folate is essential for fetal growth, organ development, and neural tube development. Folate breaks down in high intensity UVR. Dark-skinned women suffer the lowest level of neural tube defects. Folate plays an important role in DNA production and gene expression. It is essential for maintaining proper levels of amino acids which make up proteins. Folate
10413-535: The northern town of Tumbatu were the dominant centres of exchange. Zanzibar was just one of the many autonomous city-states that dotted the East African coast. These towns grew in wealth as the Swahili people served as intermediaries and facilitators to merchants and traders. This interaction between Central African and Indian Ocean cultures contributed in part to the evolution of the Swahili culture , which developed an Arabic-script literary tradition. Although
10530-422: The oxidative stress in melanocytes , and this combined with the limited ability of pheomelanin to absorb UVR contributes to higher skin cancer rates among light-skinned individuals. The damaging effect of UVR on DNA structure and the entailing elevated skin cancer risk is widely recognized. However, these cancer types usually affect people at the end or after their reproductive career and could have not been
10647-432: The palms of the hand and the soles of the feet. At times, individuals with more sweat glands were born. These humans could search for food and hunt for longer periods before being forced back to the shades. The more they could forage, the more and healthier offspring they could produce, and the higher the chance they had to pass on their genes for abundant sweat glands. With less hair, sweat could evaporate more easily and cool
10764-526: The political impetus for this was the 19th century movement for the abolition of the slave trade . Zanzibar was the centre of the East African slave trade . In 1822, Captain Moresby, the British consul in Muscat pressed Sultan Said to end the slave trade by signing a treaty. This Moresby Treaty was the first of a series of anti-slavery treaties with Britain. It prohibited slave transport south and east of
10881-493: The population, and the Zanzibar Arabs—;the bulk of whom arrived from Oman in the 1800s—made up approximately 17%. Today, Zanzibar is inhabited mostly by ethnic Swahili . There are also a number of Arabs , as well as some ethnic Persian , Somalis , and Indian people. Zanzibaris speak Swahili (Kiswahili), a Bantu language that is extensively spoken in the African Great Lakes region. Swahili
10998-512: The port. Many were captives of Tippu Tip , a notorious Arab/Swahili slave trader and ivory merchant. Tip led huge expeditions, some 4,000 strong, into the African hinterland where chiefs sold him their villagers at low prices. These Tip used to carry ivory back to Zanzibar, then sold them in the slave market for large profits. In time, Tip became one of the wealthiest men in Zanzibar, the owner of multiple plantations and 10,000 slaves. One of Majid's brothers, Barghash bin Said , succeeded him and
11115-569: The prestige and importance the Arabic language once enjoyed, today it is no longer the dominant spoken language. Zanzibar's population is almost entirely Muslim, with a small Christian minority of around 22 000. Other religious groups include Hindus , Jains and Sikhs . The Anglican Diocese of Zanzibar was founded in 1892. The first Bishop of Zanzibar was Charles Smythies , who was translated from his former post as Bishop of Nyasaland . Christ Church Cathedral had fallen into poor condition by
11232-536: The recent past, dark-skinned populations today are found all over the world. Due to natural selection, people who lived in areas of intense sunlight developed dark skin colouration to protect against ultraviolet (UV) light, mainly to protect their body from folate depletion. Evolutionary pigmentation of the skin was caused by ultraviolet radiation of the sun. As hominids gradually lost their fur between 1.2 and 4 million years ago, to allow for better cooling through sweating, their naked and lightly pigmented skin
11349-447: The recent past. Dark-skinned populations inhabiting Africa , Australia , Melanesia , South Asia , Southeast Asia and South America live in some of the areas with the highest UV radiation in the world, and have evolved very dark skin pigmentations as protection from the sun's harmful rays. Evolution has restricted humans with darker skin in tropical latitudes, especially in non-forested regions, where ultraviolet radiation from
11466-431: The same levels of vitamin D. This is possibly attributed to lower presence of vitamin D binding agents (and thus its higher bioavailability) in dark-skinned individuals. The global distribution of generally dark-skinned populations is strongly correlated with the high ultraviolet radiation levels of the regions inhabited by them. These populations, with the exception of indigenous Tasmanians , almost exclusively live near
11583-544: The savannas of sub-Saharan Africa . They not only had to cope with more intense sunlight but had to develop a better cooling system. It was harder to get food in the hot savannas and as mammalian brains are prone to overheating—5 or 6 °C rise in temperature can lead to heatstroke—there was a need for the development of better heat regulation. The solution was sweating and loss of body hair. Sweating dissipated heat through evaporation. Early humans, like chimpanzees now, had few sweat glands, and most of them were located in
11700-476: The sea. Because it is impractical to wear extensive clothing in a watery environment, culture and technology does little to buffer UVR exposure. The skin takes a very large amount of ultraviolet radiation. These populations are probably near or at the maximum darkness that human skin can achieve. More recent research has found that human populations over the past 50,000 years have changed from dark-skinned to light-skinned and vice versa. Only 100–200 generations ago,
11817-539: The selection of dark skin pigmentation. By the time modern Homo sapiens evolved, all humans were dark-skinned. Humans with dark skin pigmentation have skin naturally rich in melanin , especially eumelanin , and have more melanosomes which provide superior protection against the deleterious effects of ultraviolet radiation. This helps the body to retain its folate reserves and protects against damage to DNA. Dark-skinned people who live in high latitudes with mild sunlight are at an increased risk—especially in
11934-636: The sun is usually the most intense. Different dark-skinned populations are not necessarily closely related genetically. Before the modern mass migration, it has been argued that the majority of dark-pigmented people lived within 20° of the equator. Natives of Buka and Bougainville at the northern Solomon Islands in Melanesia and the Chopi people of Mozambique in the southeast coast of Africa have darker skin than other surrounding populations. The native people of Bougainville, Papua New Guinea, have some of
12051-402: The tanning occurs with the dramatic mobilization of melanin upward in the epidermis and continues with the increased production of melanin. This accounts for the fact that dark-skinned people get visibly darker after one or two weeks of sun exposure, and then lose their colour after months when they stay out of the sun. Darkly-pigmented people tend to exhibit fewer signs of aging in their skin than
12168-544: The winter—of vitamin D deficiency . As a consequence of vitamin D deficiency, they are at a higher risk of developing rickets , numerous types of cancers, and possibly cardiovascular disease and low immune system activity. However, some recent studies have questioned if the thresholds indicating vitamin D deficiency in light-skinned individuals are relevant for dark-skinned individuals, as they found that, on average, dark-skinned individuals have higher bone density and lower risk of fractures than lighter-skinned individuals with
12285-424: The world, the allele found in high levels in African populations probably protects against UV radiation and was probably important in the evolution of dark skin. Skin colour seems to vary mostly due to variations in a number of genes of large effect as well as several other genes of small effect ( TYR , TYRP1 , OCA2 , SLC45A2 , SLC24A5 , MC1R , KITLG and SLC24A4 ). This does not take into account
12402-526: Was 1,889,773 people – with an annual growth rate of 3.8 percent. The population of Zanzibar City , which was the largest city, was 219,007. In 2002, around two-thirds of the people, 622,459, lived on Unguja (Zanzibar Island), with most settled in the densely populated west. Besides Zanzibar City, other towns on Unguja include Chaani , Mbweni , Mangapwani , Chwaka , and Nungwi . Outside of these towns, most people live in small villages and are engaged in farming or fishing. The population of Pemba Island
12519-481: Was 362,166. The largest town on the island was Chake-Chake , with a population of 19,283. The smaller towns are Wete and Mkoani . Mafia Island , the other major island of the Zanzibar Archipelago but administered by mainland Tanzania (Tanganyika), had a total population of 40,801. The people of Zanzibar are of diverse ethnic origins. The first permanent residents of Zanzibar seem to have been
12636-508: Was a strategy used by many Swahili coast towns from at least the fifteenth century. In 1832 or 1840 (the date varies among sources), Said bin Sultan, Sultan of Muscat and Oman moved his capital from Muscat, Oman to Stone Town. After Said's death in June 1856, two of his sons, Thuwaini bin Said and Majid bin Said , struggled over the succession . Said's will divided his dominions into two separate principalities , with Thuwaini to become
12753-510: Was a strong evolutionary pressure which acted on the development of dark skin pigmentation in early members of the genus Homo . The effect of sunlight on folic acid levels has been crucial in the development of dark skin. The earliest primate ancestors of modern humans most likely had pale skin, like our closest modern relative—the chimpanzee . About 7 million years ago human and chimpanzee lineages diverged, and between 4.5 and 2 million years ago early humans moved out of rainforests to
12870-665: Was changed to direct rule through residents who were effectively governors. The death of the pro-British Sultan Hamad bin Thuwaini on 25 August 1896 and the succession of Sultan Khalid bin Barghash , whom the British did not approve of, led to the Anglo-Zanzibar War . On the morning of 27 August 1896, ships of the Royal Navy destroyed the Beit al Hukum Palace. A cease-fire was declared 38 minutes later, and to this day
12987-482: Was exposed to sunlight. In the tropics, natural selection favoured dark-skinned human populations as high levels of skin pigmentation protected against the harmful effects of sunlight. Indigenous populations' skin reflectance (the amount of sunlight the skin reflects) and the actual UV radiation in a particular geographic area is highly correlated, which supports this idea. Genetic evidence also supports this notion, demonstrating that around 1.2 million years ago there
13104-480: Was forced by the British to abolish the slave trade in the Zanzibar Archipelago. He largely developed Unguja's infrastructure. Another brother of Majid, Khalifa bin Said , was the third sultan of Zanzibar and deepened the relationship with the British, which led to the archipelago's progress towards the abolition of slavery. Control of Zanzibar eventually came into the hands of the British Empire ; part of
13221-470: Was incorporated into German East Africa . The sultans developed an economy of trade and cash crops in the Zanzibar Archipelago with a ruling Arab elite. Ivory was a major trade good. The archipelago, sometimes referred to by locals as the Spice Islands, was famous worldwide for its cloves and other spices, and plantations were established to grow them. The archipelago's commerce gradually fell into
13338-455: Was renamed as the Diocese of Zanzibar & Dar es Salaam. Two years later, in 1965, Dar es Salaam became a separate diocese. The original jurisdiction was renamed as the Diocese of Zanzibar & Tanga. In 2001, the mainland links were finally ended, and it is now known as the Diocese of Zanzibar. The diocese includes parishioners on the neighbouring island of Pemba . Ten bishops have served in
13455-674: Was suppressed in 1953, when the territory was put under control of the Kenyan church, but it was restored in 1964 after independence. The church created a diocese here shortly before Easter 1980. The bishop is Augustine Ndeliakyama Shao. Zanzibar is part of the Roman Catholic Province of Dar es Salaam, under the Archbishop of Dar es Salaam. Other Christian denominations include the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Tanzania which arrived in Zanzibar town in
13572-608: Was the beginning of the Later Stone Age . A Greco-Roman text between the 1st and 3rd centuries, the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea , mentioned the island of Menuthias ( Ancient Greek : Μενουθιάς ), which is probably Unguja . At the outset of the first millennium, both Zanzibar and the nearby coast were settled by Bantu speakers. Archaeological finds at Fukuchani, on the northwest coast of Zanzibar, indicate
13689-480: Was then appointed Deputy Minister of Health on 12 November 1995. From 6 November 2000, he was a Member of the House of Representatives at Mkanyageni Constituency in Zanzibar before being appointed to be a Minister of State, President's Office, Constitution, and Good Governance in Zanzibar on 22 November 2000, and Vice President of Tanzania in July 2001. Shein has been nominated by the ruling party CCM on 9 July 2010 as
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