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35-477: Ali ibn Yusuf was born in 1084–1085 (477 AH ) in Ceuta . He was the son of Yusuf ibn Tashfin , the fourth Almoravid ruler. According to some sources, his mother was Zaynab an-Nafzawiyyah . According to some others, his mother was Qamar or Qamra, surnamed Fadl al-Hasan, a Christian captive from al-Andalus who became Yusuf's concubine. A woman Qamar is also cited by some sources as Ali Ibn Yusuf's own concubine and

70-539: A tabular Islamic calendar in which odd-numbered months have thirty days (and also the twelfth month in a leap year) and even months have twenty nine. Romanization of Arabic The romanization of Arabic is the systematic rendering of written and spoken Arabic in the Latin script . Romanized Arabic is used for various purposes, among them transcription of names and titles, cataloging Arabic language works, language education when used instead of or alongside

105-629: A person notable in connection with Islam is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Hijri year The Hijri year ( Arabic : سنة هجرية , romanized :  sanat hijriyya ) or era ( Arabic : التقويم الهجري , romanized :  at-taqwīm al-hijrī ) is the era used in the Islamic lunar calendar . It begins its count from the Islamic New Year in which Muhammad and his followers migrated from Mecca to Yathrib (now Medina ) in 622 CE. This event, known as

140-487: A reader is not familiar with Arabic pronunciation. Examples in Literary Arabic : There have been many instances of national movements to convert Arabic script into Latin script or to romanize the language. A Beirut newspaper, La Syrie , pushed for the change from Arabic script to Latin script in 1922. The major head of this movement was Louis Massignon , a French Orientalist, who brought his concern before

175-504: A way to reclaim and reemphasize Egyptian culture. As a result, some Egyptians pushed for an Egyptianization of the Arabic language in which the formal Arabic and the colloquial Arabic would be combined into one language and the Latin alphabet would be used. There was also the idea of finding a way to use hieroglyphics instead of the Latin alphabet. A scholar, Salama Musa , agreed with

210-452: Is a useful tool for anyone who is familiar with the sounds of Arabic but not fully conversant in the language. One criticism is that a fully accurate system would require special learning that most do not have to actually pronounce names correctly, and that with a lack of a universal romanization system they will not be pronounced correctly by non-native speakers anyway. The precision will be lost if special characters are not replicated and if

245-468: Is based on actual observation of the moon's crescent ( hilal ) marking the end of the previous lunar cycle and hence the previous month, thereby beginning the new month. Consequently, each month can have 29 or 30 days depending on the visibility of the moon, astronomical positioning of the earth and weather conditions. However, certain sects and groups, most notably Bohras Muslims namely Alavis , Dawoodis and Sulaymanis and Shia Ismaili Muslims, use

280-754: The Almoravids in 1121. In 1139, he lost the Battle of Ourique against the Portuguese forces led by count Afonso Henriques , which allowed Afonso to proclaim himself an independent King. Ali died on 28 January 1143 and was succeeded by his son Tashfin ibn Ali . He commissioned a minbar now known as the Minbar of the Kutubiyya Mosque from a workshop in Córdoba to furnish his grand mosque ,

315-684: The Gregorian calendar . The year 2024 CE corresponds to the Islamic years AH   1445 – 1446; AH   1446 corresponds to 2024 – 2025 in the Common Era. The Hijri era is calculated according to the Islamic lunar calendar , whose epoch (first year) is the year of Muhammad's Hijrah , and begins on the first day of the month of Muharram (equivalent to the Julian calendar date of July 16, 622 CE). The date of

350-690: The Hijrah , is commemorated in Islam for its role in the founding of the first Muslim community ( ummah ). In the West, this era is most commonly denoted as AH ( Latin : Anno Hegirae , / ˈ æ n oʊ ˈ h ɛ dʒ ɪ r iː / , lit.   ' in the year of the Hijra ' ) in parallel with the Christian / Common (AD/CE) and Jewish eras (AM) and can similarly be placed before (preferably) or after

385-454: The sound of the language, since short vowels and geminate consonants, for example, do not usually appear in Arabic writing. As an example, the above rendering munāẓaratu l-ḥurūfi l-ʻarabīyah of the Arabic : مناظرة الحروف العربية is a transcription, indicating the pronunciation; an example transliteration would be mnaẓrḧ alḥrwf alʻrbyḧ . Early Romanization of

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420-709: The Arabic Language Academy in Damascus in 1928. Massignon's attempt at romanization failed as the Academy and the population viewed the proposal as an attempt from the Western world to take over their country. Sa'id Afghani, a member of the Academy, asserted that the movement to romanize the script was a Zionist plan to dominate Lebanon. After the period of colonialism in Egypt, Egyptians were looking for

455-403: The Arabic language was standardized in the various bilingual Arabic-European dictionaries of the 16–19th centuries: Any romanization system has to make a number of decisions which are dependent on its intended field of application. One basic problem is that written Arabic is normally unvocalized ; i.e., many of the vowels are not written out, and must be supplied by a reader familiar with

490-513: The Arabic script, and representation of the language in scientific publications by linguists . These formal systems, which often make use of diacritics and non-standard Latin characters and are used in academic settings or for the benefit of non-speakers, contrast with informal means of written communication used by speakers such as the Latin-based Arabic chat alphabet . Different systems and strategies have been developed to address

525-585: The Hijrah itself did not form the Islamic New Year . Instead, the system continues the earlier ordering of the months, with the Hijrah occurring around the 8th day of Rabi al-Awwal , 66 days into the first year. Unlike Sunnis, Twelver Shias start the Hijri year with the month of the Hijra, Rabi' al-Awwal, rejecting that Muharram is the start of a new year. As a result of this, the dates of some events are described differently by one year. For example, Shias state that

560-535: The Muharram-transpiring battle of Karbala occurred 60 years after the Hijra, while Sunnis state it to have occurred 61 years after. In Shia Islam, the calendar year is entirely determined by solar observation or calculation. Each year begins on the northward equinox . By the age of Muhammad, there was already an Arabian lunar calendar , with named months. Likewise, the years of its calendar used conventional names rather than numbers: for example,

595-761: The city's size, and told the amirs of Al-Andalus to fortify their walls as well. He also established an irrigation system in Marrakesh, a project managed by Obeyd Allah ibn Younous al-Muhandes . This irrigation system made use of qanawat ( قناة , p. قنوات ). Ali also had the first bridge over the Tensift River built. According to the Muslim cartographer Muhammad al-Idrisi , the Mugharrarin (also translated as "the adventurers") sent by Ali ibn Yusuf, led by his admiral Ahmad ibn Umar, better known under

630-495: The date. In predominantly Muslim countries , it is also commonly abbreviated H ("Hijra") from its Arabic abbreviation hāʾ ( هـ ). Years prior to AH 1 are reckoned in English as BH ("Before the Hijra"), which should follow the date. A year in the Islamic lunar calendar consists of twelve lunar months and has only 354 or 355 days in its year. Consequently, its New Year's Day occurs ten days earlier each year relative to

665-484: The following reasons: A fully accurate transcription may not be necessary for native Arabic speakers, as they would be able to pronounce names and sentences correctly anyway, but it can be very useful for those not fully familiar with spoken Arabic and who are familiar with the Roman alphabet. An accurate transliteration serves as a valuable stepping stone for learning, pronouncing correctly, and distinguishing phonemes. It

700-532: The idea of applying a Latin alphabet to Egyptian Arabic, as he believed that would allow Egypt to have a closer relationship with the West. He also believed that Latin script was key to the success of Egypt as it would allow for more advances in science and technology. This change in script, he believed, would solve the problems inherent with Arabic, such as a lack of written vowels and difficulties writing foreign words. Ahmad Lutfi As Sayid and Muhammad Azmi , two Egyptian intellectuals, agreed with Musa and supported

735-453: The inherent problems of rendering various Arabic varieties in the Latin script. Examples of such problems are the symbols for Arabic phonemes that do not exist in English or other European languages; the means of representing the Arabic definite article , which is always spelled the same way in written Arabic but has numerous pronunciations in the spoken language depending on context; and

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770-400: The language as spoken, typically rendering names, for example, by the people of Baghdad ( Baghdad Arabic ), or the official standard ( Literary Arabic ) as spoken by a preacher in the mosque or a TV newsreader. A transcription is free to add phonological (such as vowels) or morphological (such as word boundaries) information. Transcriptions will also vary depending on the writing conventions of

805-676: The language. Hence unvocalized Arabic writing does not give a reader unfamiliar with the language sufficient information for accurate pronunciation. As a result, a pure transliteration , e.g., rendering قطر as qṭr , is meaningless to an untrained reader. For this reason, transcriptions are generally used that add vowels, e.g. qaṭar . However, unvocalized systems match exactly to written Arabic, unlike vocalized systems such as Arabic chat, which some claim detracts from one's ability to spell. Most uses of romanization call for transcription rather than transliteration : Instead of transliterating each written letter, they try to reproduce

840-633: The mother of his son Syr. At the time of his father's death, in September 1106, he was 23 years old. He succeeded his father on 2 September 1106. Ali ruled from Morocco and appointed his brother Tamim ibn Yusuf  [ ar ] as governor of Al-Andalus . Ali expanded his territories in the Iberian Peninsula by capturing the Taifa of Zaragoza in 1110 but eventually lost it to Alfonso I, King of Aragon , in 1118. Córdoba rebelled against

875-515: The name of Raqsh al-Auzz reached a part of the ocean covered by seaweed , identified by some as the Sargasso Sea , which stretches into the Atlantic from Bermuda . Ali was the son of Yusuf ibn Tashfin . He had at least two sons: This biography of a member of a noble house or article about nobility is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This biographical article about

910-406: The new Muslim calendar the hijrah , the emigration of Muhammad and 70 Muslims from Mecca to Medina . Tradition credits Othman with the successful proposal, simply continuing the order of the months that had already been established by Muhammad , beginning with Muharram , as there was no set order of months during the pre-Islamic era (Age of Ignorance - Jahiliya ). Adoption of this calendar

945-486: The original Ben Youssef Mosque (destroyed under the Almohads ), in the imperial capital, Marrakesh . The Almoravid Qubba also bears Ali's name. At the advice of Abu Walid Ibn Rushd (grandfather of Averroes ), Ali built walls around Marrakesh as Ibn Tumart became more influential. There had been walls around the mosque and the palace, but Ali ibn Yūsuf spent 70,000 gold dinars on the city's fortifications, doubling

980-537: The push for romanization. The idea that romanization was necessary for modernization and growth in Egypt continued with Abd Al Aziz Fahmi in 1944. He was the chairman for the Writing and Grammar Committee for the Arabic Language Academy of Cairo. He believed and desired to implement romanization in a way that allowed words and spellings to remain somewhat familiar to the Egyptian people. However, this effort failed as

1015-432: The representation of short vowels (usually i u or e o , accounting for variations such as Muslim /Moslem or Mohammed /Muhammad/Mohamed ). Romanization is often termed "transliteration", but this is not technically correct. Transliteration is the direct representation of foreign letters using Latin symbols, while most systems for romanizing Arabic are actually transcription systems, which represent

1050-537: The same sound in the Arabic script, e.g. alif ا vs. alif maqṣūrah ى for the sound /aː/ ā , and the six different ways ( ء إ أ آ ؤ ئ ) of writing the glottal stop ( hamza , usually transcribed ʼ  ). This sort of detail is needlessly confusing, except in a very few situations (e.g., typesetting text in the Arabic script). Most issues related to the romanization of Arabic are about transliterating vs. transcribing; others, about what should be romanized: A transcription may reflect

1085-432: The sound of the words according to the orthography rules of the target language: Qaṭar . This applies equally to scientific and popular applications. A pure transliteration would need to omit vowels (e.g. qṭr ), making the result difficult to interpret except for a subset of trained readers fluent in Arabic. Even if vowels are added, a transliteration system would still need to distinguish between multiple ways of spelling

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1120-412: The target language; compare English Omar Khayyam with German Omar Chajjam , both for عمر خيام /ʕumar xajjaːm/ , [ˈʕomɑr xæjˈjæːm] (unvocalized ʿmr ḫyām , vocalized ʻUmar Khayyām ). A transliteration is ideally fully reversible: a machine should be able to transliterate it back into Arabic. A transliteration can be considered as flawed for any one of

1155-419: The year 2008 CE maps to the last week of AH 1428, all of 1429, and the first few days of 1430. Similarly, the year 1976 CE corresponded with the last few days of AH 1395, all of 1396, and the first week of 1397. The Hijri year has twelve months, whose precise lengths vary by sect of Islam. Each month of the Islamic calendar commences on the birth of the new lunar cycle. Traditionally this

1190-526: The year of the birth of Muhammad and of Ammar ibn Yasir (570 CE) was known as the " Year of the Elephant ". The first year of the Hijra (622-23 CE) was named the "Permission to Travel" in this calendar. 17 years after the Hijra , a complaint from Abu Musa Ashaari prompted the caliph Umar to abolish the practice of named years and to establish a new calendar era . Umar chose as epoch for

1225-649: Was then enforced by Umar. Different approximate conversion formulas between the Gregorian (AD or CE) and Islamic calendars (AH) are possible: or Given that the Islamic New Year does not begin January 1 and that a Hijri calendar year is about 11 days shorter than a Gregorian calendar year, there is no direct correspondence between years of the two eras. A given Hijri year will usually fall in two successive Gregorian years. A CE year will always overlap two or occasionally three successive Hijri years. For example,

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