118-611: Alice Hamilton (February 27, 1869 – September 22, 1970) was an American physician, research scientist, and author. She was a leading expert in the field of occupational health , laid the foundation for health and safety protections, and a pioneer in the field of industrial toxicology . Hamilton trained at the University of Michigan Medical School . Her residency at Hull House in Chicago from 1897 to 1919 put her in contact with an extensive demographic of working-class households, and
236-651: A "radical" and a "subversive." From 1924 to 1930, she served as the only woman member of the League of Nations Health Committee. She also visited the Soviet Union in 1924 and Nazi Germany in April 1933. Hamilton wrote "The Youth Who Are Hitler's Strength," which was published in The New York Times . The article described Nazi exploitation of youth in the years between the two world wars. She also criticized
354-493: A Dutch pacifist, feminist, and suffragist. She also visited German-occupied Belgium. Hamilton returned to Europe with Addams in May 1919 to attend the second International Congress of Women at Zürich , Switzerland. In addition, Hamilton, Addams, Jacobs, and American Quaker Carolena M. Wood became involved in a humanitarian mission to Germany to distribute food aid and investigate reports of famine. In January 1919, Hamilton accepted
472-499: A German physician, wrote a short treatise On the Poisonous Wicked Fumes and Smokes , focused on coal , nitric acid , lead , and mercury fumes encountered by metal workers and goldsmiths. In 1587, Paracelsus (1493–1541) published the first work on the mine and smelter workers diseases. In it, he gave accounts of miners' " lung sickness ". In 1526, Georgius Agricola 's (1494–1553) De re metallica ,
590-555: A German teacher at Phillips Academy . From 1917 until the school's centennial celebrations in 1943, he and his wife remained Heads of School at Miss Porter's. The school was incorporated as a non-profit institution in 1943, emphasizing its purpose as a college preparatory school rather than a finishing school. Also in 1943, the school ended the tradition of hiring Heads of School from the Porter family, instead selecting Ward L. Johnson and his wife Katharine. Ward Lamb Johnson had been
708-694: A bill to parliament with the aim of improving their conditions. This would engender the Health and Morals of Apprentices Act 1802 , generally believed to be the first attempt to regulate conditions of work in the United Kingdom. The act applied only to cotton textile mills and required employers to keep premises clean and healthy by twice yearly washings with quicklime , to ensure there were sufficient windows to admit fresh air, and to supply " apprentices " (i.e., pauper and orphan employees) with "sufficient and suitable" clothing and accommodation for sleeping. It
826-579: A brother (Arthur "Quint"), all of whom were accomplished in their respective fields. The girls remained especially close throughout their childhood and into their professional careers. Edith (1867–1963), an educator and headmistress at Bryn Mawr School in Baltimore , became a classicist and renowned author for her essays and best-selling books on ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. Margaret (1871–1969), like her older sister Edith, became an educator and headmistress at Bryn Mawr School. Norah (1873–1945)
944-451: A debilitating hand condition developed by workers using jackhammers ." At the request of the U.S. Department of Labor, she also investigated industries involved in developing high explosives, "spastic anemia known as 'dead fingers'" among Bedford, Indiana , limestone cutters, and the "unusually high incidence of pulmonary tuberculosis" among tombstone carvers working in the granite mills of Quincy, Massachusetts , and Barre, Vermont . Hamilton
1062-947: A decreasing trend, the total deaths and non-fatal outcomes were on the rise. Cancers represented the most significant cause of mortality in high-income countries. The number of non-fatal occupational injuries for 2019 was estimated to be 402 million. Mortality rate is unevenly distributed, with male mortality rate (108.3 per 100,000 employed male individuals) being significantly higher than female rate (48.4 per 100,000). 6.7% of all deaths globally are represented by occupational fatalities. Certain EU member states admit to having lacking quality control in occupational safety services, to situations in which risk analysis takes place without any on-site workplace visits and to insufficient implementation of certain EU OSH directives. Disparities between member states result in different impact of occupational hazards on
1180-480: A dedicated professional Factory Inspectorate . The initial remit of the Inspectorate was to police restrictions on the working hours in the textile industry of children and young persons (introduced to prevent chronic overwork, identified as leading directly to ill-health and deformation, and indirectly to a high accident rate). In 1840 a Royal Commission published its findings on the state of conditions for
1298-487: A direction which supports health and safety at work and in doing so also promotes a positive social climate and smooth operation and may enhance productivity of the undertakings. The concept of working culture is intended in this context to mean a reflection of the essential value systems adopted by the undertaking concerned. Such a culture is reflected in practice in the managerial systems, personnel policy, principles for participation, training policies and quality management of
SECTION 10
#17327833968891416-621: A family tradition among the Hamilton women, Alice completed her early education at Miss Porter's Finishing School for Young Ladies (also known as Miss Porter's School ) in Farmington, Connecticut , from 1886 to 1888. In addition to Alice, three of her aunts, three cousins, and all three of her sisters were alumnae of the school. Although Hamilton had led a privileged life in Fort Wayne, she aspired to provide some type of useful service to
1534-674: A fire at the Triangle Shirtwaist Company in New York killed 146 workers, mostly women and immigrants. Most died trying to open exits that had been locked. Radium dial painter cancers ," phossy jaw ", mercury and lead poisonings, silicosis, and other pneumoconioses were extremely common. The enactment of the Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969 was quickly followed by the 1970 Occupational Safety and Health Act , which established
1652-472: A friendship with bacteriologist Ruth Tunnicliffe . Hamilton investigated a typhoid epidemic in Chicago before focusing her research on the investigation of industrial diseases. Some of Hamilton's early research in this area included attempts to identify causes of typhoid and tuberculosis in the community surrounding Hull House. Her work on typhoid in 1902 led to the replacement of the chief sanitary inspector of
1770-664: A guest artist to campus. The Prescott Program Fund was established in 1961 by Marjorie Wiggin Prescott (class of 1911) to bring distinguished visiting lecturers and performers to the School. The Suzannah Ryan Wilkie '53 and Janet Norton Bilkey '53 "Wilkie-Bilkey" Program was established in 1988 by the Class of 1953 in honor of their 35th Reunion to support an annual performance from the world of dance or drama or other live performance. The Oprah Winfrey Endowed Scholarship Fund, offered through
1888-559: A higher risk of negative mental health outcomes like addiction or depression. "The higher prevalence of mental health problems may be linked to the precarious nature of service work, including lower and unpredictable wages, insufficient benefits, and a lack of control over work hours and assigned shifts." Close to 70% of tipped wage workers are women. Additionally, "almost 40 percent of people who work for tips are people of color: 18 percent are Latino, 10 percent are African American, and 9 percent are Asian. Immigrants are also overrepresented in
2006-602: A letter to the editor of The New York Times , that “Coed classrooms are the norm, but the norm does not serve girls well; it needs to be challenged and, ultimately, changed. Single-sex education is counterculture, but it's good for girls.” Ford oversaw the launch of The Oprah Winfrey Endowed Scholarship Fund at Miss Porter's, offered through the Oprah Winfrey Foundation . Memorialized in The Boston Globe by her husband and crew coach Brian Ford, “She
2124-445: A live performance. The Elisabeth S. Hadden '76 Memorial Fund was established in 1976 in her memory by family and friends to support the annual Haggis Baggis poetry reading. The Kalat Fund for National and International Resources was established by Virginia Lowry Kalat '39, in honor of her 45th Reunion. The Geri Mullis '69 Memorial Poetry Fund was established in 1994 by the members of the Class of 1969 in honor of their 25th Reunion to bring
2242-680: A medical degree from the university in 1893. In 1893–94, after graduation from medical school, Hamilton completed internships at the Northwestern Hospital for Women and Children in Minneapolis and at the New England Hospital for Women and Children in Roxbury , a suburban neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts, to gain some clinical experience. Hamilton had already decided that she was not interested in establishing
2360-544: A medical practice and returned to the University of Michigan in February 1895 to study bacteriology as a resident graduate and lab assistant of Frederick George Novy. She also began to develop an interest in public health. In the fall of 1895, Alice and her older sister, Edith, traveled to Germany. Alice planned to study bacteriology and pathology at the advice of her professors at Michigan, while Edith intended to study
2478-415: A member and resident of Hull House , the settlement house founded by social reformer Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr . While Hamilton taught and did research at the medical school during the day, she maintained an active life at Hull House, her full-time residence from 1897 to 1919. On how Hull House had helped Hamilton to find her true self she said; It " satisfied every longing, for companionship, for
SECTION 20
#17327833968892596-405: A need to contain unrest than morally motivated, they were significant in transferring responsibility for helping the needy from private hands to the state. In 1713, Bernardino Ramazzini (1633–1714), often described as the father of occupational medicine and a precursor to occupational health, published his De morbis artificum diatriba ( Dissertation on Workers' Diseases ), which outlined
2714-425: A position as an assistant professor at Harvard Medical School , she returned to Hull House and stayed for several months each spring until Jane Addams's death in 1935. Through her association and work at Hull House and living side by side with the poor residents of the community, Hamilton witnessed the effects that the dangerous trades had on workers' health through exposure to carbon monoxide and lead poisoning . As
2832-568: A position as assistant professor in a newly formed Department of Industrial Medicine (and after 1925 the School of Public Health) at Harvard Medical School , making her the first woman appointed to the Harvard University faculty in any field. Her appointment was hailed by the New York Tribune with the headline: "A Woman on Harvard Faculty—The Last Citadel Has Fallen—The Sex Has Come Into Its Own". She commented, "yes, I am
2950-423: A professor at Harvard Medical School. She deduced that the workers were being sickened through contact with the explosive trinitrotoluene (TNT). She recommended that workers wear protective clothing to be removed and washed at the end of each shift, solving the problem. Hamilton's best-known research included her studies on carbon monoxide poisoning among American steelworkers, mercury poisoning of hatters, and "
3068-628: A range of hazards present in surface and underground mining operations. In surface mining, leading hazards include such issues as geological instability, contact with plant and equipment, rock blasting , thermal environments (heat and cold), respiratory health ( black lung ), etc. In underground mining, operational hazards include respiratory health, explosions and gas (particularly in coal mine operations), geological instability, electrical equipment, contact with plant and equipment, heat stress, inrush of bodies of water, falls from height, confined spaces , ionising radiation , etc. According to data from
3186-792: A real missionary, but if I could care for the sick, that would do instead." After her return to Indiana from school in Connecticut, Hamilton studied science with a high school teacher in Fort Wayne and anatomy at Fort Wayne College of Medicine for a year before enrolling at the University of Michigan Medical School in 1892. There she had the opportunity of studying with "a remarkable group of men" – John Jacob Abel (pharmacology), William Henry Howell (physiology), Frederick George Novy (bacteriology), Victor C. Vaughan (biochemistry) and George Dock (medicine). During her last year of study she served on Dr. Dock's staff, going on rounds, taking histories and doing clinical laboratory work. Hamilton earned
3304-733: A regular day shift), 21% had non-standard work arrangements (were not regular permanent employees). Due to the manual labor involved and on a per employee basis, the US Postal Service, UPS and FedEx are the 4th, 5th and 7th most dangerous companies to work for in the US. Healthcare workers are exposed to many hazards that can adversely affect their health and well-being. Long hours, changing shifts, physically demanding tasks, violence, and exposures to infectious diseases and harmful chemicals are examples of hazards that put these workers at risk for illness and injury. Musculoskeletal injury (MSI)
3422-623: A result, she became increasingly interested in the problems the workers faced, especially occupational injuries and illnesses. The experience also caused Hamilton to begin considering how to merge her interests in medical science and social reform to improve the health of American workers. When the Woman's Medical School closed in 1902, Hamilton took a position as bacteriologist with the Memorial Institute for Infectious Diseases, working with Ludvig Hektoen . During this time, she also formed
3540-776: A stroke at her home in Hadlyme, Connecticut , on September 22, 1970, at the age of 101. She is buried at Cove Cemetery in Hadlyme. Hamilton was a tireless researcher and crusader against the use of toxic substances in the workplace. Within three months of her death in 1970, the U.S. Congress passed the Occupational Safety and Health Act to improve workplace safety in the United States. Books: Articles: Occupational health Occupational safety and health ( OSH ) or occupational health and safety ( OHS )
3658-529: A student's leisure, depending on the student's academic or disciplinary standing and barring explicit parental restriction. In her later years, Ancient Theodate Pope Riddle outfitted a section of her family's homestead on Mountain Road as The Odd and End Shop , known alternatively as The Gundy. The school claims to have over fifty active student-run clubs and organizations. If a student doesn't find an organization that fits their specific interest or need, there
Alice Hamilton - Misplaced Pages Continue
3776-523: A term beginning in 1983. She was devoted to renewing single-sex education for girls and spoke widely on the topic, as well as writing for The New York Times . One report called her a "visionary". In July 1992, Marianna 'Muffin' Mead O'Brien began her term as Head of School, following Belash's abrupt resignation at the end of June, and having served the school in years prior on the board of trustees from 1976 to 1983, and, respectively, as parent to three alumnae. Drawing on her experience of twenty-five years at
3894-523: A treaty on metallurgy, described accidents and diseases prevalent among miners and recommended practices to prevent them. Like Paracelsus, Agricola mentioned the dust that "eats away the lungs, and implants consumption." The seeds of state intervention to correct social ills were sown during the reign of Elizabeth I by the Poor Laws , which originated in attempts to alleviate hardship arising from widespread poverty. While they were perhaps more to do with
4012-412: A week among workers employed in these industries was 37%, and 24% worked more than 60 hours a week. Of all workers in these industries, 85% frequently worked outdoors compared to 25% of all US workers. Additionally, 53% were frequently exposed to vapors, gas, dust, or fumes, compared to 25% of all US workers. The mining industry still has one of the highest rates of fatalities of any industry. There are
4130-571: A woman. She was excluded from social activities, could not enter the Harvard Union, attend the Faculty Club, or receive a quota of football tickets. In addition, Hamilton was not allowed to march in the university's commencement ceremonies as the male faculty members did. Hamilton became a successful fundraiser for Harvard as she continued to write and conduct research on the dangerous trades. In addition to publishing "landmark reports for
4248-574: A year at the Johns Hopkins University Medical School. There she worked with Simon Flexner on pathological anatomy. She also had the opportunity to learn from William H. Welch and William Osler . In 1897 Hamilton accepted an offer to become a professor of pathology at the Woman's Medical School of Northwestern University . Soon after her move to Chicago, Illinois, Hamilton fulfilled a longtime ambition to become
4366-463: Is a common source of occupational injuries and illnesses among younger workers. Common causes of fatal injuries among young farm worker include drowning, machinery and motor vehicle-related accidents. The 2010 NHIS-OHS found elevated prevalence rates of several occupational exposures in the agriculture, forestry, and fishing sector which may negatively impact health. These workers often worked long hours. The prevalence rate of working more than 48 hours
4484-415: Is a multidisciplinary field concerned with the safety , health , and welfare of people at work (i.e., while performing duties required by one's occupation). OSH is related to the fields of occupational medicine and occupational hygiene and aligns with workplace health promotion initiatives. OSH also protects all the general public who may be affected by the occupational environment. According to
4602-498: Is a process by which they can create their own. Porter's traditional rival is The Ethel Walker School , against which it competes as a member of the Founders League , and, to a lesser extent, the likes of fellow founding members Choate Rosemary Hall , Hotchkiss , Kent , Kingswood-Oxford , Loomis Chaffee , Taft and Westminster . At the end of each season, Porter's competes against the league's most competitive teams in
4720-741: Is a serious hazard that can be found in workplaces. Specific occupational safety and health risk factors vary depending on the specific sector and industry. Construction workers might be particularly at risk of falls, for instance, whereas fishermen might be particularly at risk of drowning . Similarly psychosocial risks such as workplace violence are more pronounced for certain occupational groups such as health care employees, police, correctional officers and teachers. Agriculture workers are often at risk of work-related injuries, lung disease, noise-induced hearing loss, skin disease, as well as certain cancers related to chemical use or prolonged sun exposure. On industrialized farms , injuries frequently involve
4838-572: Is addressed through the implementation of occupational safety and health programs at company level. The International Labour Organization (ILO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) share a common definition of occupational health. It was first adopted by the Joint ILO/WHO Committee on Occupational Health at its first session in 1950: Occupational health should aim at the promotion and maintenance of
Alice Hamilton - Misplaced Pages Continue
4956-640: Is estimated that the economic burden of occupational-related injury and death is nearly four per cent of the global gross domestic product each year. The human cost of this adversity is enormous. In common-law jurisdictions, employers have the common law duty (also called duty of care) to take reasonable care of the safety of their employees. Statute law may, in addition, impose other general duties, introduce specific duties, and create government bodies with powers to regulate occupational safety issues. Details of this vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Prevention of workplace incidents and occupational diseases
5074-676: Is one of the most dangerous occupations in the world, incurring more occupational fatalities than any other sector in both the United States and in the European Union . In 2009, the fatal occupational injury rate among construction workers in the United States was nearly three times that for all workers. Falls are one of the most common causes of fatal and non-fatal injuries among construction workers. Proper safety equipment such as harnesses and guardrails and procedures such as securing ladders and inspecting scaffolding can curtail
5192-417: Is that house directors' primary responsibilities are within residential houses. Houses traditionally count among their residents two Junior Advisors , student leaders appointed to serve as peer counselors and mediators for each residence, respectively, with the exception of those houses restricted to seniors. Each house is self-governing to an extent, with students responsible for chores on a rotating schedule,
5310-461: Is the most common health hazard in for healthcare workers and in workplaces overall. Injuries can be prevented by using proper body mechanics. According to the Bureau of Labor statistics, US hospitals recorded 253,700 work-related injuries and illnesses in 2011, which is 6.8 work-related injuries and illnesses for every 100 full-time employees. The injury and illness rate in hospitals is higher than
5428-499: The Farmington River and includes a number of historically significant buildings which have collectively served the wider Farmington community in a range of functional capacities over their respective histories. Over the years, the school has transformed its campus assets to suit its needs. Approximately 75% of Porter's girls live on campus in dormitories, all but one of which are former Farmington private residences left to
5546-539: The Groton School , during which she had "helped start the coeducation program, taught history, tutored reading and was in the human relations and sexuality counseling faculty," O'Brien served a one-year term between the Belash and Ford administrations. M. Burch Tracy Ford was dean of students at Milton Academy and a residential counselor at the Groton School before coming to Miss Porter's. In 1994, she wrote in
5664-509: The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and NIOSH in their current form`. A wide array of workplace hazards can damage the health and safety of people at work. These include but are not limited to, "chemicals, biological agents, physical factors, adverse ergonomic conditions, allergens, a complex network of safety risks," as well a broad range of psychosocial risk factors. Personal protective equipment can help protect against many of these hazards. A landmark study conducted by
5782-603: The Oprah Winfrey Foundation , for the benefit of eligible students with demonstrated financial need who have displayed both academic excellence and leadership skills. One scholarship beneficiary presented her benefactor with the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award at the 2011 Governors Awards hosted by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences . As of 2022, the school's endowment was estimated at $ 142.3 million. The 40-acre campus overlooks
5900-403: The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics , is considered a "landmark study." Relying primarily on "shoe leather epidemiology" (her process of making personal visits to factories, conducting interviews with workers, and compiling details of diagnosed poisoning cases) and the emerging laboratory science of toxicology, Hamilton pioneered occupational epidemiology and industrial hygiene . She also created
6018-497: The World Health Organization and the International Labour Organization found that exposure to long working hours is the occupational risk factor with the largest attributable burden of disease, i.e. an estimated 745,000 fatalities from ischemic heart disease and stroke events in 2016. This makes overwork the globally leading occupational health risk factor. Physical hazards affect many people in
SECTION 50
#17327833968896136-608: The "Illinois Survey," the commission's report that documented its findings of industrial processes that exposed workers to lead poisoning and other illnesses. The commission's efforts resulted in the passage of the first workers' compensation laws in Illinois in 1911, in Indiana in 1915, and occupational disease laws in other states. The new laws required employers to take safety precautions to protect workers. By 1916 Hamilton had become America's foremost authority on lead poisoning. For
6254-776: The 2010 NHIS-OHS, workers employed in mining and oil and gas extraction industries had high prevalence rates of exposure to potentially harmful work organization characteristics and hazardous chemicals. Many of these workers worked long hours: 50% worked more than 48 hours a week and 25% worked more than 60 hours a week in 2010. Additionally, 42% worked non-standard shifts (not a regular day shift). These workers also had high prevalence of exposure to physical/chemical hazards. In 2010, 39% had frequent skin contact with chemicals. Among nonsmoking workers, 28% of those in mining and oil and gas extraction industries had frequent exposure to secondhand smoke at work. About two-thirds were frequently exposed to vapors, gas, dust, or fumes at work. Construction
6372-423: The 2017–2018 year. The average class size was 10 students in 2017. Miss Porter's School was established in 1843 by education reformer Sarah Porter . She was insistent that the school's curriculum include chemistry, physiology, botany, geology, and astronomy in addition to the more traditional subjects taught in girls' schools. Also encouraged were such athletic opportunities as tennis and horseback riding; in 1867
6490-814: The Construction Design Management (CDM) Coordinator as a requirement has been aimed at improving health and safety on-site. The 2010 National Health Interview Survey Occupational Health Supplement (NHIS-OHS) identified work organization factors and occupational psychosocial and chemical/physical exposures which may increase some health risks. Among all US workers in the construction sector, 44% had non-standard work arrangements (were not regular permanent employees) compared to 19% of all US workers, 15% had temporary employment compared to 7% of all US workers, and 55% experienced job insecurity compared to 32% of all US workers. Prevalence rates for exposure to physical/chemical hazards were especially high for
6608-464: The ILO), based on the general understanding that occupational health refers to hazards associated to disease and long-term effects, while occupational safety hazards are those associated to work accidents causing injury and sudden severe conditions. Research and regulation of occupational safety and health are a relatively recent phenomenon. As labor movements arose in response to worker concerns in
6726-496: The Ministry of Health's decision, but does not reflect actual improvements. This was most clearly shown in the results for the aluminum industry. Miss Porter%27s School Miss Porter's School ( MPS ) is a private college preparatory school for girls founded in 1843 in Farmington, Connecticut . The school draws students from many of the fifty U.S. states, as well as from abroad. International students comprised 14% in
6844-637: The Nazi education, especially its domestic training for girls. After her retirement from Harvard in 1935, Hamilton became a medical consultant to the U.S. Division of Labor Standards, and she maintained her connections at Harvard as professor emerita. Her last field survey, which was made in 1937–38, investigated the viscose rayon industry. In addition, Hamilton served as president of the National Consumers League from 1944 to 1949. Hamilton spent her retirement years in Hadlyme, Connecticut , at
6962-480: The New England Championships. The school has no mascot, although some call the teams Fighting Daisies . Since the turn of the millennium, student athletes have earned a combined 12 Founder's League and 8 New England championship titles. The following organizational boards sustain each of the school's publications: As one of the oldest independent schools with archival holdings, the school
7080-542: The Russian Federation in the early 21st century. However, as in previous years, data reporting and publication was incomplete and manipulated, so that the actual number of work-related diseases and accidents are unknown. The ILO reports that, according to the information provided by the Russian government, there are 190,000 work-related fatalities each year, of which 15,000 due to occupational accidents. After
7198-773: The U.S. Department of Labor" on research related to workers in Arizona copper mines and stonecutters at Indiana's limestone quarries, Hamilton also wrote Industrial Poisons in the United States (1925), the first American textbook on the subject, and another related textbook, Industrial Toxicology (1934). At a tetraethyl lead conference in Washington, D.C. in 1925, Hamilton was a prominent critic of adding tetraethyl lead to gasoline. Hamilton also remained an activist in social reform efforts. Her specific interests in civil liberties, peace, birth control, and protective labor legislation for women caused some of her critics to consider her
SECTION 60
#17327833968897316-622: The United States were passed in New York in 1910 and in Washington and Wisconsin in 1911. Later rulings included occupational diseases in the scope of the compensation, which was initially restricted to accidents. In 1914 the USPHS set up the Office of Industrial Hygiene and Sanitation, the ancestor of the current National Institute for Safety and Health (NIOSH). In the early 20th century, workplace disasters were still common. For example, in 1911
7434-647: The West Nile virus and Lyme disease. Health care workers, including veterinary health workers, risk exposure to blood-borne pathogens and various infectious diseases, especially those that are emerging . Dangerous chemicals can pose a chemical hazard in the workplace. There are many classifications of hazardous chemicals, including neurotoxins , immune agents, dermatologic agents, carcinogens, reproductive toxins, systemic toxins, asthmagens, pneumoconiotic agents, and sensitizers. Authorities such as regulatory agencies set occupational exposure limits to mitigate
7552-627: The Western world. Similar acts followed in other countries, partly in response to labor unrest. The United States are responsible for the first health program focusing on workplace conditions. This was the Marine Hospital Service , inaugurated in 1798 and providing care for merchant seamen. This was the beginning of what would become the US Public Health Service (USPHS). The first worker compensation acts in
7670-413: The adaptation of work to man and of each man to his job. In 1995, a consensus statement was added: The main focus in occupational health is on three different objectives: (i) the maintenance and promotion of workers' health and working capacity; (ii) the improvement of working environment and work to become conducive to safety and health and (iii) development of work organizations and working cultures in
7788-599: The area by the Chicago Board of Health . The study of industrial medicine (work-related illnesses) had become increasingly important because the Industrial Revolution of the late nineteenth century had led to new dangers in the workplace. In 1907 Hamilton began exploring existing literature from abroad and noticed that industrial medicine was not being studied as much in America. She set out to change
7906-694: The body over time, thereby enabling small incremental daily exposures to eventually add up to dangerous levels with little overt warning. Psychosocial hazards include risks to the mental and emotional well-being of workers, such as feelings of job insecurity, long work hours, and poor work-life balance. Psychological abuse has been found present within the workplace as evidenced by previous research. A study by Gary Namie on workplace emotional abuse found that 31% of women and 21% of men who reported workplace emotional abuse exhibited three key symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder ( hypervigilance , intrusive imagery , and avoidance behaviors ). Sexual harassment
8024-642: The city of Fort Wayne was built on land that he once owned. Alice grew up on the Hamilton family's large estate that encompassed a three-block area of downtown Fort Wayne. The Hamilton family also spent many summers at Mackinac Island, Michigan . For the most part, the second and third generations of the extended Hamilton family, which included Alice's family, as well as her uncles, aunts, and cousins, lived on inherited wealth. Montgomery Hamilton, Alice's father, attended Princeton University and Harvard Law School . He also studied in Germany, where he met Gertrude Pond,
8142-641: The classics and attend lectures. The Hamilton sisters faced some opposition to their efforts to study abroad. Although Alice was welcomed in Frankfurt , her requests to study in Berlin were rejected and she experienced some prejudice against women when the two sisters studied at universities in Munich and Leipzig . When Alice returned to the United States in September 1896, she continued postgraduate studies for
8260-546: The construction sector. Among nonsmoking workers, 24% of construction workers were exposed to secondhand smoke while only 10% of all US workers were exposed. Other physical/chemical hazards with high prevalence rates in the construction industry were frequently working outdoors (73%) and frequent exposure to vapors, gas, dust, or fumes (51%). The service sector comprises diverse workplaces. Each type of workplace has its own health risks. While some occupations have become more mobile, others still require people to sit at desks. As
8378-487: The daughter of a wealthy sugar importer. They were married in 1866. Alice's father became a partner in a wholesale grocery business in Fort Wayne, but the partnership dissolved in 1885 and he withdrew from public life. Although the business failure caused a financial loss for the family, Alice's outspoken mother, Gertrude, remained socially active in the Fort Wayne community. Alice was the second eldest of five siblings that included three sisters (Edith, Margaret, and Norah) and
8496-453: The demise of the USSR, enterprises became owned by oligarchs who were not interested in upholding safe and healthy conditions in the workplace. Expenditure on equipment modernization was minimal and the share of harmful workplaces increased. The government did not interfere in this, and sometimes it helped employers. At first, the increase in occupational diseases and accidents was slow, due to
8614-488: The dining room. We gradually dropped the requirement that all meals were 'sit-down,' with assigned seating. The changes did not come all at once, yet each one brought some dissent. Certain faculty members felt that standards were slipping." Having arrived in Farmington in 1967, also from The Buffalo Seminary (like Davis), Warren 'Skip' Hance quickly took on administrative roles in addition to teaching history. First he
8732-486: The economy. In the early 2000s, the total societal costs of work-related health problems and accidents varied from 2.6% to 3.8% of the national GDPs across the member states. In 2021, in the EU-27 as a whole, 93% of deaths due to injury were of males. One of the decisions taken by the communist regime under Stalin was to reduce the number of accidents and occupational diseases to zero. The tendency to decline remained in
8850-546: The employee means real improvement of working conditions. Meanwhile, the Ministry of Health made significant changes in the methods of risk assessment in the workplace. However, specialists from the Izmerov Research Institute of Occupational Health found that the post-2014 apparent decrease in the share of employees engaged in hazardous working conditions is due to the change in definitions consequent to
8968-585: The excitement of new experiences, for constant intellectual stimulation, and for the sense of being caught up in a big movement which enlisted my enthusiastic loyalty. " Hamilton became Jane Addams' personal physician and volunteered her time at Hull House to teach English and art. She also directed the men's fencing and athletic clubs, operated a well-baby clinic, and visited the sick in their homes. Other inhabitants of Hull House included Alice's sister Norah, and her friends Rachelle and Victor Yarros . Although Hamilton moved away from Chicago in 1919 when she accepted
9086-427: The fact that in the 1990s it was compensated by mass deindustrialization. However, in the 2000s deindustrialization slowed and occupational diseases and injuries started to rise in earnest. Therefore, in the 2010s the Ministry of Labor adopted federal law no. 426-FZ. This piece of legislation has been described as ineffective and based on the superficial assumption that the issuance of personal protective equipment to
9204-525: The first woman on the Harvard faculty—but not the first one who should have been appointed!" During her years at Harvard, from 1919 to her retirement in 1935, Hamilton never received a faculty promotion and held only a series of three-year appointments. At her request, the half-time appointments for which she taught one semester per year allowed her to continue her research and spend several months of each year at Hull House. Hamilton also faced discrimination as
9322-556: The headmaster of the Lawrence School for twenty-two years when he and his wife joined the Farmington community in 1943. He retired eleven years later. During their tenure, Leila Dilworth Jones '44 Memorial Library was opened. They also increased faculty housing. The MPS Bulletin stated: "by the early 1950s the scholastic standing of Miss Porter's was among the highest in the country." Mary Norris (née Frick) French and her husband Hollis Stratton French served as co-principals of
9440-457: The health hazards of chemicals, dust, metals, repetitive or violent motions, odd postures, and other disease-causative agents encountered by workers in more than fifty occupations. It was the first broad-ranging presentation of occupational diseases. Percivall Pott (1714–1788), an English surgeon, described cancer in chimney sweeps ( chimney sweeps' carcinoma ), the first recognition of an occupational cancer in history. The United Kingdom
9558-435: The highest degree of physical, mental and social well-being of workers in all occupations; the prevention amongst workers of departures from health caused by their working conditions; the protection of workers in their employment from risks resulting from factors adverse to health; the placing and maintenance of the worker in an occupational environment adapted to his physiological and psychological capabilities and; to summarize:
9676-553: The home she had purchased in 1916 with her sister, Margaret. Hamilton remained an active writer in retirement. Her autobiography, Exploring the Dangerous Trades , was published in 1943. Hamilton and coauthor Harriet Louise Hardy also revised Industrial Toxicology (1949), the textbook that Hamilton had initially written in 1934. Hamilton enjoyed leisure activities such as reading, sketching, and writing, as well as spending time among her family and friends. Hamilton died of
9794-400: The next decade she investigated a range of issues for a variety of state and federal health committees. Hamilton focused her explorations on occupational toxic disorders, examining the effects of substances such as aniline dyes , carbon monoxide , mercury , tetraethyl lead , radium , benzene , carbon disulfide and hydrogen sulfide gases. In 1925, at a Public Health Service conference on
9912-475: The number of service sector jobs has risen in developed countries, more and more jobs have become sedentary , presenting an array of health problems that differ from health problems associated with manufacturing and the primary sector . Contemporary health problems include obesity . Some working conditions, such as occupational stress , workplace bullying , and overwork , have negative consequences for physical and mental health. Tipped wage workers are at
10030-653: The official estimates of the United Nations , the WHO / ILO Joint Estimate of the Work-related Burden of Disease and Injury , almost 2 million people die each year due to exposure to occupational risk factors. Globally, more than 2.78 million people die annually as a result of workplace-related accidents or diseases, corresponding to one death every fifteen seconds. There are an additional 374 million non-fatal work-related injuries annually. It
10148-615: The potential to crush, burn , cut , shear , stab or otherwise strike or wound workers if used unsafely. Biological hazards (biohazards) include infectious microorganisms such as viruses, bacteria and toxins produced by those organisms such as anthrax . Biohazards affect workers in many industries; influenza , for example, affects a broad population of workers. Outdoor workers, including farmers, landscapers, and construction workers, risk exposure to numerous biohazards, including animal bites and stings, urushiol from poisonous plants, and diseases transmitted through animals such as
10266-913: The rates in construction and manufacturing – two industries that are traditionally thought to be relatively hazardous. An estimated 2.90 million work-related deaths occurred in 2019, increased from 2.78 million death from 2015. About, one-third of the total work-related deaths (31%) were due to circulatory diseases , while cancer contributed 29%, respiratory diseases 17%, and occupational injuries contributed 11% (or about 319,000 fatalities). Other diseases such as work-related communicable diseases contributed 6%, while neuropsychiatric conditions contributed 3% and work-related digestive disease and genitourinary diseases contributed 1% each. The contribution of cancers and circulatory diseases to total work-related deaths increased from 2015, while deaths due to occupational injuries decreased. Although work-related injury deaths and non-fatal injuries rates were on
10384-492: The risk of chemical hazards. International investigations are ongoing into the health effects of mixtures of chemicals, given that toxins can interact synergistically instead of merely additively. For example, there is some evidence that certain chemicals are harmful at low levels when mixed with one or more other chemicals. Such synergistic effects may be particularly important in causing cancer. Additionally, some substances (such as heavy metals and organohalogens) can accumulate in
10502-408: The risk of occupational injuries in the construction industry. Due to the fact that accidents may have disastrous consequences for employees as well as organizations, it is of utmost importance to ensure health and safety of workers and compliance with HSE construction requirements. Health and safety legislation in the construction industry involves many rules and regulations. For example, the role of
10620-599: The school formed its own baseball team, the Tunxises, named after the Saukiog tribe who once settled the area on which the school is situated. In 1884, Sarah Porter hired her former student, Mary Elizabeth Dunning Dow, with whom she began to share more of her duties as Head of School. From then until her death in 1900, Porter gradually relinquished her control of the school to Dow. Sarah Porter's will named her nephew, Robert Porter Keep , as executor of her estate, of which
10738-555: The school from 1954 to 1966. In 1966, then headmaster of The Buffalo Seminary Richard W. Davis was selected to be headmaster at Miss Porter's. He was to free the school of its "reputation of being too restrictive and too conservative." His appointment marked the first time in a half-century that the school would be directed by one person instead of a couple. Reflecting on his tenure at the school, Davis recalled, "We no longer required that girls wear head coverings in bad weather. We allowed pants to be worn, neat ones, to classes, but not to
10856-506: The school instantiate its partnership with the University of Pennsylvania Graduate School of Education 's Independent School Teaching Residency program. In late May 2020, due to the Covid pandemic , Windsor presided over virtual graduation exercises. The tuition for boarding students was valued at $ 66,825 for 2021–22, plus other mandatory and optional fees. Miss Porter's offers need-based financial aid. The Dorothy Walker Bush 1919 Fund
10974-874: The school was the most valuable asset. Dow's compensation for her position as sole Head of School was also specified in the will. As executor, Robert Keep began extensive repairs and renovations to the school. While Dow continued to receive a salary as per Porter's will, she became convinced that Keep, in diverting the school's income to pay for construction, was enriching his inheritance with funds that were rightfully hers. The conflict escalated and culminated in Dow's resignation in 1903. She moved to Briarcliff, New York , taking with her as many as 140 students and 16 faculty members, and began Mrs. Dow's School for Girls , which would become Briarcliff Junior College , absorbed in 1977 into Pace University . Robert Keep announced in July 1903 that
11092-509: The school would reopen in October 1903 with his wife, Elizabeth Vashti Hale Keep as Head of School, eleven teachers, and between five and sixteen students in attendance. After Keep succumbed to pneumonia and died on July 3, 1904, Elizabeth Keep continued to work at the school. One of her many legacies was a kindergarten for children of employees. When Mrs. Keep died in 1917, leadership of the school passed to her stepson, Robert Porter Keep, Jr.,
11210-423: The school. The school currently maintains a total of nine student residence halls (or "houses"): Brick , Colony , Humphrey , Keep , Lathrop , Macomber , Main , New Place , and Ward , two of those are strictly limited to the senior class. Each residence has a house director who lives in a private suite or apartment in the immediate vicinity, often with his/her family. One of the school's distinguishing features
11328-427: The situation and published her first article on the topic in 1908. Hamilton began her long career in public health and workplace safety in 1910, when Illinois governor Charles S. Deneen appointed her as a medical investigator to the newly formed Illinois Commission on Occupational Diseases. Hamilton led the commission's investigations, which focused on industrial poisons such as lead and other toxins. She also authored
11446-513: The specialized field of industrial medicine in the United States. Her findings were scientifically persuasive and influenced sweeping health reforms that changed laws and general practice to improve the health of workers. During World War I, the US Army tasked her with solving a mysterious ailment striking workers at a munitions plant in New Jersey. She led a team that included George Minot ,
11564-545: The threat of curtailed privileges ever looming. Week-to-week, the Head of Student Activities works closely with the Office of Student Life to build an array of weekend activities; any one weekend has the potential to see a student take in a movie at a nearby AMC Theatres complex, peruse the Westfarms Mall , and partake in a game of lasertag, all in one fell swoop. This privilege is made available on an individual basis, at
11682-428: The tipped workforce." According to data from the 2010 NHIS-OHS, hazardous physical/chemical exposures in the service sector were lower than national averages. On the other hand, potentially harmful work organization characteristics and psychosocial workplace exposures were relatively common in this sector. Among all workers in the service industry, 30% experienced job insecurity in 2010, 27% worked non-standard shifts (not
11800-640: The undertaking. An alternative definition for occupational health given by the WHO is: "occupational health deals with all aspects of health and safety in the workplace and has a strong focus on primary prevention of hazards." The expression "occupational health", as originally adopted by the WHO and the ILO, refers to both short- and long-term adverse health effects. In more recent times, the expressions "occupational safety and health" and "occupational health and safety" have come into use (and have also been adopted in works by
11918-574: The urging of the Factory Inspectorate, a further act in 1844 giving similar restrictions on working hours for women in the textile industry introduced a requirement for machinery guarding (but only in the textile industry, and only in areas that might be accessed by women or children). The latter act was the first to take a significant step toward improvement of workers' safety, as the former focused on health aspects alone. The first decennial British Registrar-General 's mortality report
12036-537: The use of agricultural machinery . The most common cause of fatal agricultural injuries in the United States is tractor rollovers, which can be prevented by the use of roll over protection structures which limit the risk of injury in case a tractor rolls over. Pesticides and other chemicals used in farming can also be hazardous to worker health, and workers exposed to pesticides may experience illnesses or birth defects. As an industry in which families, including children, commonly work alongside their families, agriculture
12154-405: The use of lead in gasoline, she testified against the use of lead and warned of the danger it posed to people and the environment. Nevertheless, leaded gasoline was allowed. The EPA in 1988 estimated that over the previous 60 years, 68 million children suffered high toxic exposure to lead from leaded fuels. Her work on the manufacture of white lead and lead oxide , as a special investigator for
12272-452: The wake of the industrial revolution, workers' safety and health entered consideration as a labor-related issue. Written works on occupational diseases began to appear by the end of the 15th century, when demand for gold and silver was rising due to the increase in trade and iron, copper, and lead were also in demand from the nascent firearms market. Deeper mining became common as a consequence. In 1473, Ulrich Ellenbog [ de ] ,
12390-422: The work-life dangers they faced. She also became a professor of pathology at the Woman's Medical School of Northwestern University in 1897. In 1919, she became the first woman appointed to the faculty of Harvard University . Her scientific research focused on the study of occupational illnesses and the dangerous effects of industrial metals and chemical compounds . In addition to her scientific work, Hamilton
12508-505: The workers of the mining industry that documented the appallingly dangerous environment that they had to work in and the high frequency of accidents. The commission sparked public outrage which resulted in the Mines and Collieries Act of 1842 . The act set up an inspectorate for mines and collieries which resulted in many prosecutions and safety improvements, and by 1850, inspectors were able to enter and inspect premises at their discretion. On
12626-540: The workplace. Occupational hearing loss is the most common work-related injury in the United States, with 22 million workers exposed to hazardous occupational noise levels at work and an estimated $ 242 million spent annually on worker's compensation for hearing loss disability. Falls are also a common cause of occupational injuries and fatalities, especially in construction, extraction, transportation, healthcare, and building cleaning and maintenance. Machines have moving parts, sharp edges, hot surfaces and other hazards with
12744-434: The world and chose medicine as a way to financially support herself. Hamilton, who was an avid reader, also cited literary influence for inspiring her to become a physician, even though she had not yet received any training in the sciences: "I meant to be a medical missionary to Teheran , having been fascinated by the description of Persia in [Edmond] O'Donovan's The Merv Oasis. I doubted if I could ever be good enough to be
12862-538: Was a social-welfare reformer, humanitarian, and peace activist. She received numerous honors and awards, including the Albert Lasker Public Service Award . Her work led to improvements in safety and regulation, and is sometimes credited with leading to the founding of the United States' Occupational Safety and Health Administration . Hamilton, the second child of Montgomery Hamilton (1843–1909) and Gertrude (née Pond) Hamilton (1840–1917),
12980-784: Was also a member of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of the Mortality from Tuberculosis in Dusty Trades, whose efforts "laid the groundwork for further studies and eventual widespread reform in the industry." During her years at Hull House, Hamilton was active in the women's rights and peace movements . She traveled with Jane Addams and Emily Greene Balch to the 1915 International Congress of Women in The Hague , where they met Aletta Jacobs ,
13098-407: Was an artist, living and working at Hull House . Arthur (1886–1967), the youngest Hamilton sibling, became a writer, professor of Spanish, and assistant dean for foreign students at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign . Arthur was the only sibling to marry; he and his wife, Mary (Neal) Hamilton, had no children. Hamilton's parents homeschooled their children from an early age. Following
13216-533: Was born on February 27, 1869, in Manhattan , New York City, New York. She spent a sheltered childhood among an extended family in Fort Wayne, Indiana , where her grandfather, Allen Hamilton , an Irish immigrant, had settled in 1823. He married Emerine Holman, the daughter of Indiana Supreme Court Justice Jesse Lynch Holman , in 1828 and became a successful Fort Wayne businessman and a land speculator. Much of
13334-507: Was department chair and then director of development. There followed the appointment to be assistant headmaster, and then to be the ninth Head of Miss Porter's School. Immediately prior to her service as Miss Porter's Head of School, Belash had been vice president at First National Bank of Boston. A native of Wales, an accomplished cellist, and holding a Ph.D. in Spanish literature, Belash was inaugurated tenth Head of Miss Porter's School for
13452-606: Was determined that Miss Porter's was going to compete on an even level with every school in the country. And she felt that having decent, competitive sports was one element of that.” Since 2009, the Head of School has been Katherine Windsor, who draws on her experience running the Center for Talented Youth program at Johns Hopkins University and The Sage School in Foxborough, Massachusetts . Her tenure as Head of School has seen
13570-410: Was established in 1994 in her memory by family and friends to bring speakers to the school who address religion, spirituality, and faith. The Emily Brown Fritzinger '59 Music Fund was established by her parents, Mr. and Mrs. Gardner Brown (Elizabeth Smith 1928), family, and friends; the fund supports musical performances on campus and occasional trips to New York City for all students and faculty to attend
13688-400: Was issued in 1851. Deaths were categorized by social classes, with class I corresponding to professionals and executives and class V representing unskilled workers. The report showed that mortality rates increased with the class number. Otto von Bismarck inaugurated the first social insurance legislation in 1883 and the first worker's compensation law in 1884 – the first of their kind in
13806-407: Was the first nation to industrialize. Soon shocking evidence emerged of serious physical and moral harm suffered by children and young persons in the cotton textile mills , as a result of exploitation of cheap labor in the factory system . Responding to calls for remedial action from philanthropists and some of the more enlightened employers, in 1802 Sir Robert Peel , himself a mill owner, introduced
13924-538: Was the first of the 19th century Factory Acts . Charles Thackrah (1795–1833), another pioneer of occupational medicine, wrote a report on The State of Children Employed in Cotton Factories , which was sent to the Parliament in 1818. Thackrah recognized issues of inequalities of health in the workplace, with manufacturing in towns causing higher mortality than agriculture. The Act of 1833 created
#888111