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42-646: In the Shuswap language , the people of Alkali Lake are the Esketemc ("people of Esket"). The Esk'etemc First Nation has not signed any treaty with any settler-colonial political entity, nor has it ceded any land and let go its territorial claims. Download coordinates as: Indian Reserves under the administration of the Esk'etemc First Nation are: Shuswap language The Shuswap language ( / ˈ ʃ uː ʃ w ɑː p / ; Secwepemctsín , [ʃəxʷəpəməxˈtʃin] )

84-525: A question mark is sometimes substituted for ⟨ʔ⟩ , and is preferred in languages such as Squamish . SENĆOŦEN  – whose alphabet is mostly unique from other Salish languages – contrastly uses the comma ⟨,⟩ to represent the glottal stop, though it is optional. In 2015, two women in the Northwest Territories challenged the territorial government over its refusal to permit them to use

126-401: A different alphabet: A Shuswap word consists of a stem, to which can be added various affixes. Very few words contain two roots. Any stressed root can have an unstressed alternative, where the vowel is replaced by [ə]. Most roots have the form CVC or CC (the latter only if unstressed). Other roots are CVCC or CCVC. Suffixes begin either with a stressed vowel (dropped in forms where the root

168-450: A few examples taken from the extensive collection of Shuswap suffixes: Shuswap makes extensive use of reduplication . Some examples of simple reduplication are: In addition, there are several types of complex reduplication, involving patterns such as 11V12, 112V23, and 1123V34 (where 1 represents C 1 , etc.). Not all types of reduplication are productive and functional. Total reduplication indicates plurality and consonant reduplication

210-491: A glottal stop can be added exceptionally for emphatic reasons in particular circumstances. For instance, although the Latin language would normally avoid glottal stops, the exameter requires the reader to produce a glottal stop – to be regarded by all means as a consontant – before odiīs (i.e. “jactētur ʔodiīs”) in verse 668 of Virgil 's Aeneid : lītora jactētur odiīs Jūnōnis inīquae The table below demonstrates how widely

252-410: A hyphen instead of the reverse apostrophe if the glottal stop occurs in the middle of the word (e.g. Tagalog pag-ibig , "love"; or Visayan gabi-i , "night"). If it occurs in the end of a word, the last vowel can be written with a circumflex accent (known as the pakupyâ ) if both a stress and a glottal stop occur in the final vowel (e.g. basâ , "wet") or a grave accent (known as the paiwà ) if

294-424: A rounded form are rounded before and after [u] . However, glottalization can be contrastive (the root q’e y -, "set up a structure," versus q’e y’ -, "write") or allophonic (the root q’e y - appears with a glottalized final consonant in s-t-q‘e y’ -qn, "shed"). Consonant reduplication can also have an effect on glottalization. There are a number of ways in which sounds are affected by their environments. Resonants in

336-487: A unique form of glottalization. Additionally, there is the glottal stop as a null onset for English; in other words, it is the non-phonemic glottal stop occurring before isolated or initial vowels. Often a glottal stop happens at the beginning of vowel phonation after a silence. Although this segment is not a phoneme in English, it occurs phonetically in nearly all dialects of English, as an allophone of /t/ in

378-687: Is a northern Interior Salish language traditionally spoken by the Shuswap people ( Secwépemc , [ʃəˈxʷɛpəməx] ) of British Columbia . An endangered language, Shuswap is spoken mainly in the Central and Southern Interior of British Columbia between the Fraser River and the Rocky Mountains . According to the First Peoples' Cultural Council , 200 people speak Shuswap as a mother tongue, and there are 1,190 semi-speakers. Shuswap

420-523: Is a type of consonantal sound used in many spoken languages , produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract or, more precisely, the glottis . The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ ʔ ⟩. As a result of the obstruction of the airflow in the glottis, the glottal vibration either stops or becomes irregular with a low rate and sudden drop in intensity. Features of

462-752: Is available in Secwepemctsín. The First Voices website has a Secwepemctsin (Eastern Dialect) Community Portal, a Secwepemc Community Portal, and a Splatsin (Eastern dialect) Community Portal for language learning. A November 2012 article estimated about 150 fluent speakers, mostly over 65, adding that "an estimated 400 students are learning the language, and "the majority of Secwepemctsin learners are under age 19." Secwépemc language applications are available for iOS . The Secwepemc Cultural Education Society released Nintendo DSi software in 2013 that teaches Secwepemctsin to young children. A language authority of ten elder fluent speakers, from East, West, and

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504-399: Is based on automatically applied rules. The reader is expected to know these rules. The rules cover three classes of changes: (1) automatic darkening of vowels (Non-automatic darkening of vowels is covered under Phonological Processes .), (2) automatic alternation of sonorants between consonantal and vocalic pronunciation, and (3) alternation of plain velars, uvulars, and laryngeals with

546-677: Is commonly used to transcribe the Arabic ayin as well (also ⟨ʽ⟩ ) and is the source of the IPA character for the voiced pharyngeal fricative ⟨ ʕ ⟩. In Malay the glottal stop is represented by the letter ⟨k⟩ (at the end of words), in Võro and Maltese by ⟨q⟩ . Another way of writing the glottal stop is the saltillo ⟨Ꞌ ꞌ⟩ , used in languages such as Tlapanec and Rapa Nui . Other scripts also have letters used for representing

588-639: Is conducted entirely in the Secwepemc language. A language nest program in Secwepemctsín also takes place with the Splatsin Tsm7aksaltn (Splatsin Teaching Centre) Society where the grandmothers ( kikia7a ) interact with and teach the children. On January 21, 2013, Thompson Rivers University began offering a Secwepemctsín language class taught by fluent speaker Janice Billy. The Shuswap language has many consonants which

630-495: Is diminutive, but most other reduplications are difficult to explain. In addition to reduplication, root morphemes can be modified by interior glottalization, such that a root CVC appears as CʔVC. Although the process is not productive, many recorded forms refer to a state, for example [pʔeɣ] (cooled off) from [peɣns] (he cools it off). Consonant reduplication can proceed as usual with interior glottalization. Word order in Shuswap

672-498: Is rare and often replaced by /e/ or /a/ . Its description is ambiguous. Kuipers gave its phonetic value as [ʌ] , indicating a mid unrounded back vowel, but described it in words as a mid central vowel. There are restrictions on the distribution of vowels. The vowel /ə/ is restricted to unstressed syllables. The vowels /a/ and /o/ also occur in unstressed syllables, but only in a few words. Vowels /i/ and /u/ are restricted to stressed syllables. The previous table shows

714-416: Is relatively free; syntactical relationships are easily conveyed by the case marking system. However, it is common but not necessary for the predicate to head the sentence. Sentences with predicate first: Sentences with subject first (rare): Shuswap uses two cases: the absolutive, for the subject of an intransitive verb , the subject of a transitive verb , and the object of a transitive verb; and

756-441: Is stressed) or a consonant. Prefixes generally have the form C- or CC-. Stress in Shuswap is not very prominent, and occurs only in longer words. Since [u] and [i] are always stressed and [ə] never is, stress is usually fairly simple to predict. Although Kuipers (1974) does not specify, in many cases the glottalized or rounded version of a consonant seems to represent an allophonic variation. For example, consonants which have

798-495: Is the glottal stop. This may have crossed over from African American Vernacular English , particularly that of New York City. Most English speakers today often use a glottal stop before the initial vowel of words beginning with a vowel, particularly at the beginning of sentences or phrases or when a word is emphasized. This is also known as "hard attack". Traditionally in Received Pronunciation , "hard attack"

840-655: Is the northernmost of the Interior Salish languages, which are spoken in Canada and the Pacific Northwest of the United States. There are two dialects of Shuswap: The other Northern Interior Salish languages are Lillooet and Thompson . Most of the material in this article is from Kuipers (1974). Many Indigenous languages, like Secwepemctsín, experienced rapid decline with the institution of

882-457: Is the prefix - e kst ("hand, arm"), which is darkened in x°əl’- a kst. The darkened vowels are as follows: Shuswap's affixation system is robust. A nominalizing prefix s- is used to derive nouns from verbs, and prefixes to indicate a resulting state are added to verbs. A sample of Shuswap's small number of prefixes is below: Most nouns contain suffixes . Suffixes are also used to indicate transitive, intransitive, and imperative verbs. Below are

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924-435: Is the symbol 7, which is used to represent a glottal stop . The Bouchard style system appears to be the one in use among Shuswap people themselves. Aside from the different symbols used, other differences exist between the two systems. The Kuipers' system makes extensive use of automatic alternations. For example, the letter n is sometimes pronounced [n] , sometimes [ən] , and sometimes [nə] . The choice of pronunciation

966-538: Is usually not aspirated in syllables ending either in a vowel + "t", such as "cat" or "outside"; or in a "t" + unstressed vowel + "n", such as "mountain" or "Manhattan". This is referred to as a "held t" as the airflow is stopped by tongue at the ridge behind the teeth. However, there is a trend of younger speakers in the Mid-Atlantic states to replace the "held t" with a glottal stop, so that "Manhattan" sounds like "Man-haʔ-in" or "Clinton" like "Cli(n)ʔ-in", where "ʔ"

1008-633: The Crow language , the glottal stop is written as a question mark ⟨?⟩ . The only instance of the glottal stop in Crow is as a question marker morpheme at the end of a sentence. Use of the glottal stop is a distinct characteristic of the Southern Mainland Argyll dialects of Scottish Gaelic . In such a dialect, the standard Gaelic phrase Tha Gàidhlig agam ("I speak Gaelic"), would be rendered Tha Gàidhlig a'am . In

1050-517: The Nawdm language of Ghana, the glottal stop is written ɦ , capital Ĥ . In English, the glottal stop occurs as an open juncture (for example, between the vowel sounds in uh-oh! , ) and allophonically in t-glottalization . In British English , the glottal stop is most familiar in the Cockney pronunciation of "butter" as "bu'er". Geordie English often uses glottal stops for t, k, and p, and has

1092-484: The residential schools . These schools prohibited the use of Indigenous languages in speech and in writing, resulting in two to three generations of students who were severely punished for not using English. Although some children forced to attend these residential schools can still speak their mother tongue, they have experienced much trauma which has great negative consequences on the future generations. After residential schools were shut down, Aboriginal children entered

1134-646: The North, are recording pronunciation. As of 2013 , a language tutor was also in preparation, exportable onto CD for use offline. David Lacho, a University of British Columbia master's student, developed an augmented reality storybook app called Tuwitames , available on the Apple App Store , to help people learn the Splatsin dialect of Secwepemctsín in support of the community's language revitalization initiatives. A cseyseten (language nest) at Adams Lake

1176-609: The Roman alphabet is typically not used to represent. Two systems of representing Shuswap sounds are in use. One is the system used in Kuipers' 298-page monograph on the language. It uses some letters which are not part of the Roman alphabet. The other system is based on one devised by Randy Bouchard of the British Columbia Language Project. It is based entirely on the Roman alphabet. The one exception

1218-609: The corresponding rounded sounds. The Bouchard style system does not appear to require the reader to know so many alternation rules. Examples of words written in the Bouchard style can be seen on two websites. These websites do not contain enough examples to show how all the automatic alternations are handled in the Bouchard style system. Therefore the Kuipers' system of spelling is used in this article. The Shuswap language has five full vowels, /a/ , /e/ , /i/ , /o/ , /u/ , and one reduced vowel, /ə/ . An additional vowel, /ʌ/ ,

1260-512: The end of interjections of surprise or anger and are represented by the character ⟨ っ ⟩ . In the graphic representation of most Philippine languages , the glottal stop has no consistent symbolization. In most cases, however, a word that begins with a vowel-letter (e.g. Tagalog aso , "dog") is always pronounced with an unrepresented glottal stop before that vowel (as in Modern German and Hausa ). Some orthographies use

1302-405: The glottal stop in the histories of such languages as Danish (see stød ), Cantonese and Thai . In many languages, the unstressed intervocalic allophone of the glottal stop is a creaky-voiced glottal approximant . It is known to be contrastive in only one language, Gimi , in which it is the voiced equivalent of the stop. . In some languages that normally maintain the flow of vowels fluid,

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1344-462: The glottal stop occurs at the final vowel, but the stress occurs at the penultimate syllable (e.g. batà , "child"). Some Canadian indigenous languages , especially some of the Salishan languages , have adopted the IPA letter ⟨ʔ⟩ into their orthographies. In some of them, it occurs as a casing pair , ⟨Ɂ⟩ and ⟨ɂ⟩ . The digit ⟨7⟩ or

1386-616: The glottal stop, such as the Hebrew letter aleph ⟨ א ‎⟩ and the Cyrillic letter palochka ⟨Ӏ⟩ , used in several Caucasian languages . The Arabic script uses hamza ⟨ ء ⟩ , which can appear both as a diacritic and as an independent letter (though not part of the alphabet). In Tundra Nenets , it is represented by the letters apostrophe ⟨ʼ⟩ and double apostrophe ⟨ˮ⟩ . In Japanese , glottal stops occur at

1428-519: The glottal stop: In the traditional romanization of many languages, such as Arabic, the glottal stop is transcribed with the apostrophe ⟨ʼ⟩ or the symbol ⟨ʾ⟩ , which is the source of the IPA character ⟨ ʔ ⟩. In many Polynesian languages that use the Latin alphabet , however, the glottal stop is written with a rotated apostrophe, ⟨ʻ⟩ (called ʻokina in Hawaiian and Samoan ), which

1470-400: The letter ⟨ʔ⟩ in their daughters' names: Sahaiʔa , a Chipewyan name, and Sakaeʔah , a Slavey name (the two names are actually cognates ). The territory argued that territorial and federal identity documents were unable to accommodate the character. The women registered the names with hyphens instead of the ⟨ʔ⟩ , while continuing to challenge the policy. In

1512-417: The mainstream schooling system which is dominated by English. Inter-generational transmission of Indigenous languages was severely disrupted due to the dominance of English in education and in the workplace. This further contributed to the drastic decline of Indigenous languages. For example, the number of fluent speakers of Secwepemctsín had dwindled to 3.5 per cent by the mid-1990s. An interface to Facebook

1554-436: The normal pronunciation of the vowels. Three of the full vowels, /e/ , /i/ , and /u/ , are subject to an automatic process called darkening, which changes how these vowels are pronounced. Automatic darkening is predictable; it occurs before uvular obstruents and before or after uvularized sonorants. It is not reflected in the Kuipers spelling system. Consonants are divided into two classes, obstruents and sonorants . In

1596-501: The relative, for all other cases (for example, the actor of a passive verb, or an adverb). Absolutive Case: Relative Case: Nouns and verbs appear in for different forms, depending on their syntactic surroundings. The following is a list of roots (listed separately or as their simplest derivatives), and a selection of words derived from these roots by affixes . The word kokanee , a type of salmon , comes from Shuswap. Glottal stop The glottal stop or glottal plosive

1638-401: The syllable coda. Speakers of Cockney, Scottish English and several other British dialects also pronounce an intervocalic /t/ between vowels as in city . In Received Pronunciation , a glottal stop is inserted before a tautosyllabic voiceless stop: stoʼp, thaʼt, knoʼck, waʼtch, also leaʼp, soaʼk, helʼp, pinʼch. In American English , a "t"

1680-596: The tables which follow, pronunciations are given in square brackets in IPA transcription. The notation is the same as that of Kuipers (1974). The variation of sonorants between consonantal and vocalic pronunciations is automatic, and is not indicated in the Kuipers’ spelling system. The rule for determining this as follows: Kuipers (1974) uses the alphabet shown in the Phonology section. The Shuswap Language Department uses

1722-522: The vocalic position are preceded by an automatic schwa, for example the word /stʼmkelt/ ("daughter"), pronounced [stɬʼ ə mkelt] . The darkening of vowels, as described below, is another case. The distribution of vowels is quite complex. The vowels have the following main variants: /a/ and /ʌ/ are unchanged. The environment around uvulars and velars produces a different set of variants, including occasional slight diphthongs. Additionally, some roots cause darkened vowels to appear in suffixes; one example

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1764-510: Was seen as a way to emphasize a word. Today, in British, American and other varieties of English, it is increasingly used not only to emphasize but also simply to separate two words, especially when the first word ends in a glottal stop. In many languages that do not allow a sequence of vowels, such as Persian , the glottal stop may be used epenthetically to prevent such a hiatus . There are intricate interactions between falling tone and

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