Misplaced Pages

#35964

152-483: On March 19, 1919, the committee issued a declaration, in which it passed most of its authority to the Sovnarkom of Ukraine at that time headed by Christian Rakovsky . The committee was first elected at the 1st All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets on December 24, 1917, under the name of TsVK of Soviet Ukraine. The first committee was accounted for 41 members among which 35 were Bolsheviks and four were Left SRs . One of

304-454: A Bulgarian -born socialist revolutionary , a Bolshevik politician and Soviet diplomat and statesman; he was also noted as a journalist, physician, and essayist. Rakovsky's political career took him throughout the Balkans and into France and Imperial Russia ; for part of his life, he was also a Romanian citizen. A lifelong collaborator of Leon Trotsky , he was a prominent activist of

456-823: A "Peace without indemnities or annexations" as an alternative to " imperialist war". According to Rakovsky, tensions between the French SFIO and the German Social Democrats were reflecting not just context, but major ideological differences. Present in Italy in March 1915, he attended the Milan Congress of the Italian Socialist Party , during which he attempted to persuade it to condemn irredentist goals . In July, after convening

608-517: A cultural thaw within Ukraine. In October 1964, Khrushchev was deposed by a joint Central Committee and Politburo plenum and succeeded by another collective leadership, this time led by Leonid Brezhnev , born in Ukraine, as First Secretary and Alexei Kosygin as Chairman of the Council of Ministers . Brezhnev's rule would be marked by social and economic stagnation, a period often referred to as

760-587: A final time during 1916, and again lost when contesting a seat in Covurlui County . Again arrested in 1916, after being accused of planning rebellion during a violent incident in Galaţi , he was, according to his own account, freed by a general strike which constituted "an outburst of indignation among the workers". Evaluating the situation in Romania, he identified the two main pro-Entente political forces of

912-843: A friendship with Guesde and becoming an opponent of Jean Jaurès ' reformist views. According to his own testimony, he became active in supporting the Anti-Ottoman upsurge in Crete and Macedonia , as well as Dashnak revolutionary activities. In 1896, he was the Bulgarian representative to the Second International's London Congress (part of his speech was published in Karl Kautsky 's Die Neue Zeit ). Although actively involved in many European countries' socialist movements, prior to 1917 Rakovsky's focus remained on

1064-618: A massive decline of reported Ukrainians in these regions in the 1937 Soviet Census . Upon signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact , Nazi Germany and Soviet Union partitioned Poland and its Eastern Borderlands were secured by the Soviet buffer republics with Ukraine securing the territory of Eastern Galicia. The Soviet September Polish campaign in Soviet propaganda was portrayed as the Golden September for Ukrainians, given

1216-729: A period of the Russian Civil War from 1917 to 1923, many factions claiming themselves governments of the newly born republic were formed, each with supporters and opponents. The two most prominent of them were an independent government in Kiev called the Ukrainian People's Republic (UNR) and a Soviet Russia -aligned government in Kharkov called the Ukrainian Soviet Republic (USR). The Kiev-based UNR

1368-514: A second time, to Alexandrina Alexandrescu (also known as Ileana Pralea), a socialist militant and intellectual, who taught mathematics in Ploieşti . Alexandrescu was herself a friend of Dobrogeanu-Gherea and an acquaintance of Caragiale. She had previously been married to Filip Codreanu, a Narodnik activist born in Bessarabia, with whom she had a daughter, Elena, and a son, Radu. Rallying with

1520-636: A series of important street clashes between his supporters and government forces. On 9 December 1909, a Romanian Railways employee named Stoenescu attempted to assassinate Brătianu. The event, which was attributed by Rakovsky to support for his return and by other sources to government manipulation, caused a clampdown on România Muncitoare (among those socialists arrested and interrogated were Gheorghe Cristescu , I. C. Frimu , and Dumitru Marinescu ). Rakovsky secretly returned to Romania in 1911, giving himself up in Bucharest . According to Rakovsky, he

1672-552: A symbolic nature , elections to the Supreme Soviet were contested every five years. Nominees from electoral districts from around the republic, typically consisting of an average of 110,000 inhabitants, were directly chosen by party authorities, providing little opportunity for political change, since all political authority was directly subordinate to the higher level above it. With the beginning of Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev 's perestroika reforms towards

SECTION 10

#1732772675036

1824-508: A sympathetic portrait of the socialist leader, based on his recollections from the early 1900s. Throughout these years, Rakovsky, was, according to Iosif and Anghel, "continuously bustling; disappearing and appearing in workers' centers, be it in Brăila , be it in Galaţi , be it in Iaşi , be it anywhere, always preaching with the same undaunted fervor and fanatical conviction his social credo". Rakovsky

1976-525: A system, lower-level authorities directly reported to higher level authorities and so on, with the bulk of the power being held at the highest echelons of the Communist Party. Originally, the legislative authority was vested in the Congress of Soviets of Ukraine , whose Central Executive Committee was for many years headed by Grigory Petrovsky . Soon after publishing a Stalinist constitution ,

2128-727: A treaty with Romania regarding the evacuation of troops from Bessarabia, which Stelian Tănase claims allowed for the Moldavian Democratic Republic to join Romania. In May, Romania conceded to the demands of the Central Powers ( see Treaty of Bucharest, 1918 ). In April–May 1918, he negotiated with the Tsentral'na Rada of the Ukrainian People's Republic , then with the Hetmanate of Pavlo Skoropadsky , as well as with German forces ( see Ukraine after

2280-617: A variety of ways since the twelfth century. For example, Zaporozhian Cossacks called their hetmanate "Ukraine". Within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , the name carried unofficial status for larger part of Kiev Voivodeship . " The Ukraine" was once the usual form in English, despite Ukrainian not having a definite article . Since the Declaration of Independence of Ukraine , this form has become less common in

2432-562: A year. Chernenko was succeeded by Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985. Gorbachev's policies of perestroika and glasnost (English: restructuring and openness ) failed to reach Ukraine as early as other Soviet republics because of the influence of Volodymyr Shcherbytsky , a conservative communist appointed by Brezhnev and the First Secretary of the Ukrainian Communist Party. The Chernobyl disaster of 1986,

2584-558: Is no evidence that agricultural yield could not feed the population at the time, four million Ukrainians were starved to death while Moscow exported over a million tonnes of grain to the West, decimating the population. Within a decade, Ukraine's industrial production had quintupled, mainly from facilities in the Donets Basin and central Ukrainian cities such as Mykolaiv . In 1945, agricultural production stood at only 40 percent of

2736-636: Is now western Ukraine was gained via the Soviet-German Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact , with the annexation of Eastern Galicia and Volhynia in 1939, significant portions of Romania in 1940, and Carpathian Ruthenia in Czechoslovakia in 1945. From the 1919 establishment of the Ukrainian SSR until 1934, the city of Kharkov served as its capital; however, the republic's seat of government was subsequently relocated in 1934 to

2888-562: The 1991 Ukrainian presidential election held on the same day as the independence referendum, 62 percent of voters voted for Leonid Kravchuk , who had been vested with presidential powers since the Supreme Soviet's declaration of independence. On 8 December 1991, Ukraine (at Kravchuk's direction), Russian and Belarus signed the Belovezh Accords which declared that the Soviet Union had effectively ceased to exist and founded

3040-532: The 24th Party Congress talked about "a new historical community of people – the Soviet people", and introduced the ideological tenant of Developed socialism , which postponed communism. When Brezhnev died in 1982 , his position of General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union was succeeded by Yuri Andropov , who died quickly after taking power. Andropov was succeeded by Konstantin Chernenko , an ethnic Ukrainian , who ruled for little more than

3192-587: The Balkan Wars ; notably, Rakovsky expressed criticism of Romania's invasion of Bulgaria during the Second Balkan War , and called on Romanian authorities not to annex Southern Dobruja . Alongside Frimu, Bujor, Ecaterina Arbore and others, he lectured at the PSDR's propaganda school during the short period the latter was in existence (in 1910 and again in 1912–1913). In 1913, Rakovsky was married

SECTION 20

#1732772675036

3344-756: The Battleship Potemkin revolt (the events worsened relations between Russia and the Romanian Kingdom ), carried out a relief operation for the Potemkin crew as their ship sought refuge in Constanţa , and attempted to persuade them to set sail for Batumi and aid striking workers there. According to his own account, a parallel scandal occurred when an armed Bolshevik ship was captured in Romanian territorial waters; Rakovsky, who indicated that

3496-591: The Bulgarian Social Democratic Union and rejected the more radical Bulgarian Social Democratic Party . He soon became involved in distributing socialist propaganda inside Bulgaria, at a time when Stefan Stambolov organized a crackdown on political opposition. Later in 1893, Rakovsky enrolled in a medical school in Berlin, contributing articles for Vorwärts and becoming close to Wilhelm Liebknecht (the two corresponded regularly for

3648-551: The Commonwealth of Independent States as a quasi-replacement. On 21 December 1991, all the former Soviet republics (except Estonia, Georgia, Lithuania and Latvia) signed the Alma-Ata Protocol which reiterated that the Soviet Union had functionally ceased to exist. The Soviet Union formally dissolved on 26 December 1991. The Ukrainian SSR's system of government was based on a one-party communist system ruled by

3800-581: The Communist Party of Ukraine (CPU) openly criticised Stalin's russification policies in a meeting in June 1953. On 4 June 1953, Aleksey Kirichenko succeeded Leonid Melnikov as First Secretary of the CPU; this was significant since Kyrychenko was the first ethnic Ukrainian to lead the CPU since the 1920s. The policy of de-Stalinization took two main features, that of centralisation and decentralisation from

3952-485: The Communist Party of Ukraine , a branch of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (KPSS). The republic was one of 15 constituent republics composing the Soviet Union from its entry into the union in 1922 until its dissolution in 1991. All of the political power and authority in the USSR was in the hands of Communist Party authorities, with little real power being concentrated in official government bodies and organs. In such

4104-594: The Constitution of Ukraine and interests of the Republic" on 5 October 1991. After Ukrainian independence the Ukrainian SSR's parliament was changed from Supreme Soviet to its current name Verkhovna Rada , the Verkhovna Rada is still Ukraine's parliament. Ukraine also has refused to recognize exclusive Russian claims to succession of the Soviet Union and claimed such status for Ukraine as well, which

4256-695: The English-speaking world , and style-guides warn against its use in professional writing. According to U.S. ambassador William Taylor , "The Ukraine" implies disregard for the country's sovereignty. The Ukrainian position is that the usage of " 'The Ukraine' is incorrect both grammatically and politically." After the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II during the February Revolution of 1917 in Petrograd , many people in Ukraine wished to establish an autonomous Ukrainian Republic. During

4408-566: The Era of Stagnation . The new regime introduced the policy of rastsvet , sblizhenie and sliianie ("flowering", "drawing together" and "merging"/"fusion"), which was the policy of uniting the different Soviet nationalities into one Soviet nationality by merging the best elements of each nationality into the new one. This policy turned out to be, in fact, the reintroduction of the russification policy. The reintroduction of this policy can be explained by Khrushchev's promise of communism in 20 years ;

4560-688: The February Revolution , he was freed by the Russian Army on May 1, 1917, and immediately left for Odessa . Rakovsky moved to Petrograd (the new name of Saint Petersburg) in the spring of 1917. His anti-war activism almost got him arrested; Rakovsky managed to flee in August, and was present in Stockholm for the Third Zimmerwald Conference ; he remained there and, with Karl Radek , issued propaganda material in support of

4712-568: The Genoa Conference . He came to oppose Joseph Stalin and rallied with the Left Opposition , being marginalized inside the government and sent as Soviet ambassador to London and Paris, where he was involved in renegotiating financial settlements. He was ultimately recalled from France in autumn 1927, after signing his name to a controversial Trotskyist platform which endorsed world revolution . Credited with having developed

All-Ukrainian Central Executive Committee - Misplaced Pages Continue

4864-643: The Kingdom of Romania in 1880, settling in Gherengic ( Northern Dobruja ), he completed his education in newly emancipated Bulgaria. Rakovsky was expelled from the gymnasium in Gabrovo for his political activities (in 1887 and then again, after organizing a riot, in 1890). It was around that time that he became a Marxist , and began collaborating with the socialist journalist Evtim Dabev , whom he aided in printing works by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels (at

5016-486: The National Liberal government, arguing that, having profited from the early antisemitic message of the revolt, it had violently repressed it from the moment peasants began to attack landowners. Supportive of the thesis according to which the peasantry had revolutionary importance inside Romanian society and Eastern Europe at large, Rakovsky publicized his perspective in the socialist press (writing articles on

5168-835: The Russian Revolution , particularly after the Bolshevik Revolution . The outbreak of the Ukrainian–Soviet War in the former Russian Empire saw the Bolsheviks defeat the independent Ukrainian People's Republic , during the conflict against which they founded the Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets , which was governed by the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), in December 1917; it

5320-706: The Russian Social Democratic Labor Party , one he kept from 1903 to 1917; the Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin was initially hostile to Rakovsky, and at one point wrote to Karl Radek that "we [the Bolsheviks] do not have the same road as his kind of people". Initially, Rakovsky was expelled from Russia and had to move back to Paris. Returning to the Russian capital in 1900, he remained there until 1902, when his wife's death and

5472-536: The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic during the war, and 2.2 million Ukrainians were sent to forced labour camps by the Germans. The material devastation was huge; Adolf Hitler 's orders to create "a zone of annihilation" in 1943, coupled with the Soviet military's scorched-earth policy in 1941, meant Ukraine lay in ruins. These two policies led to the destruction of more than 28,000 villages and 714 cities and towns. 85 percent of Kiev 's city centre

5624-776: The Second International , involved in politics with the Bulgarian Workers' Social Democratic Party , Romanian Social Democratic Party , and the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party . Rakovsky was expelled at different times from various countries as a result of his activities, and, during World War I, became a founding member of the Revolutionary Balkan Social Democratic Labor Federation while helping to organize

5776-524: The Soviet -Ukrainians still experienced food shortages due to the inefficiencies of a highly centralised economy . During the peak of Soviet-Ukrainian agriculture output in the 1950s and early-to-mid-1960s, human consumption in Ukraine, and in the rest of the Soviet Union , actually experienced short intervals of decrease. There are many reasons for this inefficiency, but its origins can be traced back to

5928-443: The Supreme Soviet of Ukraine declared independence on 24 August 1991 and renamed the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic as Ukraine . A referendum on independence was held on 1 December 1991. 92.3% of voters voted for independence nationwide. The referendum carried in the majority of all oblasts, including Crimea where 54% voted for independence, and those in Eastern Ukraine where more than 80% voted for independence. In

6080-525: The Third All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets ratified the constitution of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in Kharkiv. After the Russian Revolution of 1917 , several factions sought to create an independent Ukrainian state, alternately cooperating and struggling against each other. Numerous more or less socialist-oriented factions participated in the formation of the Ukrainian People's Republic among which were Bolsheviks, Mensheviks , Socialists-Revolutionaries and many others. The most popular faction

6232-399: The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was attended by representatives of the Soviet Ukraine. The delegation consisted of Vasyl Shakhrai and Yukhym Medvedev , members of the AUkrCEC. Christian Rakovsky Christian Georgiyevich Rakovsky (August 13 [ O.S. August 1] 1873 – September 11, 1941), Bulgarian name Krastyo Georgiev Rakovski , born Krastyo Georgiev Stanchov , was

All-Ukrainian Central Executive Committee - Misplaced Pages Continue

6384-417: The Ukrainian SSR , UkSSR , and also known as Soviet Ukraine or just Ukraine , was one of the constituent republics of the Soviet Union from 1922 until 1991. Under the Soviet one-party model , the Ukrainian SSR was governed by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union through its republican branch , the Communist Party of Ukraine . The first iterations of the Ukrainian SSR were established during

6536-572: The World Federation of Trade Unions and the World Federation of Democratic Youth , and since 1949, the International Olympic Committee . Legally, the Soviet Union and its fifteen union republics constituted a federal system , but the country was functionally a highly centralised state, with all major decision-making taking place in the Kremlin , the capital and seat of government of the country. The constituent republics were essentially unitary states , with lower levels of power being directly subordinate to higher ones. Throughout its 72-year existence,

6688-404: The Zimmerwald Conference . Imprisoned by Romanian authorities, he made his way to Russia, where he joined the Bolshevik Party after the October Revolution , and unsuccessfully attempted to generate a communist revolution in the Kingdom of Romania . Subsequently, he was a founding member of the Comintern , served as head of government in the Ukrainian SSR , and took part in negotiations at

6840-501: The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Ukrainian SSR emerged as the present-day independent state of Ukraine , although the modified Soviet-era constitution remained in use until the adoption of the modern Ukrainian constitution in June 1996. Throughout its 72-year history, the republic's borders changed many times, with a general trend toward acquiring lands with ethnic Ukrainian population majority, and losing lands with other ethnic majorities. A significant portion of what

6992-427: The 14th Extraordinary Congress of Soviets in Ukrainian SSR on 31 January 1937. The name Ukraine ( Latin : Vkraina ) is a subject of debate. It is often perceived as being derived from the Slavic word "okraina", meaning "border land". It was first used to define part of the territory of Kievan Rus' ( Ruthenia ) in the 12th century, at which point Kiev (now Kyiv ) was the capital of Rus'. The name has been used in

7144-400: The 1920s the administration of the Ukrainian SSR insisted in vain on reviewing the border between the Ukrainian Soviet Republics and the Russian Soviet Republic based on the 1926 First All-Union Census of the Soviet Union that showed that 4.5 millions of Ukrainians were living on Russian territories bordering Ukraine. A forced end to Ukrainisation in southern Russian Soviet Republic led to

7296-429: The 1920s, Rakovsky was still viewing the incident as a "blatantly illegal act". The action itself caused protests from leftist politicians and sympathizers, including, among others, the influential Marxist thinker Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea (whose appeal in favor of Rakovsky was described by Iosif and Anghel as evidence of "an almost parental love"). The local socialists organized several rallies in his support, and

7448-429: The 1940 level, even though the republic's territorial expansion had "increased the amount of arable land ". In contrast to the remarkable growth in the industrial sector, agriculture continued in Ukraine, as in the rest of the Soviet Union, to function as the economy's Achilles heel . Despite the human toll of collectivisation of agriculture in the Soviet Union, especially in Ukraine, Soviet planners still believed in

7600-401: The 1940 level. The slow changes in agriculture can be explained by the low productivity in collective farms, and by bad weather-conditions, which the Soviet planning system could not effectively respond to. Grain for human consumption in the post-war years decreased, this in turn led to frequent and severe food shortages. The increase of Soviet agricultural production was tremendous, however,

7752-442: The 49 Ukrainian, Russian and Moldovan crew were detained by the Kuomintang regime in various terms up to 34 years in captivity with 3 deaths. The "Thaw"  – the policy of deliberate liberalisation – was characterised by four points: amnesty for some convicted of state crime during the war or the immediate post-war years; amnesties for one-third of those convicted of state crime during Stalin's rule;

SECTION 50

#1732772675036

7904-627: The Balkans and especially on his native country and Romania; his activities in support of the international socialist movement led to his expulsion, at different times, from Germany, Bulgaria, Romania, France and Russia. In 1897, he published Russiya na Istok ( Russia in the East ), a book sharply critical of the Russian Empire 's foreign policy, which, according to Rakovsky, followed one of Georgy Plekhanov 's guidelines ("Tsarist Russia must be isolated in its foreign relations"). On several occasions, he publicly criticized Russia's policies towards Romania and in Bessarabia (describing Russia's rule over

8056-435: The Bucharest Conference, he and Vasil Kolarov established the Revolutionary Balkan Social Democratic Labor Federation (comprising the left-leaning socialist parties of Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece), and Rakovsky was elected first secretary of its Central Bureau. Subsequently, together with the Italian Socialist delegates ( Oddino Morgari , Giacinto Menotti Serrati , and Angelica Balabanoff among them), Rakovsky

8208-427: The Congress of Soviets was transformed into the Supreme Soviet (and the Central Executive Committee into its Presidium ), which consisted of 450 deputies. The Supreme Soviet had the authority to enact legislation, amend the constitution , adopt new administrative and territorial boundaries, adopt the budget, and establish political and economic development plans. In addition, parliament also had to authority to elect

8360-493: The German advances and preparing to sign its own peace. Initially stalled by a much-criticized temporary armistice with Romanian Army leader Alexandru Averescu , Rakovsky ordered a fresh offensive in Moldavia , but had to retreat when the Central Powers , confronted with Trotsky's refusal to accept their version of a Russo-German peace, began their own military operation and occupied Odessa (setting free Romanians who had been imprisoned there). On 9 March 1918, Rakovsky signed

8512-689: The German-aligned Belarusian Democratic Republic , he caught news of the collapse of the German Empire and was selected as a delegate to the German workers' councils . He and all other envoys were arrested by German soldiers in Kaunas , and sent to Minsk , then to Homyel , before making their way to Moscow. Ukrainian SSR The Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic ( Ukrainian : Українська Радянська Соціалістична Республіка , romanized :  Ukrainska Radianska Sotsialistychna Respublika ; Russian : Украинская Советская Социалистическая Республика , romanized :  Ukrainskaya Sovetskaya Sotsialisticheskaya Respublika ), abbreviated as

8664-433: The Germans. While the war brought to Ukraine an enormous physical destruction, victory also led to territorial expansion. As a victor, the Soviet Union gained new prestige and more land. The Ukrainian border was expanded to the Curzon Line . Ukraine was also expanded southwards, near the area Izmail , previously part of Romania . An agreement was signed by the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia whereby Carpathian Ruthenia

8816-427: The Kiev Bolshevik group split. Most moved to Kharkov and received the support of the eastern Ukrainian cities and industrial centers. Later, this move was regarded as a mistake by some of the People's Commissars ( Yevgenia Bosch ). They issued an ultimatum to the Central Rada on 17 December to recognise the Soviet government of which the Rada was very critical. The Bolsheviks convened a separate congress and declared

8968-432: The Ottomans in the Imperial Russian Army . Rakovsky's father was a merchant who belonged to the Democratic Party . He later stated that, as early as his childhood years, he had felt a special admiration towards Russia, and that he had been impressed by witnessing, at age 5, the Russo-Turkish War and Russian presence (he claimed to have met General Eduard Totleben during the conflict). Although his parents moved to

9120-462: The Presidium was a powerful position in the republic's higher echelons of power, and could nominally be considered the equivalent of head of state , although most executive authority would be concentrated in the Communist Party's politburo and its First Secretary . Full universal suffrage was granted for all eligible citizens aged 18 and over, excluding prisoners and those deprived of freedom. Although they could not be considered free and were of

9272-413: The Romanian government of Ion I. C. Brătianu to hand in persons captured, indicating that he would otherwise encourage the communist activities of Romanian refugees on Russian soil, and receiving a reply according to which no such arrests had occurred. As Russia negotiated the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany, he ordered Rumcherod troops to march towards Romania, which was by then giving in to

SECTION 60

#1732772675036

9424-444: The Russian Revolution ). Soon after, Rakovsky left for Austria (where the First Republic had been proclaimed), being received by Foreign Minister Victor Adler (a member of Karl Renner 's Social Democratic Party of Austria cabinet). Rakovsky's real goal was to reach Germany and negotiate the situation in Ukraine, but he was expelled upon arrival to that country. Escorted, together with Adolph Joffe and Nikolai Bukharin , to

9576-423: The Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic. With the signing of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty by Russia, it was ultimately defeated by mid-1918 and eventually dissolved. The last session of the government took place in the Russian city of Taganrog . In July 1918, the former members of the government formed the Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of Ukraine , the constituent assembly of which took place in Moscow . With

9728-403: The Russian revolutionaries. Present in the internationalist faction of the Mensheviks, he joined the Bolsheviks in December 1917 or early 1918, after the October Revolution (although he was occasionally listed among the Old Bolsheviks ). Rakovsky later stated that he had friendly relations with the Bolsheviks from early autumn 1917, when, during the attempted putsch of Lavr Kornilov , he

9880-438: The Russian student E. P. Ryabova, was summoned to Romania in order to be drafted in the Romanian Army , and served as a medic in the 9th Cavalry Regiment stationed in Constanţa , Dobruja (1899–1900). He rose to the rank of lieutenant. Rakovsky subsequently rejoined his wife in Saint Petersburg , where he hoped to settle down and engage in revolutionary activities (he was probably expelled after an initial attempt to enter

10032-420: The Second Congress, held in Geneva during the fall of 1893. He was a founding editor of the Geneva-based Bulgarian-language magazine Sotsial-Demokrat and later a major contributor to the Bulgarian Marxist publications Den' , Rabotnik , and Drugar . At the time, Rakovsky and Balabanov, with Plekhanov's encouragement, stressed the importance for moderation in socialist policies— Sotsial-Demokrat rallied with

10184-427: The Second International, a situation from which emerged a circular letter that complemented the Zimmerwald Manifesto while being more radical in tone. In October 1915, he reportedly did not protest Bulgaria's entry into the war — this information was contradicted by Trotsky, who also indicated that the Tesniatsy had been the target of a government crackdown at that exact moment. Rakovsky ran for Parliament for

10336-429: The Seventh Congress of the Second International ). He decided not to recognize it, and contended that his father had settled in Northern Dobruja before the Treaty of Berlin that had awarded the region to Romania; the plea was rejected by the Court of Appeal , based on evidence that Rakovsky's father was not in Dobruja before 1880, and that Rakovsky himself used a Bulgarian passport when moving across borders. During

10488-434: The Soviet Union's westernmost border point. According to the 1989 Soviet census , the republic of Ukraine had a population of 51,706,746 (second after Russia). Its original names in 1919 were both Ukraine and Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic ( Ukrainian : Українська Соціалістична Радянська Республіка , romanized :  Ukrainska Sotsialistychna Radianska Respublika , abbreviated УСРР , USRR ). After

10640-603: The Soviet government) did not end before May 1945, the Germans were driven out of Ukraine between February 1943 and October 1944. The first task of the Soviet authorities was to reestablish political control over the republic which had been entirely lost during the war. This was an immense task, considering the widespread human and material losses. During World War II the Soviet Union lost about 8.6 million combatants and around 18 million civilians, of these, 6.8 million were Ukrainian civilians and military personnel. Also, an estimated 3.9 million Ukrainians were evacuated to

10792-427: The Soviet power in the state. The committee was named as VUTsVK (for All-Ukrainian Central Executive Committee), but often was referred to as TsIKUK. The new committee was almost twice as big while the number of its members continued to grow from one convocation of the congress to another. The committee was reorganized after the adoption of the Constitution of Ukrainian SSR of 1937. In total there were 14 convocations of

10944-494: The Soviet republics to secede from the union, which was codified in each of the Soviet constitutions . Accordingly, Article 69 of the Constitution of the Ukrainian SSR stated: "The Ukrainian SSR retains the right to willfully secede from the USSR." However, a republic's theoretical secession from the union was virtually impossible and unrealistic in many ways until after Gorbachev's perestroika reforms. The Ukrainian SSR

11096-603: The Soviet state itself. The policy of glasnost , which ended state censorship , led the Ukrainian diaspora to reconnect with their compatriots in Ukraine, the revitalisation of religious practices by destroying the monopoly of the Russian Orthodox Church and led to the establishment of several opposition pamphlets, journals and newspapers. Following the failed August Coup in Moscow on 19–21 August 1991,

11248-788: The Trotskyist critique of Stalinism as "bureaucratic centrism", Rakovsky was subject to internal exile. Submitting to Stalin's leadership in 1934 and being briefly reinstated, he was nonetheless implicated in the Trial of the Twenty One (part of the Moscow Trials ), imprisoned, and executed by the NKVD during World War II. He was rehabilitated in 1988, during the Soviet Glasnost period. Rakovsky's original Bulgarian name

11400-662: The UN on 24 October 1945. In effect, this provided the Soviet Union (a permanent Security Council member with veto powers) with another two votes in the General Assembly . The latter aspect of the 1944 clauses was never fulfilled and the republic's defense matters were managed by the Soviet Armed Forces and the Defense Ministry. Another right that was granted but never used until 1991 was the right of

11552-532: The UN, the Ukrainian SSR was an elected member of the United Nations Security Council in 1948–1949 and 1984–1985. When Stalin died on 5 March 1953, the collective leadership of Khrushchev, Georgy Malenkov , Vyacheslav Molotov and Lavrentiy Beria took power and a period of de-Stalinization began. Change came as early as 1953, when officials were allowed to criticise Stalin's policy of russification . The Central Committee of

11704-477: The Ukrainian SSR, as part of the general Soviet korenization policy; this involved promoting the use and the social status of the Ukrainian language and the elevation of ethnic Ukrainians to leadership positions (see Ukrainization – early years of Soviet Ukraine for more details). In 1932, the aggressive agricultural policies of Joseph Stalin 's regime resulted in one of the largest national catastrophes in

11856-539: The United States after the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine . In September 1939, the Soviet Union invaded Poland and occupied Galician lands inhabited by Ukrainians, Poles and Jews adding it to the territory of the Ukrainian SSR. In 1940, the Soviet Union occupied Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina and the Hertsa region , lands inhabited by Romanians, Ukrainians, Russians, Jews, Bulgarians and Gagauz, adding them to

12008-578: The administrative division within the provinces consisted of cities, urban-type settlements , and villages. Cities in the Ukrainian SSR were a separate exception, which could either be subordinate to either the provincial authorities themselves or the district authorities of which they were the administrative center. Two cities, the capital Kiev , and Sevastopol (which hosted a large Soviet Navy base in Crimea), were uniquely designated "cities with special status." This meant that they were directly subordinate to

12160-437: The administrative divisions of the Ukrainian SSR changed numerous times, often incorporating regional reorganisation and annexation on the part of Soviet authorities during World War II. The most common administrative division was the oblast (province), of which there were 25 upon the republic's independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. Provinces were further subdivided into raions (districts) which numbered 490. The rest of

12312-606: The attention of officials. Christian Rakovsky also traveled to Bulgaria, where he eventually sided with the Tesnyatsi in their conflict with other socialist groups. In 1904, he was present at the Second International 's Congress in Amsterdam , where he gave a speech celebrating the assassination of Russian police chief Vyacheslav von Plehve by Socialist-Revolutionary Party members. Rakovsky became noted locally especially after 1905, when he organized rallies in support of

12464-493: The central Ukrainian SSR authorities and not the provincial authorities surrounding them. However, the history of administrative divisions in the republic was not so clear cut. At the end of World War I in 1918, Ukraine was invaded by Soviet Russia as the Russian puppet government of the Ukrainian SSR and without official declaration it ignited the Ukrainian–Soviet War . Government of the Ukrainian SSR from very start

12616-511: The centre. In February 1954, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) transferred Crimea to Ukraine during the celebrations of the 300th anniversary of Ukraine's reunification with Russia (Soviet name for the Pereiaslav Agreement ). The massive festivities lasted throughout 1954, commemorating ( Ukrainian : Переяславська рада ), the treaty which brought Ukraine under Russian rule three centuries before. The event

12768-540: The city of Kiev , the historic Ukrainian capital, and remained at Kiev for the remainder of its existence. Geographically, the Ukrainian SSR was situated in Eastern Europe , to the north of the Black Sea , and was bordered by the Soviet republics of Moldavia (since 1940), Byelorussia, and Russia, and the countries of Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Poland. The republic's border with Czechoslovakia formed

12920-585: The committee, 12 of which were taken place in Kharkiv . For almost 20 years from 1919 to 1938 head of the committee was Petrovsky. He however was overshadowed by more prominent Party leaders such as Vyacheslav Molotov , Lazar Kaganovich , Dmitriy Manuilsky , and others. The other chairmen of the committee served for less than a year. Since 1935 the committee changed back to the Central Executive Committee of Ukrainian SSR. The signing of

13072-488: The country, but was allowed to return). An adversary of Peter Berngardovich Struve after the latter moved towards market liberalism , he became acquainted with, among others, Nikolay Mikhaylovsky and Mikhail Tugan-Baranovsky , while authoring articles for Nashe Slovo and helping distribute Iskra . His close relationship with Plekhanov led Rakovsky to a position between the Menshevik and Bolshevik factions of

13224-456: The country. When Bolsheviks were arrested and the move was overturned, he was probably responsible for ordering the arrest of Romania's representative to Petrograd, Constantin I. Diamandy , and his entire staff (all of whom were used as hostages , pending the release of prisoners taken in Iaşi). Trotsky, who was by then Russia's People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs ( Foreign Minister ), called on

13376-594: The crackdown on socialist groups ordered by Emperor Nicholas II forced him to return to France. Working for a while as a physician in the village of Beaulieu, Haute-Loire , he asked French officials to review his case for naturalization , but was refused. In 1903, following the death of his father, Rakovsky again lived in Paris, where he followed developments of the Russo-Japanese War and spoke out against Russia, attracting, according to Rakovsky himself,

13528-403: The criticism of both Plekhanov and Jules Guesde . He voiced his opposition to the concession made by Karl Kautsky to Jean Jaurès , one which had allowed socialists to join " bourgeois " governments in times of crisis. He ultimately settled in Romania (1904) having inherited his father's estate near Mangalia . In 1913, his property, valued at some 40,000 United States dollars at the time,

13680-404: The death of Lenin and the consolidation of his power, Stalin was determined to industrialisation and reversed policy again. As heavy industry and wheat exports boomed, common people in rural areas were bearing a cost. Gradually escalating measures, from raised taxes, dispossession of property, and forced deportations into Siberia culminated in extremely high grain delivery quotas. Even though there

13832-524: The defeat of the Central Powers in World War I , the Bolsheviks resumed its hostilities towards the Ukrainian People's Republic fighting for Ukrainian independence and organised another Soviet Ukrainian government. The Provisional Workers' and Peasants' Government of Ukraine was created on November 28, 1918, in Kursk , with the proviisional government assigned to the city of Sudzha . On 10 March 1919,

13984-644: The defeated Central Powers. Eventually, the Red Army ended up controlling much of the Ukrainian territory after the Polish-Soviet Peace of Riga . On 30 December 1922, along with the Russian , Byelorussian and Transcaucasian republics, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). During the 1920s, a policy of Ukrainization was pursued in

14136-605: The effectiveness of collective farming. The old system was reestablished; the numbers of collective farms in Ukraine increased from 28 thousand in 1940 to 33 thousand in 1949, comprising 45 million hectares; the numbers of state farms barely increased, standing at 935 in 1950, comprising 12.1 million hectares. By the end of the Fourth Five-Year Plan (in 1950) and the Fifth Five-Year Plan (in 1955), agricultural output still stood far lower than

14288-476: The establishment of the first Ukrainian mission to the United Nations in 1958; and the steady increase of Ukrainians in the rank of the CPU and government of the Ukrainian SSR. Not only were the majority of CPU Central Committee and Politburo members ethnic Ukrainians, three-quarters of the highest ranking party and state officials were ethnic Ukrainians too. The policy of partial Ukrainisation also led to

14440-873: The face of the Central Powers as the others refused to recognise it. After the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk , the Russian SFSR yielded all the captured Ukrainian territory as the Bolsheviks were forced out of Ukraine. The government of Soviet Ukraine was dissolved after its last session on 20 November 1918. After re-taking Kharkov in February 1919, a second Soviet Ukrainian government was formed. The government enforced Russian policies that did not adhere to local needs. A group of three thousand workers were dispatched from Russia to take grain from local farms to feed Russian cities and were met with resistance. The Ukrainian language

14592-566: The famine was caused by a combination of factors, including Soviet policies of compulsory grain requisitions, forced collectivization , dekulakization , and Russification . The General Assembly of the UN has stopped shy of recognizing the Holodomor as genocide, calling it a "great tragedy" as a compromise between tense positions of United Kingdom, United States, Russia, and Ukraine on the matter, while some nations went on to individually categorize it as genocide, including France, Germany, and

14744-628: The first Soviet Republic of Ukraine on 24 December 1917 claiming the Central Rada and its supporters outlaws that need to be eradicated. Warfare ensued against the Ukrainian People's Republic for the installation of the Soviet regime in the country, and with the direct support from Soviet Russia the Ukrainian National forces were practically overrun. The government of Ukraine appealed to foreign capitals, finding support in

14896-402: The goal of assassinating King Ferdinand I and organizing a coup. Eventually, Lenin decided in favor of a unified project, and called on Bujor and Rakovsky to form a single leadership (which also included the Romanian expatriates Alecu Constantinescu and Ion Dic Dicescu ). As the coup was under preparation in December 1917, Rakovsky was present on the border and waiting a signal to enter

15048-530: The latter as " absolutist conquest", "mischievous action", and "abduction"). According to Rakovsky, " Russophile papers" in Bulgaria had begun to target him as a consequence. After completing his education as a physician at the University of Montpellier (with the thesis L'Éthiologie du crime et de la dégénérescence – "The Cause of Crime and Degeneration", submitted in 1897), Rakovsky, who had married

15200-574: The left wing of international social democracy during the early stages of World War I, Rakovsky later indicated that he had been purposely informed of the controversial pro-war stance taken by the Social Democratic Party of Germany by the pro- Entente Romanian Foreign Minister Emanoil Porumbaru . With staff of the Menshevik paper Nashe Slovo (edited by Leon Trotsky ), he was among the most prominent socialist pacifists of

15352-734: The members Yukhym Medvedev was the Ukrainian Social-Democratic Labour Party ( left deviation ). The committee did not last long and on April 18, 1918, was merged with the People's Secretariat into the Uprising Nine, a type of revkom . TsVK was reanimated once again by the 3rd All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets in Kharkiv on March 10, 1919. On the same session of the congress was adopted the Constitution of Ukrainian SSR which established legal basis for

15504-619: The mid-late 1980s, electoral reform laws were passed in 1989, liberalising the nominating procedures and allowing multiple candidates to stand for election in a district. Accordingly, the first relatively free elections in the Ukrainian SSR were contested in March 1990. 111 deputies from the Democratic Bloc , a loose association of small pro-Ukrainian and pro-sovereignty parties and the instrumental People's Movement of Ukraine (colloquially known as Rukh in Ukrainian) were elected to

15656-583: The modern history for the Ukrainian nation . A famine known as the Holodomor caused a direct loss of human life estimated between 2.6 million to 10 million. Some scholars and the World Congress of Free Ukrainians assert that this was an act of genocide . The International Commission of Inquiry Into the 1932–1933 Famine in Ukraine found no evidence that the famine was part of a preconceived plan to starve Ukrainians, and concluded in 1990 that

15808-451: The moment, the groups led by Take Ionescu and Nicolae Filipescu , with, respectively, "corruption" and " reaction ". Suspicions also rose that he had been contacted by German intelligence, that his 1915 trip to Italy had served German interests, and that he was being subsidized with German money. Rakovsky also drew attention to himself after welcoming to Bucharest the pro-German maverick socialist Alexander Parvus . His independence

15960-509: The newly formed Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic , while Budzhak and Bukovina were secured by the Ukrainian SSR. Following the creation of the Ukrainian SSR significant numbers of ethnic Ukrainians found themselves living outside the Ukrainian SSR. In the 1920s the Ukrainian SSR was forced to cede several territories to Russia in Severia , Sloboda Ukraine and Azov littoral including such cities like Belgorod , Taganrog and Starodub . In

16112-483: The newly stable Ukrainian SSR becoming a founding member of the Soviet Union . The government of the Ukrainian Soviet Republic was founded on 24–25 December 1917. In its publications, it named itself either the Republic of Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies or the Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets . The 1917 republic was only recognised by another non-recognised country,

16264-557: The parliament. Although the Communist Party retained its majority with 331 deputies, large support for the Democratic Bloc demonstrated the people's distrust of the Communist authorities, which would eventually boil down to Ukrainian independence in 1991. Ukraine is the legal successor of the Ukrainian SSR and it stated to fulfill "those rights and duties pursuant to international agreements of Union SSR which do not contradict

16416-577: The period. Reflecting his ideological priorities, România Muncitoare ' s title was changed into Jos Răsboiul! ("Down with war!")—it was later to be known as Lupta Zilnică (the "Daily combat"). Heavily critical of the French Socialist Party 's decision to join the René Viviani cabinet (deeming it "an abdication"), he stressed the responsibility of all European countries in provoking the war, and adhered to Trotsky's vision of

16568-499: The ratification of the 1936 Soviet Constitution , full official names of all Soviet republics were changed, transposing the second ( socialist ) and third ( sovietskaya in Russian or radianska in Ukrainian) words. In accordance, on 5 December 1936, the 8th Extraordinary Congress Soviets in Soviet Union changed the name of the republic to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, which was ratified by

16720-624: The republic's executive branch, the Council of Ministers as well as the power to appoint judges to the Supreme Court. Legislative sessions were short and were conducted for only a few weeks out of the year. In spite of this, the Supreme Soviet elected the Presidium, the Chairman , 3 deputy chairmen, a secretary, and couple of other government members to carry out the official functions and duties in between legislative sessions. Chairman of

16872-623: The republic's three largest minority groups, which were the Jews, Russians , and Poles . Other ethnic groups, however, were allowed to petition the government for their own national autonomy. In 1924 on the territory of Ukrainian SSR was formed the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic . Upon the 1940 conquest of Bessarabia and Bukovina by Soviet troops the Moldavian ASSR was passed to

17024-663: The rest of Liebknecht's life). As a Bulgarian delegate to the Second International Congress in Zürich , he also met with Engels and Jules Guesde . Six months later, he was arrested and expelled from the German Empire for maintaining close contacts with the Russian revolutionaries there. He finished his education in 1894–1896 in Zürich , Nancy and Montpellier , where he wrote for La Jeunesse Socialiste and La Petite République , maintaining

17176-501: The rest of the 15 republics, had virtually no say in their own foreign affairs. However, since 1944, the Ukrainian SSR was permitted to establish bilateral relations with countries and maintain its own standing army. This clause was used to permit the republic's membership in the United Nations, alongside the Byelorussian SSR. Accordingly, representatives from the "Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic" and 50 other states founded

17328-730: The return of his citizenship was also backed by Take Ionescu 's opposition group, the Conservative-Democratic Party . In exile, Rakovsky authored the pamphlet Les persécutions politiques en Roumanie ("Political Persecutions in Romania") and two books ( La Roumanie des boyars – " Boyar Romania", and the since-lost From the Kingdom of Arbitrariness and Cowardice ). Eventually, he traveled back into Romania in October 1909, only to be arrested upon his transit through Brăila County . According to his recollections, he

17480-410: The russification policies, and the apparent social and economic stagnation led several Ukrainians to oppose Soviet rule. Gorbachev's policy of perestroika was also never introduced into practice, 95 percent of industry and agriculture was still owned by the Soviet state in 1990. The talk of reform, but the lack of introducing reform into practice, led to confusion which in turn evolved into opposition to

17632-527: The same time. In particular, these amendments allowed the Ukrainian SSR to become one of the founding members of the United Nations (UN) together with the Soviet Union and the Byelorussian SSR . This was part of a deal with the United States to ensure a degree of balance in the General Assembly , which, the USSR opined, was unbalanced in favor of the Western Bloc. In its capacity as a member of

17784-698: The side of the Entente in August 1916, having failed to attend the Kienthal Conference due to the closure of borders, he was placed under surveillance and ultimately imprisoned in September, based on the belief that he was acting as a German spy . As Bucharest fell to the Central Powers during the 1916 campaign , he was taken by Romanian authorities to their refuge in Iaşi. Held until after

17936-420: The single-purchaser and -producer market system set up by Joseph Stalin . Khrushchev tried to improve the agricultural situation in the Soviet Union by expanding the total crop size – for instance, in the Ukrainian SSR alone "the amount of land planted with corn grew by 600 percent". At the height of this policy, between 1959 and 1963, one-third of Ukrainian arable land grew this crop. This policy decreased

18088-413: The subject for România Muncitoare , L'Humanité , Avanti! , Vorwärts and others). Rakovsky was also one of the journalists suspected of having greatly exaggerated the overall death toll in their accounts: his estimates speak of over 10,000 peasants killed, whereas the government data counted only 421. He became close to the influential dramatist Ion Luca Caragiale , who was living in Berlin at

18240-602: The territory of the Ukrainian SSR and the newly formed Moldavian SSR . In 1945, these lands were permanently annexed, and the Transcarpathia region was added as well, by treaty with the post-war administration of Czechoslovakia. Following eastward Soviet retreat in 1941, Ufa became the wartime seat of the Soviet Ukrainian government. While World War II (called the Great Patriotic War by

18392-568: The time, Rakovsky and Sava Balabanov published their own newspaper, the clandestine Zerkalo ). Since, after having ultimately been banned from attending any public school in the country, he could not complete his education in Bulgaria, in September 1890, Rakovsky went to Geneva to begin his studies and become a physician. While in Switzerland, he joined the Socialist Student Circle at the University of Geneva , which

18544-615: The time. Caragiale authored his own virulent critique of the Romanian state and its handling of the revolt, an essay titled 1907, din primăvară până în toamnă ("1907, From Spring to Autumn"), which, in its final version, adopted some of Rakovsky's suggestions. After repeatedly condemning repression of the revolt, Rakovsky was, together with other socialists, officially accused of having agitated rebellious sentiment, and consequently expelled from Romanian soil (late 1907). He received news of this action while already abroad, in Stuttgart (at

18696-554: The two competing governments, known as the Ukrainian–Soviet War , was part of the ongoing Russian Civil War , as well as a struggle for national independence (known as the Ukrainian War of Independence ), which ended with the territory of pro-independence Ukrainian People's Republic being annexed into a new Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic, western Ukraine being annexed into the Second Polish Republic , and

18848-484: The unification of Soviet nationalities would take place, according to Vladimir Lenin , when the Soviet Union reached the final stage of communism, also the final stage of human development . Some all-Union Soviet officials were calling for the abolition of the "pseudosovereign" Soviet republics, and the establishment of one nationality. Instead of introducing the ideologic concept of the Soviet Nation , Brezhnev at

19000-527: The unification of Ukrainian lands on both banks of Zbruch River , until then the border between the Soviet Union and the Polish communities inhabited by Ukrainian speaking families. At the onset of Soviet Ukraine, having largely inherited conditions from the Tsarist Empire, one of the biggest exporters of wheat in the world, the Ukrainian economy was still centered around agriculture , with over 90% of

19152-463: The weapons on board were to be used in Batumi, faced allegations in the Romanian press that he was preparing a Dobrujan insurrection. His head was injured during street clashes with police forces over the Potemkin issue; while recovering, Rakovsky befriended the Romanian poets Ștefan Octavian Iosif and Dimitrie Anghel , who were publishing works under a common signature—one of the two authored

19304-518: The workforce being peasants. In the 1920s, Soviet policy in Ukraine attached importance to developing the economy. The initial agenda, War Communism , had prescribed total communisation and appropriation per quota of food from the people by force - further economic damage and a famine claiming up to one million lives ensued. With the New Economic Policy and the partial introduction of free markets, an economic recovery followed. After

19456-461: Was Krastyo Georgiev Stanchev (Кръстьо Георгиев Станчев), which he himself changed to Krastyo Rakovski (Кръстьо Раковски), being a grandnephew of the Bulgarian national hero Georgi Rakovski . The usual form his first name took in Romanian was Cristian (occasionally rendered as Christian ), while his last name was spelled Racovski , Racovschi , or Rakovski . His given name was occasionally rendered as Ristache , an antiquated hypocoristic —he

19608-408: Was a member of the UN Economic and Social Council , UNICEF , International Labour Organization , Universal Postal Union , World Health Organization , UNESCO , International Telecommunication Union , United Nations Economic Commission for Europe , World Intellectual Property Organization and the International Atomic Energy Agency . It was not separately a member of the Warsaw Pact , Comecon ,

19760-488: Was again expelled, holding a Romanian passport, to Istanbul , where he was swiftly arrested by the Young Turks government but released soon after. He subsequently left for Sofia , where he established the Bulgarian socialist journal Napred . Ultimately, the new Petre P. Carp Conservative cabinet agreed to allow his return to Romania, following pressures from the French Premier Georges Clemenceau (who answered an appeal by Jean Jaurès ). According to Rakovsky, this

19912-495: Was also censured from administrative and educational use. Eventually fighting both White forces in the east and Ukrainian forces in the west, Lenin ordered the liquidation of the second Soviet Ukrainian government in August 1919. Eventually, after the creation of the Communist Party (Bolshevik) of Ukraine in Moscow, a third Ukrainian Soviet government was formed on 21 December 1919 that initiated new hostilities against Ukrainian nationalists as they lost their military support from

20064-447: Was also determined by the Conservative change in policies towards the peasantry. He unsuccessfully ran for Parliament during the elections of that year (and several others in succession), being fully reinstated as a citizen in April 1912. Romanian journalist Stelian Tănase contends that the expulsion had instilled resentment in Rakovsky; earlier, the leading National Liberal politician Ion G. Duca himself had argued that Rakovsky

20216-498: Was also known under the pseudonyms H. Insarov and Grigoriev , which he used in signing several articles for the Russian-language press. Christian Rakovsky was born to a wealthy Bulgarian family in Gradets — near Kotel — at the time still part of Ottoman -ruled Rumelia . He was, on his mother's side, the grandnephew of Georgi Sava Rakovski , a revolutionary hero of the Bulgarian National Revival ; that side of his family also included Georgi Mamarchev , who had fought against

20368-496: Was also the city where the first Soviet Ukrainian government was created in 1917 with strong support from Russian SFSR authorities. However, in 1934, the capital was moved from Kharkov to Kiev , which remains the capital of Ukraine today. During the 1930s, there were significant numbers of ethnic minorities living within the Ukrainian SSR. National Districts were formed as separate territorial-administrative units within higher-level provincial authorities. Districts were established for

20520-462: Was celebrated to prove the old and brotherly love between Ukrainians and Russians , and proof of the Soviet Union as a "family of nations"; it was also another way of legitimising Marxism–Leninism . On 23 June 1954, the civilian oil tanker Tuapse of the Black Sea Shipping Company based in Odessa was hijacked by a fleet of Republic of China Navy in the high sea of 19°35′N, 120°39′E , west of Balintang Channel near Philippines , whereas

20672-409: Was consequently challenged by the interventionist paper Adevărul , a former socialist venue, who called Rakovsky "an adventurer without scruples", and viewed him as employed by Parvus and other German socialists. Rakovsky himself alleged that, "under the mask of independence", Adevărul and its editor Constantin Mille were in the pay of Take Ionescu. After Romania's entry into the conflict on

20824-539: Was destroyed, as was 70 percent of the city centre of the second-largest city in Ukraine, Kharkov . Because of this, 19 million people were left homeless after the war. The republic's industrial base, as so much else, was destroyed. The Soviet government had managed to evacuate 544 industrial enterprises between July and November 1941, but the rapid German advance led to the destruction or the partial destruction of 16,150 enterprises. 27,910 collective farms , 1,300 machine tractor stations and 872 state farms were destroyed by

20976-408: Was developing a "hatred for Romania". Alongside Mihai Gheorghiu Bujor and Frimu, Rakovsky was one of the founders of the Romanian Social Democratic Party (PSDR), serving as its president. In May 1912, he helped organize a mourning session for the centennial of Russian rule in Bessarabia, and authored numerous new articles on the matter. He was afterwards involved in calling for peace during

21128-429: Was drawn into a polemic with the Romanian authorities, facing public accusations that, as a Bulgarian, he lacked patriotism. In return, he commented that, if patriotism meant " race prejudice , international and civil war, political tyranny and plutocratic domination", he refused to be identified with it. Upon the outbreak of Romanian Peasants' Revolt of 1907, Rakovsky was especially vocal: he launched accusations at

21280-484: Was for long left stranded on the border with Austria-Hungary , as officials in the latter country refused to let him pass; the situation had to be settled by negotiations between the two countries. Also according to Rakovsky, the arrest was hidden by the Ion I. C. Brătianu cabinet until it leaked to the press — this, coupled with rumors that he was about to be killed, and Brătianu's statement that he would "rather destroy [Rakovsky] than let [him] back into Rumania", caused

21432-411: Was handed over to Ukraine. The territory of Ukraine expanded by 167,000 square kilometres (64,500 sq mi) and increased its population by an estimated 11 million. After World War II, amendments to the Constitution of the Ukrainian SSR were accepted, which allowed it to act as a separate subject of international law in some cases and to a certain extent, remaining a part of the Soviet Union at

21584-453: Was hidden by these in Sestroretsk . His rise in influence and his approval of world revolution led him to seek Lenin's support for a Bolshevik government over Romania, at a time when a similar attempt was being made by the Odessa-based Romanian Social Democratic Action Committee , under the guidance of Mihai Gheorghiu Bujor ; Stelian Tănase claims that during the period, a group of one hundred Russian Bolsheviks had infiltrated Iaşi with

21736-461: Was home to Leon Trotsky when the latter visited the Balkans as a press envoy during the Balkan Wars . He was usually present in Bucharest on a weekly basis, and started an intense activity as a journalist, doctor and lawyer. The Balkans correspondent for L'Humanité , he was also personally responsible for reviving România Muncitoare , the defunct journal of the Romanian socialist group, provoking successful strike actions which brought him to

21888-402: Was initially the local Socialist Revolutionary Party that composed the local government together with Federalists and Mensheviks. Immediately after the October Revolution in Petrograd , Bolsheviks instigated the Kiev Bolshevik Uprising to support the revolution and secure Kiev. Due to a lack of adequate support from the local population and governing anti-communist Central Rada , however,

22040-423: Was instrumental in convening the anti-war international socialist Zimmerwald Conference in September 1915. During the congress, he came into open conflict with Lenin, after the latter voiced the Zimmerwald Left 's opposition to the resolution (at one point, Rakovsky reportedly lost his temper and grabbed Lenin, causing him to temporarily leave the hall in protest). Later, he continued to mediate between Lenin and

22192-427: Was internationally recognized and supported by the Central Powers following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk , whereas the Kharkov-based USR was solely supported by the Soviet Russian forces, while neither the UNR nor the USR were explicitly supported by the White Russian forces that remained, although there were attempts to establish cooperation during the closing stages of the war with the former. The conflict between

22344-518: Was known as such to his acquaintance, writer Ion Luca Caragiale . In Russian, his full name, including patronymic , was Khristian Georgievich Rakovsky (Христиан Георгиевич Раковский). Christian (as well as Cristian and Kristian ) is an approximate rendition of Krastyo (the Bulgarian for "cross"), as used by Rakovsky himself. In Ukrainian , Rakovsky's name is rendered as Християн Георгійович Раковський, and usually transliterated as Khrystyian Heorhiiovych Rakovskyi . During his lifetime, he

22496-421: Was largely composed of non-Swiss youth. A polyglot , Rakovsky became close to Georgy Plekhanov , the founder of Russian Marxism, and his circle, eventually writing a number of articles and a book in Russian. He briefly worked with Rosa Luxemburg , Pavel Axelrod , and Vera Zasulich . Unable to attend the First International Congress of Socialist Students in Brussels (1892), he became involved in organizing

22648-416: Was later succeeded by the Ukrainian Soviet Republic in 1918. Simultaneously with the Russian Civil War , the Ukrainian War of Independence was being fought among the different Ukrainian republics founded by Ukrainian nationalists , Ukrainian anarchists , and Ukrainian separatists – primarily against Soviet Russia and the Ukrainian SSR, with either help or opposition from neighbouring states. In 1922, it

22800-403: Was managed by the Communist Party of Ukraine that was created in Moscow and was originally formed out of the Bolshevik organisational centers in Ukraine. Occupying the eastern city of Kharkov , the Soviet forces chose it as the republic's seat of government, colloquially named in the media as "Kharkov – Pervaya Stolitsa (the first capital)" with implication to the era of Soviet regime . Kharkov

22952-414: Was one of four Soviet republics (with the Russian SFSR, the Byelorussian SSR, and the Transcaucasian SFSR ) that signed the Treaty on the Creation of the Soviet Union . As a Soviet quasi-state , the Ukrainian SSR became a founding member of the United Nations in 1945 alongside the Byelorussian SSR , in spite of the fact that they were also legally represented by the Soviet Union in foreign affairs. Upon

23104-413: Was stated in Articles 7 and 8 of On Legal Succession of Ukraine , issued in 1991. Following independence, Ukraine has continued to pursue claims against the Russian Federation in foreign courts, seeking to recover its share of the foreign property that was owned by the Soviet Union. It also retained its seat in the United Nations , held since 1945. On the international front, the Ukrainian SSR, along with

#35964