118-869: The All Mon Region Democracy Party ( AMRDP ) was a political party in Myanmar , representing the interests of the Mon people . In the 2010 Myanmar general election , which was boycotted by both the main opposition National League for Democracy and the other main Mon party, the Mon National Party , the AMRDP won 16 total seats, 3 in the Pyithu Hluttaw (the lower house), 4 in the Amyotha Hluttaw and 9 in regional hluttaws. In 2013, there were reports that
236-588: A Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of Nationalities , and multi-party elections were held in 1951–1952 , 1956 and 1960 . The geographical area Burma encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement , which combined Burma Proper, which consisted of Lower Burma and Upper Burma, and the Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the British. In 1961, U Thant ,
354-502: A military dictatorship under the Burma Socialist Programme Party . On 8 August 1988, the 8888 Uprising then resulted in a nominal transition to a multi-party system two years later, but the country's post-uprising military council refused to cede power, and has continued to rule the country through to the present. The country remains riven by ethnic strife among its myriad ethnic groups and has one of
472-679: A civilian government, Ne Win's biographer, Maung Maung , was appointed as head of government. Maung was a legal scholar and the only non-military individual to serve in the Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP). The appointment of Maung briefly resulted in a subsidence of the shooting and protests. Nationwide demonstrations resumed on 22 August 1988. In Mandalay, 100,000 people protested, including Buddhist monks and 50,000 demonstrated in Sittwe . Large marches took places from Taunggyi and Moulmein to distant ethnic states (particularly where military campaigns had previously taken place), where red ,
590-506: A coup d'état . The coup, which was widely condemned by the international community , led to continuous ongoing widespread protests in Myanmar and has been marked by violent political repression by the military, as well as a larger outbreak of the civil war . The military also arrested Aung San Suu Kyi in order to remove her from public life, and charged her with crimes ranging from corruption to violation of COVID-19 protocols; all of
708-466: A local committee mistakenly beheaded a couple thought to have been carrying a bomb. Incidents like these were not as common in Mandalay , where protests were more peaceful as they were organised by monks and lawyers. On 26 August, Aung San Suu Kyi , who had watched the demonstrations from her mother's bedside, entered the political arena by addressing half a million people at Shwedagon Pagoda . It
826-599: A long vowel: [ˈmjænmɑː, ˈbɜːmə] . So the pronunciation of the last syllable of Myanmar as [mɑːr] by some speakers in the UK and most speakers in North America is in fact a spelling pronunciation based on a misunderstanding of non-rhotic spelling conventions. However, Burma is pronounced [ˈbɜːrmə] by rhotic speakers of English due to a phonotactic constraint, as /ɜː/ occurs only before /r/ in those accents. Archaeological evidence shows that Homo erectus lived in
944-465: A multi-party system of government. The Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP) announced they would be organising an election, but the opposition parties called for their immediate resignation from government, allowing an interim government to organise elections. After the BSPP rejected both demands, protesters again took to the streets on 12 September 1988. Nu promised elections within a month, proclaiming
1062-646: A prosperous economy for more than 80 years. From the 1720s onward, the kingdom was beset with repeated Meithei raids into Upper Myanmar and a nagging rebellion in Lan Na. In 1740, the Mon of Lower Myanmar founded the Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom . Hanthawaddy forces sacked Ava in 1752, ending the 266-year-old Toungoo Dynasty. After the fall of Ava, the Konbaung–Hanthawaddy War involved one resistance group under Alaungpaya defeating
1180-443: A provisional government. Meanwhile, the police and army began fraternising with the protesters. The movement had reached an impasse relying on three hopes: daily demonstrations to force the regime to respond to their demands, encouraging soldiers to defect and appealing to an international audience in the hope that United Nations or United States troops would arrive. Some Tatmadaw did defect, but only in limited numbers, mostly from
1298-665: A relaxation of press censorship, and the regulation of currency practices. In response, United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton visited Myanmar in December 2011 – the first visit by a US Secretary of State in more than fifty years – meeting both President Thein Sein and opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi. 8888 Uprising Opposition: [REDACTED] Government: Aung San Suu Kyi Bombings and attacks Coup d'états Protests Anti-Muslim violence Related topics The 8888 Uprising , also known as
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#17327908527211416-485: A smaller, more manageable kingdom, encompassing Lower Myanmar , Upper Myanmar , Shan states , Lan Na and upper Tenasserim . The restored Toungoo kings created a legal and political framework whose basic features continued well into the 19th century. The crown completely replaced the hereditary chieftainships with appointed governorships in the entire Irrawaddy valley and greatly reduced the hereditary rights of Shan chiefs. Its trade and secular administrative reforms built
1534-468: A stalemate, exchanging Tenasserim (to Burma) and Lan Na (to Ayutthaya). Faced with a powerful China and a resurgent Ayutthaya in the east, King Bodawpaya turned west, acquiring Arakan (1785), Manipur (1814) and Assam (1817). It was the second-largest empire in Burmese history but also one with a long ill-defined border with British India . In 1826, Burma lost Arakan, Manipur , Assam and Tenasserim to
1652-644: A unified state. Aung Zan Wai , Pe Khin, Bo Hmu Aung , Sir Maung Gyi, Sein Mya Maung, Myoma U Than Kywe were among the negotiators of the historic Panglong Conference negotiated with Bamar leader General Aung San and other ethnic leaders in 1947. In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Myanmar, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members. On 4 January 1948,
1770-542: A valedictory address given that day, Ne Win affirmed that "When the army shoots, it shoots to kill." He also promised a multi-party system , but he had appointed the largely disliked Sein Lwin , known as the "Butcher of Rangoon" to head a new government. Protests reached their peak in August 1988. Students planned for a nationwide demonstration on 8 August 1988, an auspicious date based on numerological significance. News of
1888-402: A week after the initial announcement of demonetisation, new denominations of 25, 35, and 75 kyat bills were announced, with the 75 kyat denomination chosen to commemorate Ne Win's 75th birthday. In November 1985, students gathered and boycotted the government's decision to withdraw Burmese local currency notes. Economic problems coupled with counter-insurgency required continuous involvement in
2006-468: Is "Republic of the Union of Myanmar" ( Burmese : ပြည်ထောင်စုသမ္မတ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော် , Pyihtaungsu Thamada Myanma Naingngantaw , pronounced [pjìdàʊɴzṵ θàɴməda̰ mjəmà nàɪɴŋàɴdɔ̀] ). Countries that do not officially recognise that name use the long form "Union of Burma" instead. In English, the country is popularly known as either Burma or Myanmar . In Burmese, the pronunciation depends on
2124-544: Is among the widest in the world, as a large proportion of the economy is controlled by cronies of the military junta . Myanmar is one of the least developed countries ; as of 2020, according to the Human Development Index , it ranks 147 out of 189 countries in terms of human development , the lowest in Southeast Asia . Since 2021, more than 600,000 people were displaced across Myanmar due to
2242-463: Is standard. Pronunciations with two syllables are found most often in major British and American dictionaries. Dictionaries—such as Collins —and other sources also report pronunciations with three syllables. As John Wells explains, the English spellings of both Myanmar and Burma assume a non-rhotic variety of English , in which the letter r before a consonant or finally serves merely to indicate
2360-522: The 1967 riots and condemning lack of economic reform, describing Burma as "almost a joke" compared to other Southeast Asian nations. He was later arrested. On 12 March 1988, students from the Rangoon Institute of Technology (RIT) were arguing with out-of-school youths inside the Sanda Win tea shop about music playing on a sound system. A drunken youth would not return a tape that
2478-754: The Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal to its south and southwest. The country's capital city is Naypyidaw , and its largest city is Yangon (formerly Rangoon). Early civilisations in the area included the Tibeto-Burman -speaking Pyu city-states in Upper Myanmar and the Mon kingdoms in Lower Myanmar . In the 9th century, the Bamar people entered the upper Irrawaddy valley, and following
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#17327908527212596-536: The Ayutthaya Kingdom , Lan Xang and southern Arakan. However, the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia unravelled soon after Bayinnaung's death in 1581, completely collapsing by 1599. Ayutthaya seized Tenasserim and Lan Na, and Portuguese mercenaries established Portuguese rule at Thanlyin (Syriam). The dynasty regrouped and defeated the Portuguese in 1613 and Siam in 1614. It restored
2714-485: The Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP). During this period, Myanmar became one of the world's most impoverished countries. There were sporadic protests against military rule during the Ne Win years, and these were almost always violently suppressed. On 7 July 1962, the government broke up demonstrations at Rangoon University , killing 15 students. In 1974, the military violently suppressed anti-government protests at
2832-462: The Han Chinese , Wa , and Kachin . During 8–12 August, the first days of the conflict, as many as 10,000 Burmese civilians fled to Yunnan in neighbouring China. Civil wars have been a constant feature of Myanmar's socio-political landscape since the attainment of independence in 1948. These wars are predominantly struggles for ethnic and sub-national autonomy, with the areas surrounding
2950-730: The Lushai Hills , and Manipur as well. The British East India Company seized control of the administration of Myanmar after three Anglo-Burmese Wars in the 19th century, and the country became a British colony . After a brief Japanese occupation , Myanmar was reconquered by the Allies. On 4 January 1948, Myanmar declared independence under the terms of the Burma Independence Act 1947 . Myanmar's post-independence history has been checkered by continuing unrest and conflict to this day. The coup d'état in 1962 resulted in
3068-557: The National League for Democracy , won 81% of the seats in the government (392 out of 492). However, the military junta refused to recognise the results and continued to rule the country as the State Law and Order Restoration Council . Aung San Suu Kyi was also placed under house arrest . The State Law and Order Restoration Council would be a cosmetic change from the Burma Socialist Programme Party . Suu Kyi's house arrest
3186-653: The People Power Revolution in the Philippines in 1986. Around this time, former Prime Minister U Nu and retired Brigadier General Aung Gyi also re-emerged onto the political scene in what was described as a "democracy summer" when many former democracy leaders returned. Despite the gains made by the democracy movement, Ne Win remained in the background. During the September congress of 1988, 90% of party delegates (968 out of 1080) voted for
3304-600: The People Power Uprising and the 1988 Uprising , was a series of nationwide protests , marches, and riots in Burma (present-day Myanmar ) that peaked in August 1988. Key events occurred on 8 August 1988 and therefore it is commonly known as the "8888 Uprising". The protests began as a student movement and were organised largely by university students at the Rangoon Arts and Sciences University and
3422-467: The Rangoon Institute of Technology . Since 1962, the Burma Socialist Programme Party had ruled the country as a totalitarian one-party state , headed by General Ne Win . Under the government agenda, called the Burmese Way to Socialism , which involved economic isolation and the strengthening of the military , Burma became one of the world's most impoverished countries . Many firms in
3540-534: The Republic of the Union of Myanmar and also rendered Burma (the official English form until 1989), is a country in northwest Southeast Asia . It is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and has a population of about 55 million. It is bordered by India to its west, Bangladesh to its southwest, China to its northeast, Laos and Thailand to its east and southeast, and
3658-878: The Rohingya Muslims and the government and non-government groups in Rakhine State ; and a conflict between the Shan , Lahu , and Karen minority groups, and the government in the eastern half of the country. In addition, al-Qaeda signalled an intention to become involved in Myanmar. Armed conflict between ethnic Chinese rebels and the Myanmar Armed Forces resulted in the Kokang offensive in February 2015. The conflict had forced 40,000 to 50,000 civilians to flee their homes and seek shelter on
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3776-415: The State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). In 1989, SLORC declared martial law after widespread protests. The military government finalised plans for People's Assembly elections on 31 May 1989. SLORC changed the country's official English name from the "Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma" to the "Union of Myanmar" on 18 June 1989 by enacting the adaptation of the expression law. In May 1990,
3894-538: The Sule Pagoda reported that the Buddha 's image had changed shape, with an image in the sky standing on its head. On 3 August, the authorities imposed martial law from 8 pm to 4 am and a ban on gatherings of more than five people. Across Burma, people poured out in thousands to join the protests – not just students but also teachers, monks, children, professionals, and trade unionists of every shade. It
4012-667: The current coup resistance movement to the 8888 Uprising. Before the crisis, Burma had been ruled by the repressive and isolated regime of General Ne Win since 1962. The country had a national debt of $ 3.5 billion and currency reserves of between $ 20 million and $ 35 million, with debt service ratios standing at half of the national budget. In the years leading up to the crisis, General Ne Win had imposed two instances of sudden currency demonetisation that declared certain circulated denominations of currency invalid. These instances led to instantaneous loss of savings for many Burmese citizens and economic instability. On 3 November 1985,
4130-447: The military government officially changed the English translations of many names dating back to Burma's colonial period or earlier, including that of the country itself: Burma became Myanmar . The renaming remains a contested issue. Many political and ethnic opposition groups and countries continue to use Burma because they do not recognise the legitimacy or authority of the military government. The country's official full name
4248-671: The register used and is either Bama ( pronounced [bəmà] ) or Myamah ( pronounced [mjəmà] ). Official United States foreign policy retains Burma as the country's name although the State Department 's website lists the country as Burma (Myanmar) . The United Nations uses Myanmar , as does the ASEAN and as do Australia , Russia , Germany , China , India , Bangladesh , Norway , Japan , Switzerland , Canada and Ukraine . Most English-speaking international news media refer to
4366-456: The young and old all demonstrated. The first procession circled Rangoon , stopping for people to speak. A stage was also erected. Demonstrators from the Rangoon neighbourhoods converged in downtown Rangoon. Only one casualty was reported at this point as a frightened traffic policeman fired into the crowd and fled. (Such marches would occur daily until 19 September.) Protesters kissed
4484-431: The 1947 Constitution, successive military governments construed the use of the term ' federalism ' as being anti-national, anti-unity and pro-disintegration. On 2 March 1962, the military led by General Ne Win took control of Burma through a coup d'état , and the government had been under direct or indirect control by the military since then. Between 1962 and 1974, Myanmar was ruled by a revolutionary council headed by
4602-487: The 1980s. Between 2 and 10 August, co-ordinated protests were occurring in most Burmese towns. In the first few days of the Rangoon protests, activists contacted lawyers and monks in Mandalay to encourage them to take part in the protests. The students were quickly joined by Burmese citizens from all walks of life, including government workers, Buddhist monks , air force and navy personnel, customs officers , teachers and hospital staff. The demonstrations in
4720-593: The 19th century, Burmese rulers sought to maintain their traditional influence in the western areas of Assam, Manipur and Arakan. Pressing them, however, was the British East India Company, which was expanding its interests eastwards over the same territory. Over the next 60 years, diplomacy, raids, treaties and compromises, known collectively as the Anglo-Burmese Wars , continued until Britain proclaimed control over most of Burma. With
4838-471: The 9th century, several city-states had sprouted across the land: the Pyu in the central dry zone, Mon along the southern coastline and Arakanese along the western littoral. The balance was upset when the Pyu came under repeated attacks from Nanzhao between the 750s and the 830s. In the mid-to-late 9th century the Bamar people founded a small settlement at Bagan . It was one of several competing city-states until
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4956-831: The British in the First Anglo-Burmese War . In 1852, the British easily seized Lower Burma in the Second Anglo-Burmese War . King Mindon Min tried to modernise the kingdom and in 1875 narrowly avoided annexation by ceding the Karenni States . The British, alarmed by the consolidation of French Indochina , annexed the remainder of the country in the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885. Konbaung kings extended Restored Toungoo's administrative reforms and achieved unprecedented levels of internal control and external expansion. For
5074-453: The Burmese government declared notes of 20, 50, and 100 kyats invalid, without prior warning to the public. Prior to this, circulated denominations were of 1, 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 kyats. The stated reason for the demonetisation was to combat black market activity. The public was given only a short period of time to exchange their 20, 50, and 100 kyat bills, and only 25% of the value of surrendered bills were reimbursed. On 10 November 1985,
5192-573: The Burmese government established 20 museums which detailed the military's central role throughout Burma's history and the size of the military increased from 180,000 to 400,000. The Burmese government also kept schools and universities closed in order to prevent future uprisings. Initially, Aung San Suu Kyi , U Tin Oo and Aung Gyi publicly rejected the SLORC's offer to hold elections the following year, claiming that they could not be freely held while Burma
5310-690: The Burmese government introduced new denominations of 45 and 90 kyat notes. The 45 and 90 kyat denominations were chosen because the two numbers are divisible by 9, which was considered lucky by Ne Win. Students in particular were angry at the 1987 demonetisation as savings for tuition fees were wiped out instantly. Students from the Rangoon Institute of Technology ( RIT ) rioted throughout Rangoon , smashing windows and traffic lights down Insein Road , and universities in Rangoon temporarily closed. The government later allowed for reimbursement of up to 100 kyat so that students could return home instead of rioting in
5428-873: The Burmese pro-democracy movement. Nineteen years later, many of these same activists also played a role in the 2007 Saffron Revolution . The 88 Generation Students Group , which is named after the events of 8 August 1988, organised one of the first protests which eventually culminated in the Saffron Revolution . But prior to the outbreak of large-scale demonstrations, its members were arrested and given lengthy prison sentences of up to 65 years. The activists who were arrested included prominent individuals such as Min Ko Naing , Mya Aye , Htay Kywe , Mie Mie , Ko Ko Gyi , Pyone Cho, Min Zeyar, Ant Bwe Kyaw, and Nilar Thein . Though not an 88 Generation Students Group member,
5546-584: The Chairmanship – effectively the position of Myanmar's top ruler – from General Saw Maung in 1992 and held it until 2011. On 23 June 1997, Myanmar was admitted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. On 27 March 2006, the military junta, which had moved the national capital from Yangon to a site near Pyinmana in November 2005, officially named the new capital Naypyidaw , meaning "city of
5664-689: The Chindits into the Burmese jungle in 1943. Beginning in late 1944, allied troops launched a series of offensives that led to the end of Japanese rule in July 1945. The battles were intense with much of Burma laid waste by the fighting. Overall, the Japanese lost some 150,000 men in Burma with 1,700 prisoners taken. Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese as part of the Burma Independence Army, many Burmese, mostly from
5782-500: The Chinese side of the border. During the incident, the government of China was accused of giving military assistance to the ethnic Chinese rebels. Clashes between Burmese troops and local insurgent groups have continued, fuelling tensions between China and Myanmar. The military-backed Government had promulgated a "Roadmap to Discipline-flourishing Democracy" in 1993, but the process appeared to stall several times, until 2008 when
5900-608: The Government published a new draft national constitution, and organised a (flawed) national referendum which adopted it. The new constitution provided for election of a national assembly with powers to appoint a president, while practically ensuring army control at all levels. A general election in 2010 - the first for twenty years - was boycotted by the NLD . The military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party declared victory, stating that it had been favoured by 80 per cent of
6018-619: The Navy. Stephen Solarz who had experienced the recent democracy protests in the Philippines and South Korea arrived in Burma in September encouraging the regime to reform, which echoed the policy of the United States government towards Burma. By mid-September, the protests grew more violent and lawless, with soldiers deliberately leading protesters into skirmishes that the army easily won. Protesters demanded more immediate change, and distrusted steps for incremental reform. If
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#17327908527216136-460: The RIT and spread to other campuses. The students, who had never protested before, increasingly saw themselves as activists . There was growing resentment towards military rule and there were no channels to address grievances, further exacerbated by police brutality , economic mismanagement and corruption within the government. By mid-March, several protests had occurred and there was open dissent in
6254-436: The RIT students favoured. A brawl followed in which one youth, who was the son of a Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP) official, was arrested and later released for injuring a student. Students protested at a local police department where 500 riot police were mobilised and in the ensuing clash, one student, Phone Maw , was shot and killed. The incident angered pro-democracy groups and the next day more students rallied at
6372-771: The Restored Hanthawaddy, and by 1759 he had reunited all of Myanmar and Manipur and driven out the French and the British, who had provided arms to Hanthawaddy. By 1770, Alaungpaya's heirs had subdued much of Laos and fought and won the Burmese–Siamese War against Ayutthaya and the Sino-Burmese War against Qing China . With Burma preoccupied by the Chinese threat, Ayutthaya recovered its territories by 1770 and went on to capture Lan Na by 1776. Burma and Siam went to war until 1855, but all resulted in
6490-471: The Shan states were all multi-ethnic polities. Despite the wars, cultural synchronisation continued. This period is considered a golden age for Burmese culture . Burmese literature "grew more confident, popular, and stylistically diverse", and the second generation of Burmese law codes as well as the earliest pan-Burma chronicles emerged. Hanthawaddy monarchs introduced religious reforms that later spread to
6608-408: The Union of Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former secretary to the prime minister, was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations , a position he held for ten years. When the non-Burman ethnic groups pushed for autonomy or federalism, alongside having a weak civilian government at the centre, the military leadership staged a coup d'état in 1962. Though incorporated in
6726-464: The United States embassy – footage caught by a cameraman nearby who distributed the footage to the world's media. Maung described the dead as "looters". Protestors were also pursued into the jungle and some students took up training on the country's borders with Thailand . "I would like every country in the world to recognize the fact that the people of Burma are being shot down for no reason at all." — Aung San Suu Kyi , 22 September 1988 By
6844-437: The army. Various demonstrations were broken up by using tear gas canisters to disperse crowds. On 16 March, students demanding an end to one party rule marched towards soldiers at Inya Lake when riot police stormed from the rear, clubbing several students to death and raping others. Several students recalled the police shouting, "Don't let them escape" and "Kill them!". Following the latest protests, authorities announced
6962-488: The authorities opened fire on the protesters. Ne Win ordered that "guns were not to shoot upwards," meaning that he was ordering the military to shoot directly at the demonstrators. Protesters responded by throwing Molotov cocktails , swords, knives, rocks, poisoned darts and bicycle spokes. In one incident, protesters burned a police station and tore apart four fleeing officers. On 10 August, soldiers fired into Rangoon General Hospital, killing nurses and doctors tending to
7080-544: The charges against her are "politically motivated" according to independent observers. Myanmar is a member of the East Asia Summit , Non-Aligned Movement , ASEAN , and BIMSTEC , but it is not a member of the Commonwealth of Nations despite once being part of the British Empire . Myanmar is a Dialogue Partner of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization . The country is very rich in natural resources , such as jade , gems , oil , natural gas , teak and other minerals , as well as also endowed with renewable energy , having
7198-493: The cities. With the re-opening of schools in late October 1987, underground groups in Rangoon and Mandalay produced dissident leaflets which culminated in bombs exploding in November. Police later received threatening letters from underground groups, who organised small protests around the university campus. Meanwhile, larger protests in Mandalay involved monks and workers, with some burning government buildings and state businesses. Burmese state media reported little on
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#17327908527217316-516: The closure of universities for several months. By June 1988, large demonstrations of students and sympathisers were a daily sight. Many students, sympathisers and riot police died throughout the month as the protests spread throughout Burma from Rangoon . Large scale protests were reported in Pegu , Mandalay , Tavoy , Toungoo , Sittwe , Pakokku , Mergui , Minbu and Myitkyina . Demonstrators in larger numbers demanded multi-party democracy, which marked Ne Win's resignation on 23 July 1988. In
7434-414: The conferences, he detailed a conspiracy in which the right was plotting to overthrow the regime with the assistance of "subversive foreigners" and a conspiracy in which the left was plotting to overthrow the State. Despite the conferences, few believed the government's version of events. While these conferences were going on, the SLORC was secretly negotiating with mutineers . Between 1988 and 2000,
7552-418: The country by the name Myanmar , including the BBC , CNN , Al Jazeera , Reuters , and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation ( ABC )/ Radio Australia . Myanmar is known by a name deriving from Burma in Spanish , Italian , Romanian , and Greek . French-language media consistently use Birmanie . There are at least nine different pronunciations of the English name Myanmar , and no single one
7670-503: The critical days following this disaster, Myanmar's isolationist government was accused of hindering United Nations recovery efforts. Humanitarian aid was requested, but concerns about foreign military or intelligence presence in the country delayed the entry of United States military planes delivering medicine, food, and other supplies. In early August 2009, a conflict broke out in Shan State in northern Myanmar. For several weeks, junta troops fought against ethnic minorities including
7788-543: The emergence of iron-working settlements in an area south of present-day Mandalay . Evidence also shows the presence of rice-growing settlements of large villages and small towns that traded with their surroundings as far as China between 500 BCE and 200 CE. Iron Age Burmese cultures also had influences from outside sources such as India and Thailand , as seen in their funerary practices concerning child burials. This indicates some form of communication between groups in Myanmar and other places, possibly through trade. Around
7906-457: The end of September, there were around 3,000 estimated deaths and unknown number of injured, with 1,000 deaths in Rangoon alone. At this point in time, Aung San Suu Kyi appealed for help. On 21 September, the government had regained control of the country, with the movement effectively collapsing in October. By the end of 1988, it was estimated that 10,000 people, including protesters and soldiers, had been killed. Many in Burma believed that
8024-510: The establishment of the Pagan Kingdom in the 1050s, the Burmese language , culture , and Theravada Buddhism slowly became dominant in the country. The Pagan Kingdom fell to Mongol invasions , and several warring states emerged. In the 16th century, reunified by the Taungoo dynasty , the country became the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia for a short period. The early 19th-century Konbaung dynasty ruled over an area that included modern Myanmar and briefly controlled Assam ,
8142-411: The ethnic border areas, such as Kawthoolei , formed groups with those who sought greater self-determination . It was estimated 10,000 had fled to mountains which were controlled by ethnic insurgents such as the Karen National Liberation Army ( KNLA ), and many of them later trained to become soldiers. After the uprising, the SLORC waged a "clumsy propaganda" campaign against those who had organised
8260-420: The ethnic minorities, served in the British Burma Army. The Burma National Army and the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942 to 1944 but switched allegiance to the Allied side in 1945. Overall, 170,000 to 250,000 Burmese civilians died during World War II. Following World War II, Aung San negotiated the Panglong Agreement with ethnic leaders that guaranteed the independence of Myanmar as
8378-414: The ethnically Bamar central districts of the country serving as the primary geographical setting of conflict. Foreign journalists and visitors require a special travel permit to visit the areas in which Myanmar's civil wars continue. In October 2012, the ongoing conflicts in Myanmar included the Kachin conflict , between the Pro-Christian Kachin Independence Army and the government; a civil war between
8496-486: The fall of Mandalay, all of Burma came under British rule, being annexed on 1 January 1886. Throughout the colonial era, many Indians arrived as soldiers, civil servants, construction workers and traders and, along with the Anglo-Burmese community, dominated commercial and civil life in Burma. Rangoon became the capital of British Burma and an important port between Calcutta and Singapore . Burmese resentment
8614-664: The first Prime Minister and Premier of Burma. Ba Maw was an outspoken advocate for Burmese self-rule, and he opposed the participation of Britain, and by extension Burma, in World War II . He resigned from the Legislative Assembly and was arrested for sedition. In 1940, before Japan formally entered the war , Aung San formed the Burma Independence Army in Japan. As a major battleground, Burma
8732-422: The first time in history, the Burmese language and culture came to predominate the entire Irrawaddy valley. The evolution and growth of Burmese literature and theatre continued, aided by an extremely high adult male literacy rate for the era (half of all males and 5% of females). Nonetheless, the extent and pace of reforms were uneven and ultimately proved insufficient to stem the advance of British colonialism. In
8850-604: The form of cave paintings in Padah-Lin Caves . The Bronze Age arrived c. 1500 BCE when people in the region were turning copper into bronze, growing rice and domesticating poultry and pigs; they were among the first people in the world to do so. Human remains and artefacts from this era were discovered in Monywa District in the Sagaing Region . The Iron Age began around 500 BCE with
8968-497: The formal sector of the economy were nationalised , and the government combined Soviet-style central planning with Buddhist and traditional beliefs and superstition . The 8888 uprising was started by students in Yangon ( Rangoon ) on 8 August 1988. Student protests spread throughout the country. Hundreds of thousands of monks , children , university students , housewives , doctors and common people protested against
9086-596: The four-century-old kingdom in 1287. Pagan's collapse was followed by 250 years of political fragmentation that lasted well into the 16th century. Like the Burmans four centuries earlier, Shan migrants who arrived with the Mongol invasions stayed behind. Several competing Shan States came to dominate the entire northwestern to eastern arc surrounding the Irrawaddy valley. The valley too was beset with petty states until
9204-408: The funeral of U Thant. Student protests in 1975, 1976, and 1977 were quickly suppressed by overwhelming force. In 1988, unrest over economic mismanagement and political oppression by the government led to widespread pro-democracy demonstrations throughout the country known as the 8888 Uprising . Security forces killed thousands of demonstrators, and General Saw Maung staged a coup d'état and formed
9322-530: The general. Almost all aspects of society (business, media, production) were nationalised or brought under government control under the Burmese Way to Socialism , which combined Soviet-style nationalisation and central planning . A new constitution of the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma was adopted in 1974. Until 1988, the country was ruled as a one-party system , with the general and other military officers resigning and ruling through
9440-577: The government held free multiparty elections for the first time in almost 30 years, and the National League for Democracy (NLD), the party of Aung San Suu Kyi, won earning 392 out of a total 492 seats (i.e., 80% of the seats). However, the military junta refused to cede power and continued to rule the nation, first as SLORC and, from 1997, as the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) until its dissolution in March 2011. General Than Shwe took over
9558-427: The government. The uprising ended on 18 September after a bloody military coup by the State Law and Order Restoration Council . Thousands of deaths have been attributed to the military during this uprising, while authorities in Burma put the figure at around 350 people killed. During the crisis, Aung San Suu Kyi emerged as a national icon. When the military junta arranged an election in 1990 , her party,
9676-501: The highest solar power potential compared to other countries of the Great Mekong Subregion. However, Myanmar has long suffered from instability , factional violence, corruption , poor infrastructure, as well as a long history of colonial exploitation with little regard to human development . In 2013, its GDP (nominal) stood at US$ 56.7 billion and its GDP ( PPP ) at US$ 221.5 billion. The income gap in Myanmar
9794-455: The international market. On 5 September 1987, Ne Win announced the demonetisation of the 25, 35, and 75 kyat notes, leaving only the 1, 5, and 10 kyat bills valid. This announcement was also with no prior warning, and this time no exchange for valid tender was allowed. Roughly 60–80% of circulated legal tender was declared invalid without warning, and millions of Burmese citizens had their savings eliminated by this action. On 22 September 1987,
9912-509: The kings". In August 2007, an increase in the price of fuel led to the Saffron Revolution led by Buddhist monks that were dealt with harshly by the government. The government cracked down on them on 26 September 2007, with reports of barricades at the Shwedagon Pagoda and monks killed. There were also rumours of disagreement within the Burmese armed forces, but none was confirmed. The military crackdown against unarmed protesters
10030-627: The late 10th century, when it grew in authority and grandeur. Pagan gradually grew to absorb its surrounding states until the 1050s–1060s when Anawrahta founded the Pagan Kingdom, the first ever unification of the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Pagan Empire and the Khmer Empire were two main powers in mainland Southeast Asia. The Burmese language and culture gradually became dominant in
10148-646: The late 14th century when two sizeable powers, Ava Kingdom and Hanthawaddy Kingdom , emerged. In the west, a politically fragmented Arakan was under competing influences of its stronger neighbours until the Kingdom of Mrauk U unified the Arakan coastline for the first time in 1437. The kingdom was a protectorate of the Bengal Sultanate at different time periods. In the 14th and 15th centuries, Ava fought wars of unification but could never quite reassemble
10266-476: The lost empire. Having held off Ava, the Mon -speaking Hanthawaddy entered its golden age, and Arakan went on to become a power in its own right for the next 350 years. In contrast, constant warfare left Ava greatly weakened, and it slowly disintegrated from 1481 onward. In 1527, the Confederation of Shan States conquered Ava and ruled Upper Myanmar until 1555. Like the Pagan Empire, Ava, Hanthawaddy and
10384-404: The military and the police illegally detained and imprisoned tens of thousands of leaders of the Burmese pro-democracy movement, as well as intellectuals , artists , students , and human rights activists. Pyone Cho , one of the leaders of the uprising, spent 20 years of his adult life in prison. Ko Ko Gyi , another leader of the uprising, spent 18 years of his life in prison . Min Ko Naing
10502-449: The military shoots, it has no tradition of shooting into the air. It shoots straight to kill. On 18 September 1988, the military retook power in the country. General Saw Maung repealed the 1974 constitution and established the State Law and Order Restoration Council ( SLORC ), "imposing more Draconian measures than Ne Win had imposed." After Maung had imposed martial law, the protests were violently broken up. The government announced on
10620-512: The nation became an independent republic, under the terms of the Burma Independence Act 1947 . The new country was named the Union of Burma , with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first president and U Nu as its first prime minister. Unlike most other former British colonies and overseas territories, Burma did not become a member of the Commonwealth . A bicameral parliament was formed, consisting of
10738-607: The party agreed to merge with the MNP. However, a party called the AMRDP contested the 2015 general election, where it won no seats in the national parliament and just one seat in the Mon State Hluttaw . The party's former chairperson Nai Ngwe Thein died on 2 October 2018. This article about a Myanmar political party is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Myanmar in ASEAN (dark grey) – [ Legend ] Myanmar , officially
10856-578: The protest reached rural areas and four days prior to the national protest, students across the country were denouncing Sein Lwin 's regime and Tatmadaw troops were being mobilised. Pamphlets and posters appeared on the streets of Rangoon bearing the fighting peacock insignia of the All-Burma Students Union. Neighbourhood and strike committees were openly formed on the advice of underground activists, many of which were influenced by similar underground movements by workers and monks in
10974-435: The protesters. In Mandalay Division , a more organised strike committee was headed by lawyers and discussion focused on multi-party democracy and human rights. Many participants in the protests arrived from nearby towns and villages. Farmers who were particularly angry with the government's economic policies joined the protests in Rangoon. In one village, 2,000 of the 5,000 people also went on strike. A short while later,
11092-578: The protests, but information quickly spread through the students. After receiving Least Developed Country status from the United Nations Economic and Social Council ( ECOSOC ) in December 1987, government policy requiring farmers to sell produce below market rates to create greater revenue for the government sparked several, violent rural protests. The protests were fanned by public letters to Ne Win by former second in command Brigadier General Aung Gyi from July 1987, reminding him of
11210-517: The protests. Intelligence Chief General Khin Nyunt , held English-language press conferences which were aimed at giving foreign diplomats and the media a favourable account of the SLORC's response to the protests. During this period, more restrictions were imposed upon the Burmese media , denying it the relative freedom to report news which it had been able to exercise at the peak of the protests. In
11328-430: The protests. The 1995 film Beyond Rangoon is a fictionalized drama which is based on the events that took place during the uprising. The uprising led to the death and imprisonment of thousands of individuals. Many of the deaths occurred inside the prisons, where prisoners of conscience were subjected to inhumane torture and deprived of basic provisions, such as food, water, medicine, and sanitation. From 1988 to 2012,
11446-481: The regime would have collapsed if the United Nations and neighbouring countries had refused to recognise the legitimacy of the coup. Western governments and Japan cut aid to the country. Among Burma's neighbours, India was most critical; condemning the suppression, closing borders and setting up refugee camps along its border with Burma. By 1989, 6,000 NLD supporters had been detained and those who fled to
11564-407: The region now known as Myanmar as early as 750,000 years ago, with no more erectus finds after 75,000 years ago. The first evidence of Homo sapiens is dated to about 25,000 BP with discoveries of stone tools in central Myanmar. Evidence of Neolithic age domestication of plants and animals and the use of polished stone tools dating to sometime between 10,000 and 6,000 BCE has been discovered in
11682-476: The rest of the country. Political unification returned in the mid-16th century, through the efforts of Taungoo , a former vassal state of Ava. Taungoo's young, ambitious King Tabinshwehti defeated the more powerful Hanthawaddy in the Toungoo–Hanthawaddy War . His successor Bayinnaung went on to conquer a vast swath of mainland Southeast Asia including the Shan states, Lan Na , Manipur, Mong Mao ,
11800-600: The second century BCE the first-known city-states emerged in central Myanmar. The city-states were founded as part of the southward migration by the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu people, the earliest inhabitants of Myanmar of whom records are extant, from present-day Yunnan . The Pyu culture was heavily influenced by trade with India, importing Buddhism as well as other cultural, architectural and political concepts, which would have an enduring influence on later Burmese culture and political organisation. By
11918-455: The shoes of soldiers , in an attempt to persuade them to join the civilian protest, whilst some encircled military officers to protect them from the crowd and earlier violence Over the next four days these demonstrations continued; the government was surprised by the scale of the protests and stated that it promised to heed the demands of the protesters "insofar as possible". Lwin had brought in more soldiers from insurgent areas to deal with
12036-547: The state-run radio that the military had assumed power in the people's interest, "in order to bring a timely halt to the deteriorating conditions on all sides all over the country." Tatmadaw troops went through cities throughout Burma , indiscriminately firing on protestors. Although an exact body count has not been determined as bodies were often cremated, it is estimated that within the first week of securing power, 1,000 students , monks , and schoolchildren were killed , and another 500 were killed whilst protesting outside
12154-467: The streets of Rangoon became a focal point for other demonstrations, which spread to other states' capitals. Upwards of 10,000 protesters demonstrated outside the Sule Pagoda in Rangoon , where demonstrators burned and buried effigies of Ne Win and Sein Lwin in coffins decorated with demonetised bank notes. Further protests took place around the country at stadiums and hospitals . Monks at
12272-563: The surge in violence post-coup, with more than 3 million people in dire need of humanitarian assistance. The name of the country has been a matter of dispute and disagreement, particularly in the early 21st century, focusing mainly on the political legitimacy of those using Myanmar versus Burma . Both names derive from the earlier Burmese Mranma or Mramma , an ethnonym for the majority Burman ethnic group, of uncertain etymology. The terms are also popularly thought to derive from Sanskrit Brahma Desha , 'land of Brahma '. In 1989,
12390-399: The symbolic colour for democracy was displayed on banners. Two days later, doctors , monks , musicians , actors , lawyers , army veterans and government office workers joined the protests. It became difficult for committees to control the protests. During this time, demonstrators became increasingly wary of "suspicious looking" people and police and army officers. On one occasion,
12508-514: The upper Irrawaddy valley, eclipsing the Pyu , Mon and Pali norms by the late 12th century. Theravada Buddhism slowly began to spread to the village level, although Tantric , Mahayana , Hinduism , and folk religion remained heavily entrenched. Pagan's rulers and wealthy built over 10,000 Buddhist temples in the Pagan capital zone alone. Repeated Mongol invasions in the late 13th century toppled
12626-614: The votes; fraud, however, was alleged. A nominally civilian government was then formed, with retired general Thein Sein as president. A series of liberalising political and economic actions – or reforms – then took place. By the end of 2011 these included the release of pro-democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi from house arrest, the establishment of the National Human Rights Commission , the granting of general amnesties for more than 200 political prisoners, new labour laws that permitted labour unions and strikes,
12744-426: The world's longest-running ongoing civil wars . The United Nations and several other organisations have reported consistent and systemic human rights violations in the country. In 2011, the military junta was officially dissolved following a 2010 general election , and a nominally civilian government was installed. Aung San Suu Kyi and political prisoners were released and the 2015 Myanmar general election
12862-600: The wounded. State-run Radio Rangoon reported that 1,451 " looters and disturbance makers" had been arrested. Estimates of the number of casualties surrounding the 8-8-88 demonstrations range from hundreds to 10,000; military authorities put the figures at about 95 people killed and 240 wounded. Lwin's sudden and unexplained resignation on 12 August left many protestors confused and jubilant. Security forces exercised greater caution with demonstrators, particularly in neighbourhoods that were entirely controlled by demonstrators and committees. On 19 August, under pressure to form
12980-483: Was at this point that she became a symbol for the struggle in Burma , particularly in the eyes of the Western world . Suu Kyi, as the daughter of Aung San , who led the independence movement, appeared ready to lead the movement for democracy. Suu Kyi urged the crowd not to turn on the army but find peace through non-violent means. At this point in time for many in Burma , the uprising was seen as similar to that of
13098-533: Was devastated during World War II by the Japanese invasion . Within months after they entered the war, Japanese troops had advanced on Rangoon, and the British administration had collapsed. A Burmese Executive Administration headed by Ba Maw was established by the Japanese in August 1942. Wingate 's British Chindits were formed into long-range penetration groups trained to operate deep behind Japanese lines. A similar American unit, Merrill's Marauders , followed
13216-503: Was held, leading to improved foreign relations and eased economic sanctions , although the country's treatment of its ethnic minorities , particularly in connection with the Rohingya conflict , continued to be a source of international tension and consternation. Following the 2020 Myanmar general election , in which Aung San Suu Kyi’s party won a clear majority in both houses, the Burmese military (Tatmadaw) again seized power in
13334-432: Was lifted in 2010, when worldwide attention for her peaked again during the making of the biographical film The Lady . The Tatmadaw (Myanmar Armed Forces) again seized control of the country in the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état , which began with the imprisonment of then State Counsellor Aung San Suu Kyi . The coup has led to numerous protests and demonstrations against the military-led government. Activists have compared
13452-450: Was on this day, too, that the junta made its first determined attempt at repression. Soldiers opened fire on the demonstrators and hundreds of unarmed marchers were killed. The killings continued for a week, but still the demonstrators continued to flood the streets. A general strike, as planned, began on 8 August 1988. Mass demonstrations were held across Burma as ethnic minorities, Buddhists , Christians , Muslims , students , workers and
13570-409: Was placed in solitary confinement for nine years for his role as a leader of the uprising. Because the uprising began as a student movement , many of the individuals who were arrested , imprisoned , tortured , and killed by the police and the military were high school and university students . Many of the student leaders of the uprising became lifelong human rights activists and leaders of
13688-425: Was strong, and was vented in violent riots that periodically paralysed Rangoon until the 1930s. Some of the discontent was caused by a disrespect for Burmese culture and traditions. Buddhist monks became the vanguards of the independence movement. U Wisara , an activist monk, died in prison after a 166-day hunger strike. On 1 April 1937, Burma became a separately administered colony of Britain, and Ba Maw became
13806-406: Was under military rule. Today, the uprising is commemorated by Burmese expatriates and citizens. In Thailand , students also commemorate the uprising every 8 August. On the 20th anniversary of the uprising, 48 activists were arrested for commemorating the event in Burma. The event garnered much support for the Burmese people internationally. Poems were written by students who participated in
13924-712: Was widely condemned as part of the international reactions to the Saffron Revolution and led to an increase in economic sanctions against the Burmese Government . In May 2008, Cyclone Nargis caused extensive damage in the densely populated rice-farming delta of the Irrawaddy Division . It was the worst natural disaster in Burmese history with reports of an estimated 200,000 people dead or missing, damages totalled to 10 billion US dollars, and as many as 1 million were left homeless. In
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