Alleva Dairy , established in 1892 and located on Grand Street , in the Little Italy neighborhood of Manhattan , was at the time of its closure on March 1, 2023 the oldest cheese shop in the United States.
129-452: The business was founded by Pino Alleva from Benevento, Italy . In 2014 the business was bought by the actor and onetime boxing manager John Ciarcia (aka Cha Cha and dubbed the unofficial mayor of Little Italy), a cousin of the Alleva family, and his wife Karen King. At one point Tony Danza , the actor, entertainer, and former boxer whom Cha Cha had once managed as a pugilist, was a partner in
258-695: A Roman colony with Latin rights. It was at this time that it first assumed the name of Beneventum, having previously been called Maleventum, a name which the Romans regarded as of evil augury, and changed into one of a more fortunate signification. It is probable that the Oscan or Samnite name was Maloeis , or Malieis (Μαλιείς in Ancient Greek ), whence the form Maleventum would derive, like Agrigentum from Acragas (now Agrigento ), Selinuntium from Selinus (the ruins of which are at now Selinunte ), etc. As
387-533: A bull to their new homeland . Upon reaching this land they sacrificed this bull to Mars . Other Samnite tribes claimed to have been guided by different animals. The Hirpini claimed they were guided by a wolf , and the Picentes claimed to have been guided by a woodpecker . Alternatively, the Samnites may have been connected to Sparta . This legend is possibly apocryphal . It might have been created by
516-476: A distinction between men , who were supposed to be warriors, and women, who were supposed to be "bejeweled". Ancient historians describe the Samnites as a warlike people; however much of this is possibly propaganda. Campanian pottery often depicts Samnite warriors and cavalrymen fighting, while Apulian pottery tends to depict them in a wider variety of circumstances. Pottery from those same cultures also depicts armed men involved with other activities such as burying
645-469: A legio linteata ("linen legion"); this unit used flamboyant equipment to differentiate itself from other Samnite warriors. According to Livy, this legion took an oath to never flee battle inside a linen structure. Scholars believe that this description was designed to highlight the differences between the "civilized" Romans, and the barbaric enemies of Rome. Livy also could have been attempting to try and convey Samnite historical and religious power through
774-496: A status symbol . There were three types of triple-disc cuirasses. The first used bronze to fill the space between the three identical discs. Small rings were attached to this bronze, and side straps were used to hold the armor together. Shoulder straps were also fastened to these small rings. The second type utilized an edge to outline the discs, while the third used plates to depict the heads of religious figures such as Athena or demons . All three types were constructed by placing
903-490: A Caprara, Sant'Angelo a Piesco, San Vitale, Scafa, Serretelle, Sponsilli, Torre Alfieri, and Vallereccia. The economy of Benevento area is traditionally agricultural. Main products include vine , olives and tobacco . The main industry is that of food processing (sweets and pasta), although textile, mechanics, and construction companies are present. The Stadio Ciro Vigorito is a multi-use stadium in Benevento, which
1032-592: A Roman colony Beneventum seems to have quickly become a flourishing place; and in the Second Punic War was repeatedly occupied by Roman generals as a post of importance, on account of its proximity to Campania , and its strength as a fortress. In its immediate neighborhood were fought two of the most decisive actions of the war: the Battle of Beneventum (214 BC), in which the Carthaginian general Hanno
1161-416: A Roman victory. After this bloody conflict, Samnites and other Italic tribes were granted citizenship to avoid the possibility of another war. The Samnites supported the faction of Marius and Carbo in the civil war against Sulla . The Samnites and their allies were led by Pontius Telesinus and a Lucanian named Marcus Lamponius . They gathered an army of 40,000 men and fought a battle against Sulla at
1290-403: A candelabrum of 1311. A marble statue of the apostle San Bartolomeo, by Nicola da Monteforte, is also from the 14th century. The cathedral also contains a statue of St. Giuseppe Moscati , a native of the area. The cathedral was completely destroyed in 1943 because of bombardments: what remained of the cathedral were just the bell tower, the façade and the crypt. Another testimony of the cathedral
1419-466: A disc below and between two upper discs forming a triangular shape. Broad belts made of leather, gold, or bronze were common pieces of armor, and significant to Samnite culture. They were likely dedicated to protecting the abdomen . Samnite belts were made by heating up tin alloys at 800 degrees Celsius . Afterward, work would be performed on the belt at a temperature ranging from 600 to 800 degrees Celsius. Hammers and abrasives were used to grind
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#17327874921671548-510: A half) and Rome (2 hours). The nearest airports are: Samnites The Samnites ( Oscan : Safineis ) were an ancient Italic people who lived in Samnium , which is located in modern inland Abruzzo , Molise , and Campania in south-central Italy . An Oscan-speaking people , who originated as an offshoot of the Sabines , they formed a confederation consisting of four tribes:
1677-539: A large number of graves are not buried with their respective gender's items. Samnite men have been buried with goods typically associated with women, and a few Samnite women have been buried with goods associated with men. Only 3% of men in Campo Consolino were buried with their respective gender's goods, while one in five women were buried with weaponry. Men have also been found buried with domestic goods. This could be explained if these goods were not indicative of
1806-643: A large number of kinship terms. The Greek geographer Strabo wrote that the Samnite civilization originated from a group of Sabine exiles . According to this account, during either a famine , or as part of an attempt to end a war with the Umbrians , the Sabines vowed to hold a Ver Sacrum . As part of this ritual, all things produced that year were sacrificed , including babies . Once these babies had reached adulthood they were exiled, and then guided by
1935-487: A long strap fastened to either the warrior's body or the sword's hilt . Samnite art depicts soldiers receiving swords in ritual ceremonies, and warriors eager to receive swords, implying that short swords were highly valued in Samnite society. Maces were rarer than spears or javelins, yet still common. They had heavy and undecorated iron heads attached to a handle hoisted with a hole or a socket . Axes were rarely used; they may have primarily been symbols of power. There
2064-459: A mosaic floor. The oppus tessellatum style used tesserae to create an appearance resembling weaving. Samnite art was usually colorful, and it often depicted myths, warriors , or Greek subjects. Murals found in Pompeii were designed to create an idyllic sense. Aside from the murals, other works of Samnite art have survived to the modern day. On the walls of a sanctuary at Pietrabbondate there
2193-472: A new location on Polito Avenue in Lyndhurst, New Jersey . Benevento, Italy Benevento ( UK : / ˌ b ɛ n ə ˈ v ɛ n t oʊ / BEN -ə- VEN -toh ; US : / ˌ b eɪ n eɪ ˈ -/ BAY -nay- , Italian: [beneˈvɛnto] ; Beneventano : Beneviento [bənəˈvjendə] ) is a city and comune (municipality) of Campania , Italy, capital of
2322-550: A number of Jews to convert to Christianity . He was reproved for doing that by Pope Alexander II . When Jewish traveller Benjamin of Tudela visited Benevento in 1159 or 1165, he described 200 Jewish families living in it. Being under Papal rule (unlike the rest of southern Italy), the Jewish community of Benevento was not expelled, as most other southern Italy Jewish communities in 1541. Nevertheless, they were expelled from town later on 1569, under Pope Paul IV . In 1617
2451-441: A palace, and the principality continued to be a papal possession until 1806, when Napoleon granted it to his minister Talleyrand with the title of sovereign prince. Talleyrand was never to settle down and actually rule his new principality ; in 1815 Benevento was returned to the papacy . It was united with Italy in 1860. Several popes personally visited Benevento. In 1128 Honorius II tried inviting Roger II of Sicily into
2580-647: A place of strength as the Romans did not venture to attack it during their first two wars with the Samnites; it appears, however, to have fallen into their hands during the Third Samnite War , though the exact occasion is unknown. Benevento was certainly in the power of the Romans in 274 BC, when Pyrrhus of Epirus was defeated in a great battle , fought in its immediate neighborhood, by the consul Manius Curius Dentatus . Six years later (268 BC) they further sought to secure its possession by establishing there
2709-473: A pottery stamp is: Detfri (slave) of Herennis Sattis signed in planta pedis. Throughout the Iron Age Samnium was ruled by chieftains and aristocrats who used funerary displays to flaunt their wealth. During the early third and fourth centuries, the Samnite political system developed into an organization focused on rural settlements led by magistrates. The Samnite settlements, or vici , were at
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#17327874921672838-448: A single unit. Due to corroborating archaeological evidence , other scholars state that it would be "rash" to completely dismiss this entire story. Samnite soldiers wore a small single disc breastplate . This breastplate, called the kardiophylax consisted of straps that passed around the shoulders, chest, and back, and attached around points. Although the triple-disc cuirass offered more protection, this armor continued to be used as
2967-495: A soldier ran out of projectiles, they would throw rocks off the ground. Alongside spears, soldiers would use swords or even hand-to-hand combat . Depictions on pottery, and figurines such as the Capestrano Warrior showcase Samnite soldiers using a kind of Bronze Age sword called an antenna sword . Another kind of sword associated with the Samnite civilization is the short sword . Short swords were carried using
3096-532: A tradeable good, and as a source of food . Transhumance , or the seasonal movement of livestock from summer to winter pastures , was an important aspect of the Samnite economy. Annual short distance transhumance formed the basis of the aristocracy's wealth. Long distance transhumance was practiced between Apulia and Samnium. During the fifth and fourth centuries BC , an increasing population combined with trade links to other Italians contributed to further agricultural and urban development . This change
3225-534: A very wealthy city, and the capital of all the surrounding provinces. Beneventum indeed seems to have been a place of much literary cultivation; it was the birthplace of Lucius Orbilius Pupillus , who long continued to teach in his native city before he removed to Rome, and was honored with a statue by his fellow-townsmen; while existing inscriptions record similar honors paid to another grammarian, Rutilius Aelianus , as well as to orators and poets, apparently only of local celebrity. The territory of Beneventum under
3354-429: Is a circular Lombard edifice dating to c. 760, now modernized, of small proportions, and is one of the main examples of religious Lombard architecture . The plan consists of a central hexagon with, at each vertex, columns taken from the temple of Isis ; these are connected by arches which support the cupola. The inner hexagon is in turn enclosed in a decagonal ring with eight white limestone pillars and two columns next to
3483-763: Is an unidentifiable relief that is possibly an atlas . Another possible work of Samnite or Roman origin in Isernia depicts two helmeted warriors. One example of Samnite figurative art may be the Warrior of Capestrano. The statue was, however, found in Vestini territory and depicts a Picentine warrior. Most Samnite clothes were loose, pinned, draped , folded, and not stitched or sewn . Clothing held symbolic and ritual purposes in Samnite society. For example, clothing indicated social status, and chitons were often used in ceremonies. The most valuable kind of clothing
3612-431: Is little archaeological record of the Samnite shield, as most of the remaining shields have had much of their components destroyed. Samnite art commonly depicts Samnite soldiers using a round shield called an aspis . To carry the shield, two straps were used. One strap was leather, decorated with patterns, and ran vertically over the middle of the shield. Another strap – used to provide a firm grip – ran vertically near
3741-539: Is mostly used as the home venue of Serie B side Benevento Calcio . Benevento is connected to Naples through the modern SS7 Appia state road, and then local roads starting from Arienzo . It is 17 kilometres (11 miles) from the Naples-Bari A16 motorway. The SS372 Telesina state road allows reaching the A1 Naples-Rome, leading to the latter in less than three hours. Benevento railway station , on
3870-456: Is that women were capable of acquiring large amounts of wealth. However, they might have only been capable of displaying their partner's wealth. Artwork and pottery depicting Samnite women showcase them involved in rituals or nearby altars with votive offerings. These rituals usually involve women honoring their husbands through offerings of wine, or possibly praying for their husbands before they leave to fight. The geographer Strabo states that
3999-575: Is the XII century bronze door, the Janua Major, composed of 72 tiles with bas relief, whose fragments were rebuilt after the Second World War. The current monument, with its modern aspect, was completed in 1965 and restored between 2005 and 2012. The castle of Benevento, best known as Rocca dei Rettori or Rocca di Manfredi , stands at the highest point of the town, commanding the valley of
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4128-647: Is unclear what Samnite cities took part in the campaign, or why. They could have wanted its fertile soil , or to alleviate overpopulation . This theory relies on the Samnites having a poor agricultural industry, which is contradicted by other evidence. Alternatively, the Samnites could have wanted access to the Volturno River and other resources . Once Greek hegemony in Italy waned, the Samnites invaded and conquered much of their former land. They conquered cities like Cumae , only failing to take Naples . In
4257-551: Is vouched for by the many remains of antiquity which it possesses, of which the most famous is the triumphal arch erected in honour of Trajan by the senate and people of Rome in 114, with important reliefs relating to its history. Enclosed in the walls, this construction marked the entrance in Benevento of the Via Traiana , the road built by the Spanish emperor to shorten the path from Rome to Brindisi . The reliefs show
4386-541: The Adriatic . After the urbanization of Samnite society, the production of Hellenistic or Italian pottery dramatically increased. Ceramics, pottery, and amphorae often used patterns. The majority of these patterns were trademarks or signatures from the craftsmen. On other occasions, they depicted places such as the island of Rhodes, or named government officials., such as the Meddíss Túvtíks. One example of
4515-632: The Apostle , whose relics are kept there at the Cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta . Benevento, as Maleventum , was one of the chief cities of Samnium , situated on the Appian Way at a distance of 51 kilometres (32 mi) east of Capua on the banks of the river Calor (now Calore). There is some discrepancy as to the tribe to which it belonged at contact: Pliny the Elder expressly assigns it to
4644-735: The Battle of the Caudine Forks (321 BC), the Samnites were subjugated in 290 BC. Although severely weakened, the Samnites would still side against the Romans, first in the Pyrrhic War and then with Hannibal in the Second Punic War . They also fought in the Social War and later in Sulla's civil war as allies of the Roman consuls Papirius Carbo and Gaius Marius against Sulla , who defeated them and their leader Pontius Telesinus at
4773-500: The Battle of the Caudine Forks both sides agreed to an armistice . Fighting resumed in 326 BC. The war ended after a Roman campaign into Apulia and Samnium. Following the end of the war, the Romans annexed Bovianum and Fregellae, and forced the Samnites out of Apulia. In 298 BC, the Third Samnite War broke out due to tension over the Lucanians , who had asked Rome for protection. On another front, treaties between
4902-601: The Battle of the Colline Gate (82 BC). Afterward, they were assimilated by the Romans and ceased to exist as a distinct people. The Samnites had an economy focused upon livestock and agriculture . Samnite agriculture was highly advanced for its time, and they practiced transhumance . Aside from relying on agriculture, the Samnites exported goods such as ceramics, bronze , iron, olives, wool, pottery, and terracottas . Their trade networks extended across Campania, Latium , Apulia , and Magna Graecia . Samnite society
5031-510: The Battle of the Cranita Hills , but after the defeat of Pyrrhus, the Samnites could not resist on their own and surrendered to Rome. Some of them joined and aided Hannibal during the Second Punic War , but most stayed loyal to Rome. After the Romans refused to grant the Samnites citizenship , they, along with other Italic peoples, rebelled against the Romans. This war, known as the Social War , lasted almost four years and resulted in
5160-593: The Caserta - Foggia railway, has fast connections from Rome to Avellino, Bari and Lecce. Trains to Campobasso have been mostly replaced by bus services. The connection to Naples is ensured by three stations on the MetroCampania NordEst inter-urban metro line. Recently, in May 2021, the company Italo also inaugurated its new route that passes by Benevento and connects the city with Milan (in 5 hours and
5289-691: The Colline Gates . After their defeat in the battle, and subsequently the war, Pontius was executed. As a consequence of Sulla's victory and his establishment as dictator of Rome he ordered the punishment of those who had opposed him. Samnites, who were some of the most prominent supporters of the Marians, were punished so severely that it was recorded, "some of their cities have now dwindled into villages, some indeed being entirely deserted." The Samnites did not play any prominent role in history after this, and they were Latinized and assimilated into
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5418-614: The Greeks for an alliance with the Samnites, or to include the Italic peoples within their worldview, and possibly to highlight similarities between the Samnites and Spartans. Archaeological evidence shows that Samnite civilization likely developed from a preexisting Italian culture. After the Etruscans abandoned Campania in the 5th century , the Samnites conquered the region. Cities like Pompeii and Herculaneum were conquered. It
5547-558: The Hirpini , Caudini , Caraceni , and Pentri . Ancient Greek historians considered the Umbri as the ancestors of the Samnites. Their migration was in a southward direction, according to the rite of ver sacrum . Although allied together against the Gauls in 354 BC, they later became enemies of the Romans and fought them in a series of three wars . Despite an overwhelming victory at
5676-532: The Hirpini , while Livy 's wording is somewhat obscure and Ptolemy considers the town as belonging to the Samnites proper, as distinguished from the Hirpini. All ancient writers concur in representing it as a very ancient city, with Gaius Julius Solinus and Stephanus of Byzantium ascribing its foundation to Diomedes — this legend appears to have been adopted by the city's inhabitants, who in
5805-514: The Jewish community was given permission to settle back in town, though 13 years later they were expelled once again after being accused of Well poisoning . Since then, there was no organized Jewish community in Benevento. Nevertheless, Jews had lived in Benevento in an unorganized manner during the past centuries, in addition to a few Israeli Jews living in town in recent years, occasionally suffering of Anti-Semitic incidents. The Arch of Trajan The importance of Benevento in classical times
5934-716: The Po Valley : the duchy would have been founded in 576 by some soldiers led by Zotto , autonomously from the Lombard king. Zotto's successor was Arechis I (died in 640), from the Duchy of Friuli , who captured Capua and Crotone , sacked the Byzantine Amalfi but was unable to capture Naples . After his reign the Eastern Roman Empire had only Naples, Amalfi, Gaeta, Sorrento, the tip of Calabria and
6063-583: The Porta Aurea, on account of its fair proportions and the wealth and excellence of its sculptural adornments. Other considerable remains There are other considerable remains from ancient era: Many inscriptions and ancient fragments may be seen built into the old houses. In 1903 the foundations of the Temple of Isis were discovered close to the Arch of Trajan, and many fragments of fine sculptures in both
6192-521: The Roman Empire is sufficiently attested by existing remains and inscriptions; it was at that period unquestionably the chief city of the Hirpini, and probably, next to Capua, the most populous and considerable city of southern Italy. For this prosperity it was doubtless indebted in part to its position on the Via Appia, just at the junction of the two principal arms or branches of that great road,
6321-559: The University of Sannio and several research institutes . Epigraphical evidence show that a Jewish community had existed in Benevento since the fifth century at least. At the 10th century, Jewish traveller Ahimaaz ben Paltiel describes in his chronicle the Jewish community of Benevento, among other southern Italy towns. One of his relatives established a Yeshiva in town and a large part of his family ended residing in Benevento. In 1065, prince Landulf IV of Benevento forced
6450-508: The Ver Sacrum , all things produced in a particular year would be exiled or offered to the gods. The description of these practices may have been fabricated by Livy for propaganda purposes. Samnite gravesites often contained goods. For example, wealthy individuals had graves with statues or steles. These goods indicated the wealth and status of the individual in life. Burials required that certain practices be observed in order to bury
6579-651: The Vereiia . The Vereiia evolved into a community service group after the Roman conquest. During the Samnite Wars, the army evolved to resemble the armies of Ancient Greek city states . This new system used phalanxes , hoplites , maniples , and cohorts made of 400 men, creating an army flexible enough to fight in mountainous terrain. Low class soldiers began to be conscripted into the army, increasing its size to several thousand soldiers, although these recruits were less skilled and poorly trained. Livy mentions
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#17327874921676708-558: The earthquake of 1688 , and rebuilt in Baroque forms by commission of the then cardinal Orsini of Benevento (later Pope Benedict XIII ). The original forms were hidden, and were recovered only after the discussed restoration of 1951. In 2011, it became a UNESCO World Heritage Site as part of a group of seven inscribed as Longobards in Italy, Places of Power (568-774 A.D.) . The Cathedral of Santa Maria Assunta, with its arcaded façade and incomplete square campanile (begun in 1279 by
6837-525: The imperial period it was supposedly founded by Diomedes after the Trojan War . Due to its artistic and cultural significance, the Santa Sofia Church in Benevento was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2011, as part of a group of seven historic buildings inscribed as Longobards in Italy, Places of Power (568–774 A.D.) . The patron saint of Benevento is Saint Bartholomew ,
6966-469: The kombennio possibly existed. The Kombennio was a democratic organization in Pompeii responsible for electing officials, as well as making laws and enforcing them. Senates were located at the capitals of the Samnite tribes, such as Bovianum, the Pentrian capital. It is unclear if these forms of government existed before the Roman conquest. Despite these democratic institutions, Samnite society
7095-455: The prefectures had little authority over the Samnites. Roman historians believed that Samnite society was highly militaristic. They feared Samnite cavalry and infantry , and nicknamed them Belliger Samnis , which translates to "Warrior Samnites". It is unclear if this portrayal is accurate as most Roman historical accounts of the Samnites were written after this civilization had disappeared. Much of this work could also be propaganda. In
7224-598: The province of Benevento , 50 kilometres (31 mi) northeast of Naples . It is situated on a hill 130 metres (427 feet) above sea level at the confluence of the Calore Irpino (or Beneventano) and the Sabato . In 2020, Benevento has 58,418 inhabitants. It is also the seat of a Catholic archbishop . Benevento occupies the site of the ancient Beneventum , originally Maleventum or even earlier Maloenton . Its former Latin name translates to "good" or "fair wind". In
7353-426: The weight of either the loom weight or the cloth, and possibly the cloth's dimensions . The Samnites also produced amphorae , terracottas, and impasto pottery with black gloss . Protective coating, also called varnish , was used to cover pottery and amphorae. Most amphorae came from Rhodes , and pottery was commonly purchased from Greece . Pottery was also rarely imported from North Africa or areas by
7482-660: The -a- was altered from an -o- during some prehistoric residence in Illyria , he derives the names from an o-grade extension * swo-bho- of an extended e-grade * swe-bho- of the possessive adjective, * s(e)we- , of the reflexive pronoun, * se- , "oneself" (the source of English self ). The result is a set of Indo-European tribal names (if not the endonym of the Indo-Europeans): Germanic Suebi and Semnones , Suiones ; Celtic Senones ; Slavic Serbs and Sorbs ; Italic Sabelli , Sabini , etc., as well as
7611-455: The 11th century saw two more German-descended rulers in southern Italy: Henry II , conquered in 1022 both Capua and Benevento, but returned after the failed siege of Troia . Conrad II obtained similar results in 1038. In these years the three states (Benevento, Capua, and Salerno) were often engaged in local wars and disputes that favoured the rise of the Normans from mercenaries to ruler of
7740-479: The 1990s) by the Christian Democracy . Public sector grew considerably during this period, becoming a prime source of employment for many inhabitants of the province; the town also saw increasing demographic expansion, resulting in a somewhat incontrolled building boom . In recent years, several urban renewal projects have been carried out in the old city centre, and Benevento has become the seat of
7869-630: The Campania. It repeats the formula of the Arch of Titus in the Roman Forum , with reliefs of Trajan 's life and exploits of his reign. Some of the sculptures are in the British Museum . Successive emperors seem to have bestowed on the city accessions of territory, and erected, or at least given name to, various public buildings. For administrative purposes it was first included, together with
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#17327874921677998-491: The Campanians, the latter civilization formed an alliance with the Romans. Igniting war between them and the Samnites in 343 BC. This account of the war's cause is not universally accepted by modern historians. Livy may be writing propaganda or trying to compare this war to other conflicts. After three Samnite defeats and a Roman invasion, the Samnites agreed to sign a peace treaty . There are two accounts of
8127-687: The Egyptian and the Greco-Roman style belonging to it were found. They had apparently been used as the foundation of a portion of the city wall , reconstructed in 663 under the fear of an attack by the Byzantine emperor Constans II , the temple having been destroyed by order of the bishop, St Barbatus , to provide the necessary material (A. Meomartini, 0. Marucchi and L. Savignoni in Notizie degli Scavi , 1904, 107 sqq.). The church of Santa Sofia
8256-638: The Oscan word for Samnium, meaning "cult place of the Safin people . " This became the word for the Samnite people, Safineis . as well as other words in Greek such as Saini , Saineis , Samnītēs, Sabellī, and Saunìtai . These terms likely originated in the 5th century BC and derive from saunion , the Greek word for javelin . At some point in prehistory, a population speaking a common language extended over both Samnium and Umbria . Salmon conjectures that it
8385-594: The Roman Empire was of very considerable extent. Towards the west it included that of Caudium , with the exception of the town itself; to the north it extended as far as the river Tamarus (now Tammaro ), including the village of Pago Veiano , which, as we learn from an inscription, was anciently called Pagus Veianus ; on the northeast it comprised the town of Aequum Tuticum (now Saint Eleutherio hamlet , between Ariano Irpino and Castelfranco in Miscano ), and on
8514-510: The Roman world. Several of their gentes would go on to achieve high distinction, including the Cassii , the Herennii , Pontii and the Vibii . Most of Samnium consisted of rugged and mountainous terrain lacking in natural resources . This resulted in a mixed economy focused on using the small amounts of fertile land to practice highly developed forms of subsistence agriculture , mixed farming , animal husbandry , sheep farming , pastoralism , and smallholdings . The prosperity of
8643-423: The Romans and Picentes caused conflict with the Etruscans. This war came to end after the Samnite defeat at the Battle of Aquilonia . Afterwards, Samnium was conquered and the Samnites were assimilated into Roman society. The Samnites were one of the Italian peoples that allied with King Pyrrhus of Epirus during the Pyrrhic War . After Pyrrhus left for Sicily , the Romans invaded Samnium and were crushed at
8772-446: The Samnite agricultural industry likely resulted in conflicts between them and other civilizations, and possibly one of the causes of the Samnite Wars. The prominence of pastoralism and livestock in the Samnite economy was also a consequence of their homeland's terrain. Horses , poultry , cattle , goats , pigs , and sheep were all common and important kinds of livestock. These animals were valued because they could serve as
8901-451: The Samnite shield was broad near the shoulder and chest, but thinner closer to the feet. Archaeological evidence does not substantiate this idea. Livy possibly mistook the equipment of a Samnite gladiator for that of a Samnite soldier. Superstition dominated Samnite culture. They believed magic could influence reality and practiced augury . Vaguely defined spirits called numina were also prominent in Samnite mythology. It
9030-482: The Samnite tribes in this organization might also be exaggerated; cities could have had more political power . This system of government maintained itself after the Roman conquest of Samnium albeit with some reductions in power. The touto and pagus began to function as miniature Republics, while the vicus remained unchanged. The only interference from the Romans would be that the Municipum held authority over all previous institutions and could override them, while
9159-544: The Samnites began to mint less money . Wool and leather were likely harvested by the Samnites in significant quantities, as evidenced by the numerous loom weights found throughout Samnium. Most loom weights used incised lines, dots, oval stamps, gem impressions, or imprints from metal signet rings to create patterns . Common patterns included pyramids , stars , or dotted or incised cross motifs . Motifs could have been shaped like leaves , flowers , pomegranates , or mythological figures . One loom weight from
9288-1065: The Samnites had two categories for gender, one being adult males, and the other, everyone else. The Samnites possibly practiced ritualized prostitution . Young women of all social standings would engage in sexual activities as a rite of passage . It is possible this practice would transform from a ritual into a profession . The first art style used by the Samnites in Pompeii developed when Greek painters traveled to Italy to paint for local aristocrats . It borrows elements from Greek, Etruscan , and other Italic art . For example, hierarchy of scale , clothing demonstrating status, captions , episodic narratives , and depictions of history were all borrowed from other cultures. Samnite art featured polychrome murals and paintings . The murals usually used black or red cement pavements outlined with designs that ran across tesserae . There were two different styles of tesserae: worm-like, or miculatum , and woven-style, or oppus tessellatum , . Miculatum consisted of inserting marble and terracotta trays into
9417-553: The Samnites would take ten virgin women and ten young men, who were considered to be the best representation of their sex , and marry them. Following this, the second-best women would be given to the second-best males. This would continue until all 20 people had been assigned to one another. It is possible that the "best" men and women were chosen based on athletic capabilities. If any of the individuals involved dishonored themselves, they would be displaced and forcibly separated from their partners. Samnite society may have enforced
9546-426: The Samnites. Spearheads were made from two bronze or iron parts. The upper part was the spearhead proper, and a lower part, which used a tube to hold up the end of a wooden shaft. To fasten the shaft to the spearhead, nails were driven through a hole in the shaft. Tubes were used to fit the spear into a bronze chape , which would protect the wooden shaft. Projectile weaponry was so essential to Samnite tactics that if
9675-543: The Triumvirs to their veterans, and subsequently a fresh colony was established there by Augustus , who greatly enlarged its domain by the addition of the territory of Caudium (now Montesarchio ). A third colony was settled there by Nero , at which time it assumed the title of Concordia ; hence we find it bearing, in inscriptions of the reign of Septimius Severus , the titles Colonia Julia Augusta Concordia Felix Beneventum . Its importance and flourishing condition under
9804-550: The Two Sicilies ( Principato Ultra [ it ] , Molise , Terra di Lavoro , Capitanata ). In the following decades, the town saw considerable expansion and modernization; the local economy became increasingly diversified, with the traditional agricultural sector (especially the cultivation of tobacco and cereals ) being joined by growing confectionery , mechanical, liquor , lumber and brickmaking industries. During World War II , Benevento's key position in
9933-557: The adoption of products and ideas from other cultures such as the Sabines, Latins, and Etruscans. Samnite currency developed in the late fifth and early fourth centuries BC, likely as a consequence of interaction with the Greeks, and war, which created a need for mercenaries . Their bronze or silver currency might have been produced in Naples, and then "ordered" from the city's workshops . Alternatively, Samnite cities might have supplied
10062-408: The alliance to pass legislation , leading men of each tribe would have to unanimously agree before a bill could become a law. Such an alliance was rare, and even if some tribes unified others might refuse to unite with the other tribes. The Frentani was another Italic tribe that might have been included in this alliance, however, their importance to the union might be exaggerated. The relevance of
10191-543: The archbishop Romano Capodiferro) dates from the 9th century. It was rebuilt in 1114, the façade inspired by the Pisan Gothic style. Its bronze doors, adorned with bas-reliefs , are notable example of Romanesque art which may belong to the beginning of the 13th century. The interior is in the form of a basilica , the double aisles carried on ancient columns. There are ambones resting on columns supported by lions, and decorated with reliefs and coloured marble mosaic, and
10320-432: The bottom of the Samnite social hierarchy . They were grouped into cantons called pagi , which were run by an elected official known as a meddiss . The pagi were organized into toutos , which were the Samnite tribes. Each touto was led by an annually elected official with supreme executive and judicial powers called the meddíss túvtiks. Political entities similar to councils, assemblies, or senates such as
10449-536: The cause of the Second Samnite War. Possibly, Rome declared war due to a Samnite alliance with the Vestini and wars against Fregellae and Paleopolis . Additionally, the Romans wished to use the economic prosperity of the city of Venafrum for their own benefit. Conflict may have also emerged because the Samnites desired to solidify their hold over crucial economic positions. After the Roman defeat at
10578-454: The central area of the Biferno river in the neighboring region of Molise , seeking to expand their political dominance. Benevento was acclaimed by a chronicler as a "second Pavia"— Ticinum geminum —after the Lombard capital was lost. This principality was short-lived: in 851, Salerno broke off under Siconulf and, by the end of that century, Capua was independent as well. Benevento
10707-470: The city in order to discuss peace terms, however, Roger refused to enter the city, for he felt unsafe within the city. Thus the two instead met on a bridge near Benevento. Only a year later, the city revolted against the Papal rule and Honorius had to beg Roger for assistance. In 1130, Anacletus II fled from Rome to the safety of Benevento after hearing that his rival, Innocent II was gaining recognition in
10836-478: The civil and military deeds of Trajan. A great part of the arch is decorated with scenes in bas relief: particularly the pillars directed to the town represent scenes of peace and military scenes. The two faces of the Arch are identical in the arrangement of the reliefs. That the reliefs are for the most part not merely fanciful, nor chiefly conventional and decorative in theme and treatment, is also clear at first sight. They plainly refer to actual events and actions in
10965-419: The civil war, Benevento sided with Robert and ousted Anacletus's supporters from the city. Manfred of Sicily lost his life in 1266 in battle with Charles of Anjou not far from the town, in the course of the Battle of Benevento . After the unification of Italy , Benevento was made provincial capital of the new Province of Benevento , comprising territories formerly belonging to the dissolved Kingdom of
11094-636: The dead adequately. Burial was likely a sign of social status as it was rare to be buried, despite the Samnite belief in an afterlife . Sanctuaries were important to the Samnite religion. They served a variety of purposes: they siphoned money off transhumance routes, marked borders, served as centers for communication and places of worship, and played a role in government. Over time, sanctuaries become much less prominent in Samnite culture, and were all abandoned soon afterwards. There were two major roles for Samnite women: domestic and ceremonial. Women would weave , which likely played an important role in
11223-493: The dead or marriage. Differences between male and female graves also support this theory. Men were buried with weapons and armor, while women were buried with domestic goods such as spindles or jewelry . Young adult women were typically buried with coils, pendants, beads, clothing, spindles, and fibulae similar to those worn by boys, possibly meaning that femininity was tied to youth in Samnite culture. Men wore much smaller and less elaborate fibulae, possibly indicating that
11352-407: The early periods of Samnite history, the military consisted of trained warriors led by local leaders. Access to the military (and military equipment) was dependent on one's wealth and status , while poorer and lower status individuals were relegated to work such as agriculture. Samnite soldiers would have been trained in the triangular forum in Pompeii from an early age as part of a group known as
11481-425: The east and south bordered on the territories of Aeclanum (now Mirabella Eclano ) and Abellinum (now Avellino ). An inscription has preserved to us the names of several of the pagi or villages dependent upon Beneventum, but their sites cannot be identified. The city's most ancient coins bear the legend "Malies" or "Maliesa", which have been supposed to belong to the Samnite, or pre-Samnite, Maleventum. Coins with
11610-703: The economy. They also likely exercised a small amount of political power through the symposium , which was a kind of ancient Greek or Etruscan banquet. Other responsibilities included teaching young girls how to dance , childrearing , and possibly managing the household . Relationships between Samnite wives and husbands are unclear. Libation scenes might suggest that a wife was supposed to be dutiful and loyal to her husband . Women may have been expected to be disciplined —in Horace's Odes he complains about women lacking these traits. He possibly based his expectations of women on Samnite customs. Another possibility
11739-523: The ensuing centuries, they would wage more war against the Campanians, Volscians , Epirot Greeks , and other Latin communities. The Samnites and Romans first came into contact after the Roman conquest of the Volscians. In 354 BC, they agreed to set their border at the Liris River . Livy , a Roman historian who serves as a source on the Samnite Wars, states that when the Samnites attacked
11868-509: The entrance. The church has a fine cloister of the 12th century, constructed in part of fragments of earlier buildings. This cloister today is the location of the Museo del Sannio. The church interior was once totally frescoed by Byzantine artists: fragments of these paintings, portraying the Histories of Christ , can be still seen in the two side apses. Santa Sofia was almost destroyed by
11997-443: The future . Samnite priests would manage religious festivals and they could bind people to oaths. Sanctuaries were a major part of the Samnite religion. These might have been used to benefit from trade networks, may have marked the border between territories, and may have been intertwined with government. Samnite sanctuaries may have also been used to reinforce group identity. The Indo-European root Saβeno or Sabh evolved into
12126-593: The helmet's peak. Another type of crest was thin and bushy with long free-flowing ends. Feathers and horns were a common feature of Samnite crests and plumes . Soldiers would don their greaves by resting their leg on a rock whilst using their hands to test the fit of the equipment. This piece of equipment reached down to the ankle and was likely custom-made to fit the owner. There are few depictions of Samnite soldiers wearing graves, implying that they were rarely used outside of rituals and "mock-fights." Projectiles such as spears and javelins were commonly used by
12255-415: The honor of repeated visits from the emperors of Rome, among which those of Nero, Trajan , and Septimus Severus, are particularly recorded. It was probably for the same reason that the triumphal arch , the Arch of Trajan , was erected there by the senate and people of Rome and constructed by the architect Apollodorus of Damascus in 114. The Arch of Trajan is one of the best-preserved Roman structures in
12384-417: The legend "BENVENTOD" (an old Latin – or Samnite – form for Beneventor-um), must have been struck after it became a Latin colony. Not long after it had been sacked by Totila and its walls razed (545), Benevento became the seat of a powerful Lombard duchy . The circumstances of the creation of duchy of Benevento are disputed. Lombards were present in southern Italy well before the complete conquest of
12513-480: The life of Trajan, whose effigy, sometimes decapitated, appears in all but two of them, one of which is the only one on all the Arch that is substantially defective. The height of the monument is of 15.6 metres (51 ft), with an arch of 8 m (26 ft), a structure composed of limestone rocks and a marble covering. The arch was put during the Middle Age in the fenced area of the town, in order to represent
12642-400: The lives of men and women. For example, both have healthy teeth , implying that they had healthy diets with low amounts of carbohydrates . The art depicts groups of both men and women honoring both dead men and women, indicating that Samnite men and women could be honored in similar ways after death. Each gender may have had different, but equally important roles. Another possibility is that
12771-472: The male identity was tied to maturity . The skeletons of men and women also show differences in trauma . Male skeletons found near Pontecagnano Faiano have a cranial trauma rate of 12.9%, while only 8% of female skeletons showed cranial trauma. Another community at Alfedena has male Samnite skeletons with similar rates of cranial injury. This indicates that Samnite men may have been expected to serve as warriors and fight, while women were not. However,
12900-492: The maritime cities of Apulia left in southern Italy. In the following decades, Benevento added some territories to the Roman-Byzantine duchy by conquest, but the main enemy was now the northern Lombard Kingdom itself. King Liutprand intervened several times, imposing a candidate of his own to the realm's succession; his successor Ratchis declared the duchies of Spoleto and Benevento to be foreign countries where it
13029-579: The materials necessary for making currency. Or coins could have been imported from cities that Samnite mercenaries worked for. Such as Taranto . Currency at this time generally depicted places like Allifae , Nola , Philistia , or peoples such as the Campani. These images are associated with the development of the Samnite political structure. Coins may have not been used by individuals, but instead by government institutions to finance administrative tasks. Following this early period of high currency production,
13158-408: The north. When Anacletus created Roger the king of Sicily , he granted Roger the right to conscript the citizens of the city into military service, despite city itself remaining under Papal rule. The declaration was not well received, as the citizens became afraid that the city was about to be annexed into the newly found kingdom. Therefore, when Roger made his move against Robert of Capua and began
13287-415: The one called afterwards the Via Traiana , leading thence by Aequum Tuticum (now Ariano Irpino ) into Apulia ; the other by Aeclanum to Venusia (now Venosa ) and Tarentum (now Taranto ). Its wealth is also evidenced by the quantity of coins minted by Beneventum. Horace famously notes Beneventum on his journey from Rome to Brundusium (now Brindisi ). It was indebted to the same circumstance for
13416-526: The papacy peacefully when the emperor Henry III ceded it to Leo IX , in exchange for the pope's consent to the establishment of the Diocese of Bamberg (1053). Landulf II, Archbishop of Benevento , promoted reform, but also allied with the Normans. He was deposed for two years. Benevento was the cornerstone of the papacy's temporal powers in southern Italy. The papacy ruled it by appointed rectors, seated in
13545-581: The people of the Italian peninsula, others say just the people of Molise . It could also be an adjective used to describe a group of people. It appears on graves near Abruzzo from the 5th century, as well as Oscan inscriptions and slabs in Penna Sant'Andrea . The last known usage of the word is on a coin from the Social War . Safin would go through a series of changes culminating in Safinim ,
13674-736: The person's responsibilities in life, but instead were offerings to the dead. The rarity of certain burial goods could indicate that they were exclusive to high-status individuals. For example, jewelry could be explained as an indication of wealth or femininity. Differences in jewelry between the graves of adolescent and young adult women could be a form of preventative healthcare ; it may have been done to protect them in childbirth . Analysis of skeletons has shown that both genders have fractures , lesions , and injuries, although men have these injuries much more commonly. This difference could be explained by greater amounts of male skeletons than female skeletons. Other skeletons showcase similarities between
13803-520: The railway communications between Rome and Apulia resulted in the town being heavily bombed by the Allied air forces in the summer of 1943. These raids caused 2,000 deaths and left 18,000 homeless out of a population of 40,000, and resulted in the destruction of half of the town. The railway and industrial districts were hit the hardest, but the old city centre also suffered heavily; the Cathedral
13932-554: The required quota of men and money for continuing the war. No mention of it occurs during the Social War , although it seems to have escaped from the calamities which at that time befell so many cities of Samnium; towards the close of the Roman Republic Benevento is described as one of the most opulent and flourishing cities of Italy. Under the Second Triumvirate its territory was portioned out by
14061-644: The rest of the Hirpini, in the second region of Augustus, but was afterwards annexed to Campania and placed under the control of the consular of that province. Its inhabitants were included in the Stellatine tribe. Beneventum retained its importance down to the close of the Empire, and though during the Gothic wars it was taken by Totila , and its walls razed to the ground, they were restored, as well as its public buildings, shortly after; and P. Diaconus speaks of it as
14190-467: The rivers Sabato and Calore, and the two main ancient roads Via Appia and Via Traiana. The site had been already used by the Samnites, who had constructed here a set of defensive terraces, and the Romans, with a thermal plant ( Castellum aquae ), whose remains can be still seen in the castle garden. The Benedictines had a monastery there. It received the current name in the Middle Ages, when it became
14319-1038: The seat of the Papal governors, the Rettori . The castle is in fact made by two distinct edifices: the Torrione ("Big Tower"), which was built by the Lombards starting from 871, and the Palazzo dei Governatori, built by the Popes from 1320. Frazioni , or wards, include: Acquafredda, Cancelleria, Capodimonte, Caprarella, Cardoncielli, Cardoni, Cellarulo, Chiumiento, Ciancelle, Ciofani, Cretazzo, Epitaffio, Francavilla, Gran Potenza, Imperatore, Lammia, Madonna della Salute, Masseria del Ponte, Masseria La Vipera, Mascambruni, Montecalvo, Olivola, Pacevecchia, Pamparuottolo, Pantano, Perrottiello, Piano Cappelle, Pino, Ponte Corvo, Rosetiello, Ripa Zecca, Roseto, Santa Clementina, San Chirico, San Cumano (anc. Nuceriola ), San Domenico, San Giovanni
14448-466: The shield's edge. Alongside aspides , the Samnites possibly used bronze oval shields with pointed ends and incised decorations. It is possible that the Samnites used scuta . It is also possible that the Samnite scutum influenced the Roman shield; however, evidence for this is unclear. Samnite art depicts their soldiers carrying scuta ; however, it is either as trophies taken from the enemy or an attempt to mimic ancient Greek art . Livy states that
14577-508: The shop. In April 2022, it was reported that the store and its owner Karen King was more than $ 500,000 behind in rent because of the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic , leading to widespread coverage of the financial dilemma of the business and possible forthcoming closure. On February 8, 2023, it was announced that the business would close the following month because of a disagreement with its landlord regarding unpaid rent. In September 2022,
14706-473: The store had applied for Chapter 11 bankruptcy , and its lease ended in October. The landlord agreed to forego the overdue rent if the store paid a one-time sum of $ 31,000 and cleared out of the property by March 5, 2023. This brought to an end an occupancy that lasted for more than 130 years. At the time of the closure of its original Manhattan space, owner Karen King announced that Alleva Dairy will open at
14835-425: The strips, giving them the appearance of silver . When making the belts, a thermal treatment was used in repeated cycles to increase the durability of the material . Samnite helmets were based on Greek military equipment —they used cheek guards, crests, and plumes. Crests were usually made by fastening horse tails to a metal piece that hung at the back of the helmet. Rivets could also be used to pin crests to
14964-490: The time of Procopius pretended to exhibit the tusks of the Calydonian Boar as proof of their descent. Sextus Pompeius Festus , on the contrary ( s. v. Ausoniam), related that the city was founded by Auson, a son of Ulysses and Circe , a tradition which indicates that it was an ancient Ausonian city prior to its conquest by the Samnites. It first appears in history as a Samnite city, and must have already been
15093-415: The town of Locri is decorated with a gem impression of a satyr playing the lyre . Numerous pieces of Samnite pottery with Greek words incised into them have been found. These Greek words may have served a variety of possibilities, such as instructing the weaver how to order the threads in the textile patterns, or they could also have marked the piece's quality. The Greek inscriptions may also have stated
15222-434: The tribes and cities functioned independently from one another. Samnite religion worshipped both spirits called numina and gods and goddesses. The Samnites honored their gods by sacrificing live animals and using votive offerings . Superstition was prominent in the Samnite religion. It was believed that magical chants could influence reality, that magical amulets could protect people, and that augurs could see
15351-511: The whole of Southern Italy. The greatest of them was Robert Guiscard , who captured Benevento in 1053 after the Emperor Henry III had first authorised its conquest in 1047 when Pandulf III and Landulf VI shut the gates to him. These princes were later expelled from the city and then recalled after the pope failed to defend it from Guiscard. The city fell to Normans in 1077. It was a papal city until after 1081. Benevento passed to
15480-713: The word Safen , which later became Safin . The word Safin may have been the first word used to describe the Samnite people and the Samnite Kingdom. Etymologically, this name is generally recognized to be a form of the name of the Sabines , who were Umbrians . From Safinim , Sabinus , Sabellus and Samnis , an Indo-European root can be extracted, * sabh -, which becomes Sab- in Latino-Faliscan and Saf- in Osco-Umbrian : Sabini and * Safineis . Some archaeologists believe Safin refers to all
15609-619: Was almost completely destroyed, and its reconstruction was only completed in the 1960s. After being briefly occupied by the Germans in the wake of the Armistice of Cassibile , Benevento was liberated by the Allies on 2 October 1943. Four years after the war, on 2 October 1949, Benevento was hit hard by a flood of the Calore Irpino . During the 1950s Benevento was mainly ruled by Monarchist or MSI mayors, and then for three decades (until
15738-401: Was common Italic and puts forward a date of 600 BC, after which the common language began to separate into dialects. This date does not necessarily correspond to any historical or archaeological evidence; developing a synthetic view of the ethnology of proto-historic Italy is an incomplete and ongoing task. Linguist Julius Pokorny carries the etymology somewhat further back. Conjecturing that
15867-467: Was defeated by Tiberius Gracchus ; the other in 212 BC, when the camp of Hanno, in which he had accumulated a vast quantity of corn and other stores, was stormed and taken by the Roman consul Quintus Fulvius Flaccus . And though its territory was more than once laid waste by the Carthaginians, it was still one of the eighteen Latin colonies which in 209 BCE were at once able and willing to furnish
15996-407: Was essential to establish proper relations with these spirits, which evolved into the Samnite gods and goddesses. Few of these Samnite deities are known. It is known that gods such as Vulcan , Diana , and Mefitis were all worshipped, with Mars being the most prominent in the Samnite religion. To honor their gods, votive offerings and animals would be sacrificed. In a practice known as
16125-694: Was forbidden to travel without royal permission. With the collapse of the Lombard Kingdom in 773, Duke Arechis II was elevated to Prince under the new Frankish Empire , in compensation for having some of his territory transferred back to the Papal States . In November 774, the Duke of Benevento Duke Arechis II , immediately after being crowned prince, decided to send members of the Benevento Cortisani and Baccari families to occupy
16254-648: Was most drastic in Larinum . The city began as a major grain producer with a mill and a threshing floor , and later developed into the hub for all economic activity in the Biferno Valley . The Samnites exported goods such as cereals , cabbages , olives , olive oil , wine , bronze , iron , textiles , legumes , and vines . They also imported materials such as bronze bowls and bucchero from places like Campania, Etruria , Latium , Apulia , and Magna Graecia . These trade networks resulted in
16383-576: Was ruled again by the Byzantines between 891 and 895. The so-called Langobardia minor was unified for the last time by Duke Pandolfo Testa di Ferro , who expanded his extensive control in the Mezzogiorno from his base in Benevento and Capua . Before his death (March 981), he had also gained the title of Duke of Spoleto from Emperor Otto I . However, both Benevento and Salerno rebelled to his son and heir, Pandulf II . The first decades of
16512-527: Was still dominated by a small group of aristocratic families such as the Papii , Statii , Egnatii , and Staii . Each Samnite tribe functioned independently from the others. However, a union similar to the Latin League would occasionally form between the tribes. Such an alliance would be primarily militaristic , with a commander and chief enforcing all laws enacted by the alliance. In order for
16641-399: Was stratified into cantons. Each city was a vicus . Many vici were grouped into a pagus , and many pagi were grouped into a touto . There were four Samnite touto , one for each of the Samnite tribes. Aside from this system of government, a few Samnite cities had political entities similar to a senate . It was rare, although possible, for the Samnites to unify under a coalition; normally
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