A computer program is a sequence or set of instructions in a programming language for a computer to execute . It is one component of software , which also includes documentation and other intangible components.
96-506: AlphaGo is a computer program that plays the board game Go . It was developed by the London-based DeepMind Technologies, an acquired subsidiary of Google . Subsequent versions of AlphaGo became increasingly powerful, including a version that competed under the name Master . After retiring from competitive play, AlphaGo Master was succeeded by an even more powerful version known as AlphaGo Zero , which
192-462: A list of integers could be called integer_list . In object-oriented jargon, abstract datatypes are called classes . However, a class is only a definition; no memory is allocated. When memory is allocated to a class and bound to an identifier , it is called an object . Object-oriented imperative languages developed by combining the need for classes and the need for safe functional programming . A function, in an object-oriented language,
288-422: A programming language . Programming language features exist to provide building blocks to be combined to express programming ideals. Ideally, a programming language should: The programming style of a programming language to provide these building blocks may be categorized into programming paradigms . For example, different paradigms may differentiate: Each of these programming styles has contributed to
384-428: A store which consisted of memory to hold 1,000 numbers of 50 decimal digits each. Numbers from the store were transferred to the mill for processing. The engine was programmed using two sets of perforated cards. One set directed the operation and the other set inputted the variables. However, the thousands of cogged wheels and gears never fully worked together. Ada Lovelace worked for Charles Babbage to create
480-473: A "priceless win that I (would) not exchange for anything." On Rotten Tomatoes the documentary has an average rating of 100% from 10 reviews. Michael Rechtshaffen of the Los Angeles Times gave the documentary a positive review and said: "It helps matters when you have a group of engaging human subjects like soft-spoken Sedol, who's as intensively contemplative as the game itself, contrasted by
576-543: A Go program as powerful as AlphaGo was at least five years away; some experts thought that it would take at least another decade before computers would beat Go champions. Most observers at the beginning of the 2016 matches expected Lee to beat AlphaGo. With games such as checkers (that has been " solved " by the Chinook draughts player team), chess, and now Go won by computers, victories at popular board games can no longer serve as major milestones for artificial intelligence in
672-416: A certain degree of proficiency, it was trained further by being set to play large numbers of games against other instances of itself, using reinforcement learning to improve its play. To avoid "disrespectfully" wasting its opponent's time, the program is specifically programmed to resign if its assessment of win probability falls beneath a certain threshold; for the match against Lee, the resignation threshold
768-529: A collaborating team of five human players. Google DeepMind offered 1.5 million dollar winner prizes for the three-game match between Ke Jie and Master while the losing side took 300,000 dollars. Master won all three games against Ke Jie, after which AlphaGo was awarded professional 9-dan by the Chinese Weiqi Association. After winning its three-game match against Ke Jie, the top-rated world Go player, AlphaGo retired. DeepMind also disbanded
864-415: A combination of machine learning and tree search techniques, combined with extensive training, both from human and computer play. It uses Monte Carlo tree search , guided by a "value network" and a "policy network", both implemented using deep neural network technology. A limited amount of game-specific feature detection pre-processing (for example, to highlight whether a move matches a nakade pattern)
960-534: A computer had beaten a Go professional for the first time ever without the advantage of a handicap. The day after Lee's first defeat, Jeong Ahram, the lead Go correspondent for one of South Korea's biggest daily newspapers, said "Last night was very gloomy... Many people drank alcohol." The Korea Baduk Association , the organization that oversees Go professionals in South Korea, awarded AlphaGo an honorary 9-dan title for exhibiting creative skills and pushing forward
1056-620: A description of the Analytical Engine (1843). The description contained Note G which completely detailed a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers using the Analytical Engine. This note is recognized by some historians as the world's first computer program . In 1936, Alan Turing introduced the Universal Turing machine , a theoretical device that can model every computation. It is a finite-state machine that has an infinitely long read/write tape. The machine can move
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#17327827929391152-565: A documentary film also titled AlphaGo , directed by Greg Kohs. The win by AlphaGo was chosen by Science as one of the Breakthrough of the Year runners-up on 22 December 2016. At the 2017 Future of Go Summit , the Master version of AlphaGo beat Ke Jie , the number one ranked player in the world at the time, in a three-game match , after which AlphaGo was awarded professional 9-dan by
1248-497: A five-game match , the first time a computer Go program has beaten a 9-dan professional without handicap. Although it lost to Lee Sedol in the fourth game, Lee resigned in the final game, giving a final score of 4 games to 1 in favour of AlphaGo. In recognition of the victory, AlphaGo was awarded an honorary 9-dan by the Korea Baduk Association . The lead up and the challenge match with Lee Sedol were documented in
1344-524: A former professional Go player, described this documentary as being "beautifully filmed". In addition to the story itself, the feelings and atmosphere were also conveyed through different scene arrangements. For example, the close-up shots of Lee Sedol when he realizes that the AlphaGo AI is intelligent, the atmospheric scene of the Korean commentator's distress and affliction following the first defeat, and
1440-515: A fourth win, winning the fifth game by resignation. The prize was US$ 1 million. Since AlphaGo won four out of five and thus the series, the prize will be donated to charities, including UNICEF . Lee Sedol received $ 150,000 for participating in all five games and an additional $ 20,000 for his win in Game 4. In June 2016, at a presentation held at a university in the Netherlands, Aja Huang, one of
1536-674: A good opportunity for society to start preparing for the possible future impact of machines with general purpose intelligence . As noted by entrepreneur Guy Suter, AlphaGo only knows how to play Go and doesn't possess general-purpose intelligence; "[It] couldn't just wake up one morning and decide it wants to learn how to use firearms." AI researcher Stuart Russell said that AI systems such as AlphaGo have progressed quicker and become more powerful than expected, and we must therefore develop methods to ensure they "remain under human control". Some scholars, such as Stephen Hawking , warned (in May 2015 before
1632-435: A human plays before challenging it to play versions of itself thousands of times, a novel form of reinforcement learning which had given it the ability to rival an expert human. History had been made, and centuries of received learning overturned in the process. The program was free to learn the game for itself. James Vincent, a reporter from The Verge, comments that "It prods and pokes viewers with unsubtle emotional cues, like
1728-584: A language's basic syntax . The syntax of the language BASIC (1964) was intentionally limited to make the language easy to learn. For example, variables are not declared before being used. Also, variables are automatically initialized to zero. Here is an example computer program, in Basic, to average a list of numbers: Once the mechanics of basic computer programming are learned, more sophisticated and powerful languages are available to build large computer systems. Improvements in software development are
1824-401: A lot of opening moves that have never or seldom been made by humans. It likes to use shoulder hits , especially if the opponent is over concentrated. AlphaGo's March 2016 victory was a major milestone in artificial intelligence research. Go had previously been regarded as a hard problem in machine learning that was expected to be out of reach for the technology of the time. Most experts thought
1920-521: A profound influence on programming language design. Emerging from a committee of European and American programming language experts, it used standard mathematical notation and had a readable, structured design. Algol was first to define its syntax using the Backus–Naur form . This led to syntax-directed compilers. It added features like: Algol's direct descendants include Pascal , Modula-2 , Ada , Delphi and Oberon on one branch. On another branch
2016-560: A reality TV show would. "Now, you should be nervous; now you should feel relieved". The AlphaGo footage slowly captures the moment when Lee Sedol acknowledges the true power of AlphaGo AI. In the first game, he had more experience than his human-programmed AI, so he thought it would be easy to beat the AI. However, the early game dynamics were not what he expected. After losing the first match, he became more nervous and lost confidence. Afterward, he reacted to attacks by saying that he just wanted to win
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#17327827929392112-572: A result, the computer could be programmed quickly and perform calculations at very fast speeds. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly built the ENIAC. The two engineers introduced the stored-program concept in a three-page memo dated February 1944. Later, in September 1944, John von Neumann began working on the ENIAC project. On June 30, 1945, von Neumann published the First Draft of a Report on
2208-519: A single computer. The distributed version in October 2015 was using 1,202 CPUs and 176 GPUs . In October 2015, the distributed version of AlphaGo defeated the European Go champion Fan Hui , a 2-dan (out of 9 dan possible) professional, five to zero. This was the first time a computer Go program had beaten a professional human player on a full-sized board without handicap. The announcement of
2304-521: A strong player against other computer Go programs, as of early 2016, it had not yet defeated a professional human player. Darkforest has lost to CrazyStone and Zen and is estimated to be of similar strength to CrazyStone and Zen. DeepZenGo , a system developed with support from video-sharing website Dwango and the University of Tokyo , lost 2–1 in November 2016 to Go master Cho Chikun , who holds
2400-430: Is "an involving sports-rivalry doc with an AI twist." "In the end, observers wonder if AlphaGo's odd variety of intuition might not kill Go as an intellectual pursuit but shift its course, forcing the game's scholars to consider it from new angles. So maybe it isn't time to welcome our computer overlords, and won't be for a while - maybe they'll teach us to be better thinkers before turning us into their slaves." Greg Kohs,
2496-631: Is an extraordinary game but it represents what we can do with AI in all kinds of other spheres," says Murray Shanahan, professor of cognitive robotics at Imperial College London and senior research scientist at DeepMind, says. "In just the same way there are all kinds of realms of possibility within Go that have not been discovered, we could never have imagined the potential for discovering drugs and other materials." Facebook has also been working on its own Go-playing system darkforest , also based on combining machine learning and Monte Carlo tree search . Although
2592-455: Is applied to the input before it is sent to the neural networks. The networks are convolutional neural networks with 12 layers, trained by reinforcement learning . The system's neural networks were initially bootstrapped from human gameplay expertise. AlphaGo was initially trained to mimic human play by attempting to match the moves of expert players from recorded historical games, using a database of around 30 million moves. Once it had reached
2688-418: Is assigned to a class. An assigned function is then referred to as a method , member function , or operation . Object-oriented programming is executing operations on objects . Object-oriented languages support a syntax to model subset/superset relationships. In set theory , an element of a subset inherits all the attributes contained in the superset. For example, a student is a person. Therefore,
2784-399: Is called an executable . Alternatively, source code may execute within an interpreter written for the language. If the executable is requested for execution, then the operating system loads it into memory and starts a process . The central processing unit will soon switch to this process so it can fetch, decode, and then execute each machine instruction. If the source code
2880-402: Is requested for execution, then the operating system loads the corresponding interpreter into memory and starts a process. The interpreter then loads the source code into memory to translate and execute each statement . Running the source code is slower than running an executable . Moreover, the interpreter must be installed on the computer. The "Hello, World!" program is used to illustrate
2976-553: Is to alter the electrical resistivity and conductivity of a semiconductor junction . First, naturally occurring silicate minerals are converted into polysilicon rods using the Siemens process . The Czochralski process then converts the rods into a monocrystalline silicon , boule crystal . The crystal is then thinly sliced to form a wafer substrate . The planar process of photolithography then integrates unipolar transistors, capacitors , diodes , and resistors onto
AlphaGo - Misplaced Pages Continue
3072-439: Is trained to identify the best moves and the winning percentages of these moves. This neural network improves the strength of the tree search, resulting in stronger move selection in the next iteration. In October 2015, in a match against Fan Hui , the original AlphaGo became the first computer Go program to beat a human professional Go player without handicap on a full-sized 19×19 board. In March 2016, it beat Lee Sedol in
3168-455: The 1997 match , the strongest Go programs using artificial intelligence techniques only reached about amateur 5-dan level, and still could not beat a professional Go player without a handicap . In 2012, the software program Zen , running on a four PC cluster, beat Masaki Takemiya ( 9p ) twice at five- and four-stone handicaps. In 2013, Crazy Stone beat Yoshio Ishida (9p) at a four-stone handicap. According to DeepMind's David Silver ,
3264-904: The Chinese Weiqi Association . After the match between AlphaGo and Ke Jie, DeepMind retired AlphaGo, while continuing AI research in other areas. The self-taught AlphaGo Zero achieved a 100–0 victory against the early competitive version of AlphaGo, and its successor AlphaZero was perceived as the world's top player in Go by the end of the 2010s. Go is considered much more difficult for computers to win than other games such as chess , because its strategic and aesthetic nature makes it hard to directly construct an evaluation function, and its much larger branching factor makes it prohibitively difficult to use traditional AI methods such as alpha–beta pruning , tree traversal and heuristic search. Almost two decades after IBM 's computer Deep Blue beat world chess champion Garry Kasparov in
3360-624: The IBM System/360 (1964) had a CPU made from circuit boards containing discrete components on ceramic substrates . The Intel 4004 (1971) was a 4- bit microprocessor designed to run the Busicom calculator. Five months after its release, Intel released the Intel 8008 , an 8-bit microprocessor. Bill Pentz led a team at Sacramento State to build the first microcomputer using the Intel 8008:
3456-485: The Sac State 8008 (1972). Its purpose was to store patient medical records. The computer supported a disk operating system to run a Memorex , 3- megabyte , hard disk drive . It had a color display and keyboard that was packaged in a single console. The disk operating system was programmed using IBM's Basic Assembly Language (BAL) . The medical records application was programmed using a BASIC interpreter. However,
3552-550: The circuits . At its core, it was a series of Pascalines wired together. Its 40 units weighed 30 tons, occupied 1,800 square feet (167 m ), and consumed $ 650 per hour ( in 1940s currency ) in electricity when idle. It had 20 base-10 accumulators . Programming the ENIAC took up to two months. Three function tables were on wheels and needed to be rolled to fixed function panels. Function tables were connected to function panels by plugging heavy black cables into plugboards . Each function table had 728 rotating knobs. Programming
3648-404: The programming environment to advance from a computer terminal (until the 1990s) to a graphical user interface (GUI) computer. Computer terminals limited programmers to a single shell running in a command-line environment . During the 1970s, full-screen source code editing became possible through a text-based user interface . Regardless of the technology available, the goal is to program in
3744-490: The 2016 matches were watched by perhaps a hundred million people worldwide. Many top Go players characterized AlphaGo's unorthodox plays as seemingly-questionable moves that initially befuddled onlookers, but made sense in hindsight: "All but the very best Go players craft their style by imitating top players. AlphaGo seems to have totally original moves it creates itself." AlphaGo appeared to have unexpectedly become much stronger, even when compared with its October 2015 match where
3840-605: The AlphaGo match against Lee Sedol. In the Future of Go Summit in May 2017, DeepMind disclosed that the version of AlphaGo used in this Summit was AlphaGo Master , and revealed that it had measured the strength of different versions of the software. AlphaGo Lee, the version used against Lee, could give AlphaGo Fan, the version used in AlphaGo vs. Fan Hui, three stones, and AlphaGo Master was even three stones stronger. 89:11 against AlphaGo Master As of 2016, AlphaGo's algorithm uses
3936-496: The AlphaGo research project was formed around 2014 to test how well a neural network using deep learning can compete at Go. AlphaGo represents a significant improvement over previous Go programs. In 500 games against other available Go programs, including Crazy Stone and Zen, AlphaGo running on a single computer won all but one. In a similar matchup, AlphaGo running on multiple computers won all 500 games played against other Go programs, and 77% of games played against AlphaGo running on
AlphaGo - Misplaced Pages Continue
4032-591: The Deep Mind team, revealed that they had patched the logical weakness that occurred during the 4th game of the match between AlphaGo and Lee, and that after move 78 (which was dubbed the " divine move " by many professionals), it would play as intended and maintain Black's advantage. Before move 78, AlphaGo was leading throughout the game, but Lee's move caused the program's computing powers to be diverted and confused. Huang explained that AlphaGo's policy network of finding
4128-502: The EDVAC , which equated the structures of the computer with the structures of the human brain. The design became known as the von Neumann architecture . The architecture was simultaneously deployed in the constructions of the EDVAC and EDSAC computers in 1949. The IBM System/360 (1964) was a family of computers, each having the same instruction set architecture . The Model 20 was
4224-433: The ENIAC also involved setting some of the 3,000 switches. Debugging a program took a week. It ran from 1947 until 1955 at Aberdeen Proving Ground , calculating hydrogen bomb parameters, predicting weather patterns, and producing firing tables to aim artillery guns. Instead of plugging in cords and turning switches, a stored-program computer loads its instructions into memory just like it loads its data into memory. As
4320-565: The IJCAI Awards Committee. "What particularly impressed IJCAI was that AlphaGo achieves what it does through a brilliant combination of classic AI techniques as well as the state-of-the-art machine learning techniques that DeepMind is so closely associated with. It's a breathtaking demonstration of contemporary AI, and we are delighted to be able to recognise it with this award." Go is a popular game in China, Japan and Korea, and
4416-647: The byo-yomi to one minute when playing with Nie Weiping in consideration of his age. After winning its 59th game Master revealed itself in the chatroom to be controlled by Dr. Aja Huang of the DeepMind team, then changed its nationality to the United Kingdom. After these games were completed, the co-founder of DeepMind , Demis Hassabis , said in a tweet, "we're looking forward to playing some official, full-length games later [2017] in collaboration with Go organizations and experts". Go experts were impressed by
4512-640: The cheaper Intel 8088 . IBM embraced the Intel 8088 when they entered the personal computer market (1981). As consumer demand for personal computers increased, so did Intel's microprocessor development. The succession of development is known as the x86 series . The x86 assembly language is a family of backward-compatible machine instructions . Machine instructions created in earlier microprocessors were retained throughout microprocessor upgrades. This enabled consumers to purchase new computers without having to purchase new application software . The major categories of instructions are: VLSI circuits enabled
4608-419: The computer was an evolutionary dead-end because it was extremely expensive. Also, it was built at a public university lab for a specific purpose. Nonetheless, the project contributed to the development of the Intel 8080 (1974) instruction set . In 1978, the modern software development environment began when Intel upgraded the Intel 8080 to the Intel 8086 . Intel simplified the Intel 8086 to manufacture
4704-549: The configuration, an execute button was pressed. This process was then repeated. Computer programs also were automatically inputted via paper tape , punched cards or magnetic-tape . After the medium was loaded, the starting address was set via switches, and the execute button was pressed. A major milestone in software development was the invention of the Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) circuit (1964). Following World War II , tube-based technology
4800-434: The descendants include C , C++ and Java . BASIC (1964) stands for "Beginner's All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code". It was developed at Dartmouth College for all of their students to learn. If a student did not go on to a more powerful language, the student would still remember Basic. A Basic interpreter was installed in the microcomputers manufactured in the late 1970s. As the microcomputer industry grew, so did
4896-494: The director of the film, said "The complexity of the game of Go, combined with the technical depth of an emerging technology like artificial intelligence seemed like it might create an insurmountable barrier for a film like this. The fact that I was so innocently unaware of Go and AlphaGo actually proved to be beneficial. It allowed me to approach the action and interviews with pure curiosity, the kind that helps make any subject matter emotionally accessible." Kohs also said that "Unlike
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#17327827929394992-563: The film's human characters – who turn their curious quest for knowledge into an epic spectacle with great existential implications, who dare to risk their reputation and pride to contest that curiosity – AI might not yet possess the ability to empathize. But it can teach us profound things about our humanness – the way we play board games, the way we think and feel and grow. It's a deep, vast premise, but my hope is, by sharing it, we can discover something within ourselves we never saw before". Hajin Lee,
5088-460: The first Fortran standard in 1966. In 1978, Fortran 77 became the standard until 1991. Fortran 90 supports: COBOL (1959) stands for "COmmon Business Oriented Language". Fortran manipulated symbols. It was soon realized that symbols did not need to be numbers, so strings were introduced. The US Department of Defense influenced COBOL's development, with Grace Hopper being a major contributor. The statements were English-like and verbose. The goal
5184-446: The forces of automation we'll face will be impersonal and incomprehensible. They'll come in the form of star ratings we can't object to, and algorithms we can't fully understand. Dealing with the problems of AI will take a perspective that looks beyond individual battles. AlphaGo is worth seeing because it raises these questions" (Vincent, 2017) Murray Shanahan, a professor of cognitive robotics at Imperial College London, critics that "Go
5280-492: The fourth game which made him recorded as the only human player who beat AlphaGo in all of its 74 official games. AlphaGo ran on Google's cloud computing with its servers located in the United States. The match used Chinese rules with a 7.5-point komi , and each side had two hours of thinking time plus three 60-second byoyomi periods. The version of AlphaGo playing against Lee used a similar amount of computing power as
5376-521: The fourth match. Toby Manning, the referee of AlphaGo's match against Fan Hui, and Hajin Lee, secretary general of the International Go Federation , both reason that in the future, Go players will get help from computers to learn what they have done wrong in games and improve their skills. After game two, Lee said he felt "speechless": "From the very beginning of the match, I could never manage an upper hand for one single move. It
5472-457: The game's progress. China's Ke Jie , an 18-year-old generally recognized as the world's best Go player at the time, initially claimed that he would be able to beat AlphaGo, but declined to play against it for fear that it would "copy my style". As the matches progressed, Ke Jie went back and forth, stating that "it is highly likely that I (could) lose" after analysing the first three matches, but regaining confidence after AlphaGo displayed flaws in
5568-479: The language BCPL was replaced with B , and AT&T Bell Labs called the next version "C". Its purpose was to write the UNIX operating system . C is a relatively small language, making it easy to write compilers. Its growth mirrored the hardware growth in the 1980s. Its growth also was because it has the facilities of assembly language , but uses a high-level syntax . It added advanced features like: C allows
5664-400: The language. Basic pioneered the interactive session . It offered operating system commands within its environment: However, the Basic syntax was too simple for large programs. Recent dialects added structure and object-oriented extensions. Microsoft's Visual Basic is still widely used and produces a graphical user interface . C programming language (1973) got its name because
5760-464: The match, unintentionally displaying his anger, and acting in an unusual way. Also, he spends 12 minutes on one move, while AlphaGo only takes a minute and a half to respond. AlphaGo weighs each alternative equally and consistently. No reaction to Lee's fight. Instead, the game continues as if he was not there. James also said that "suffice to say that humanity does land at least one blow on the machines, through Lee's so-called "divine move". "More likely,
5856-557: The matches) that some future self-improving AI could gain actual general intelligence, leading to an unexpected AI takeover ; other scholars disagree: AI expert Jean-Gabriel Ganascia believes that "Things like ' common sense '... may never be reproducible", and says "I don't see why we would speak about fears. On the contrary, this raises hopes in many domains such as health and space exploration." Computer scientist Richard Sutton said "I don't think people should be scared... but I do think people should be paying attention." In China, AlphaGo
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#17327827929395952-485: The matrix was to burn out the unneeded connections. There were so many connections, firmware programmers wrote a computer program on another chip to oversee the burning. The technology became known as Programmable ROM . In 1971, Intel installed the computer program onto the chip and named it the Intel 4004 microprocessor . The terms microprocessor and central processing unit (CPU) are now used interchangeably. However, CPUs predate microprocessors. For example,
6048-468: The most accurate move order and continuation did not precisely guide AlphaGo to make the correct continuation after move 78, since its value network did not determine Lee's 78th move as being the most likely, and therefore when the move was made AlphaGo could not make the right adjustment to the logical continuation. On 29 December 2016, a new account on the Tygem server named "Magister" (shown as 'Magist' at
6144-579: The news was delayed until 27 January 2016 to coincide with the publication of a paper in the journal Nature describing the algorithms used. AlphaGo played South Korean professional Go player Lee Sedol , ranked 9-dan, one of the best players at Go, with five games taking place at the Four Seasons Hotel in Seoul , South Korea on 9, 10, 12, 13, and 15 March 2016, which were video-streamed live. Out of five games, AlphaGo won four games and Lee won
6240-534: The openings include human move suggestions. An early version of AlphaGo was tested on hardware with various numbers of CPUs and GPUs , running in asynchronous or distributed mode. Two seconds of thinking time was given to each move. The resulting Elo ratings are listed below. In the matches with more time per move higher ratings are achieved. In May 2016, Google unveiled its own proprietary hardware " tensor processing units ", which it stated had already been deployed in multiple internal projects at Google, including
6336-443: The primitive level of top Go A.I.s before AlphaGo, and more about professional Go players' lives and pride, to provide more context for Lee Sedol's pre-match confidence, and Go players' changing perception of AlphaGo as the match advanced".(Lee, 2017). Fan Hui, a professional Go player, and former player with AlphaGo said that "DeepMind had trained AlphaGo by showing it many strong amateur games of Go to develop its understanding of how
6432-617: The program's performance and its nonhuman play style; Ke Jie stated that "After humanity spent thousands of years improving our tactics, computers tell us that humans are completely wrong... I would go as far as to say not a single human has touched the edge of the truth of Go." In the Future of Go Summit held in Wuzhen in May 2017, AlphaGo Master played three games with Ke Jie, the world No.1 ranked player, as well as two games with several top Chinese professionals, one pair Go game and one against
6528-443: The programmer to control which region of memory data is to be stored. Global variables and static variables require the fewest clock cycles to store. The stack is automatically used for the standard variable declarations . Heap memory is returned to a pointer variable from the malloc() function. In the 1970s, software engineers needed language support to break large projects down into modules . One obvious feature
6624-534: The record for the largest number of Go title wins in Japan. A 2018 paper in Nature cited AlphaGo's approach as the basis for a new means of computing potential pharmaceutical drug molecules. Systems consisting of Monte Carlo tree search guided by neural networks have since been explored for a wide array of applications. AlphaGo Master (white) v. Tang Weixing (31 December 2016), AlphaGo won by resignation. White 36
6720-494: The result of improvements in computer hardware . At each stage in hardware's history, the task of computer programming changed dramatically. In 1837, Jacquard's loom inspired Charles Babbage to attempt to build the Analytical Engine . The names of the components of the calculating device were borrowed from the textile industry. In the textile industry, yarn was brought from the store to be milled. The device had
6816-593: The server's Chinese version) from South Korea began to play games with professional players. It changed its account name to "Master" on 30 December, then moved to the FoxGo server on 1 January 2017. On 4 January, DeepMind confirmed that the "Magister" and the "Master" were both played by an updated version of AlphaGo, called AlphaGo Master . As of 5 January 2017, AlphaGo Master's online record was 60 wins and 0 losses, including three victories over Go's top-ranked player, Ke Jie , who had been quietly briefed in advance that Master
6912-438: The set of students is a subset of the set of persons. As a result, students inherit all the attributes common to all persons. Additionally, students have unique attributes that other people do not have. Object-oriented languages model subset/superset relationships using inheritance . Object-oriented programming became the dominant language paradigm by the late 1990s. C++ (1985) was originally called "C with Classes". It
7008-467: The smallest and least expensive. Customers could upgrade and retain the same application software . The Model 195 was the most premium. Each System/360 model featured multiprogramming —having multiple processes in memory at once. When one process was waiting for input/output , another could compute. IBM planned for each model to be programmed using PL/1 . A committee was formed that included COBOL , Fortran and ALGOL programmers. The purpose
7104-430: The sources. While he was ranked top sometimes, some sources ranked Lee Sedol as the fourth-best player in the world at the time. AlphaGo was not specifically trained to face Lee nor was designed to compete with any specific human players. The first three games were won by AlphaGo following resignations by Lee. However, Lee beat AlphaGo in the fourth game, winning by resignation at move 180. AlphaGo then continued to achieve
7200-526: The spirited, personable Fan Hui, the Paris-based European champ who accepts an offer to serve as an advisor for the DeepMind team after suffering a demoralizing AI trouncing". He also mentioned that with the passion of Hauschka's Volker Bertelmann, the film's producer, this documentary shows many unexpected sequences, including strategic and philosophical components. (Rechtshaffen, 2017 John Defore of The Hollywood Reporter , wrote this documentary
7296-830: The strength of AlphaGo Lee in three days by winning 100 games to 0, reached the level of AlphaGo Master in 21 days, and exceeded all the old versions in 40 days. In a paper released on arXiv on 5 December 2017, DeepMind claimed that it generalized AlphaGo Zero's approach into a single AlphaZero algorithm, which achieved within 24 hours a superhuman level of play in the games of chess , shogi , and Go by defeating world-champion programs, Stockfish , Elmo , and 3-day version of AlphaGo Zero in each case. On 11 December 2017, DeepMind released an AlphaGo teaching tool on its website to analyze winning rates of different Go openings as calculated by AlphaGo Master . The teaching tool collects 6,000 Go openings from 230,000 human games each analyzed with 10,000,000 simulations by AlphaGo Master. Many of
7392-430: The synthesis of different programming languages . A programming language is a set of keywords , symbols , identifiers , and rules by which programmers can communicate instructions to the computer. They follow a set of rules called a syntax . Programming languages get their basis from formal languages . The purpose of defining a solution in terms of its formal language is to generate an algorithm to solve
7488-447: The tape back and forth, changing its contents as it performs an algorithm . The machine starts in the initial state, goes through a sequence of steps, and halts when it encounters the halt state. All present-day computers are Turing complete . The Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer (ENIAC) was built between July 1943 and Fall 1945. It was a Turing complete , general-purpose computer that used 17,468 vacuum tubes to create
7584-496: The team that worked on the game to focus on AI research in other areas. After the Summit, Deepmind published 50 full length AlphaGo vs AlphaGo matches, as a gift to the Go community. AlphaGo's team published an article in the journal Nature on 19 October 2017, introducing AlphaGo Zero, a version without human data and stronger than any previous human-champion-defeating version. By playing games against itself, AlphaGo Zero surpassed
7680-580: The tension being held inside the room. The documentary also tells a story by describing the background of AlphaGo technology and the customs of the Korean Go community. She suggests some areas to be covered additionally. For instance, the details of the AI prior to AlphaGo, the confidence and pride of the professional Go players, and the shifting of perspective to the Go AI between and after the match as "If anything could be added, I would include information about
7776-561: The underlining problem. An algorithm is a sequence of simple instructions that solve a problem. The evolution of programming languages began when the EDSAC (1949) used the first stored computer program in its von Neumann architecture . Programming the EDSAC was in the first generation of programming language . Imperative languages specify a sequential algorithm using declarations , expressions , and statements : FORTRAN (1958)
7872-448: The wafer to build a matrix of metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) transistors. The MOS transistor is the primary component in integrated circuit chips . Originally, integrated circuit chips had their function set during manufacturing. During the 1960s, controlling the electrical flow migrated to programming a matrix of read-only memory (ROM). The matrix resembled a two-dimensional array of fuses. The process to embed instructions onto
7968-445: The way that they used to. Deep Blue 's Murray Campbell called AlphaGo's victory "the end of an era... board games are more or less done and it's time to move on." When compared with Deep Blue or Watson , AlphaGo's underlying algorithms are potentially more general-purpose and may be evidence that the scientific community is making progress towards artificial general intelligence . Some commentators believe AlphaGo's victory makes for
8064-431: Was AlphaGo's total victory." Lee apologized for his losses, stating after game three that "I misjudged the capabilities of AlphaGo and felt powerless." He emphasized that the defeat was "Lee Se-dol's defeat" and "not a defeat of mankind". Lee said his eventual loss to a machine was "inevitable" but stated that "robots will never understand the beauty of the game the same way that we humans do." Lee called his game four victory
8160-667: Was a " Sputnik moment " which helped convince the Chinese government to prioritize and dramatically increase funding for artificial intelligence. In 2017, the DeepMind AlphaGo team received the inaugural IJCAI Marvin Minsky medal for Outstanding Achievements in AI. "AlphaGo is a wonderful achievement, and a perfect example of what the Minsky Medal was initiated to recognise", said Professor Michael Wooldridge , Chair of
8256-985: Was a version of AlphaGo. After losing to Master, Gu Li offered a bounty of 100,000 yuan (US$ 14,400) to the first human player who could defeat Master. Master played at the pace of 10 games per day. Many quickly suspected it to be an AI player due to little or no resting between games. Its adversaries included many world champions such as Ke Jie , Park Jeong-hwan , Yuta Iyama , Tuo Jiaxi , Mi Yuting , Shi Yue , Chen Yaoye , Li Qincheng, Gu Li , Chang Hao , Tang Weixing, Fan Tingyu , Zhou Ruiyang , Jiang Weijie , Chou Chun-hsun , Kim Ji-seok , Kang Dong-yun , Park Yeong-hun , and Won Seong-jin ; national champions or world championship runners-up such as Lian Xiao , Tan Xiao , Meng Tailing, Dang Yifei, Huang Yunsong, Yang Dingxin , Gu Zihao, Shin Jinseo, Cho Han-seung , and An Sungjoon. All 60 games except one were fast-paced games with three 20 or 30 seconds byo-yomi . Master offered to extend
8352-610: Was completely self-taught without learning from human games. AlphaGo Zero was then generalized into a program known as AlphaZero , which played additional games, including chess and shogi . AlphaZero has in turn been succeeded by a program known as MuZero which learns without being taught the rules. AlphaGo and its successors use a Monte Carlo tree search algorithm to find its moves based on knowledge previously acquired by machine learning , specifically by an artificial neural network (a deep learning method) by extensive training, both from human and computer play. A neural network
8448-478: Was designed to expand C's capabilities by adding the object-oriented facilities of the language Simula . An object-oriented module is composed of two files. The definitions file is called the header file . Here is a C++ header file for the GRADE class in a simple school application: A constructor operation is a function with the same name as the class name. It is executed when the calling operation executes
8544-436: Was replaced with point-contact transistors (1947) and bipolar junction transistors (late 1950s) mounted on a circuit board . During the 1960s , the aerospace industry replaced the circuit board with an integrated circuit chip . Robert Noyce , co-founder of Fairchild Semiconductor (1957) and Intel (1968), achieved a technological improvement to refine the production of field-effect transistors (1963). The goal
8640-460: Was set to 20%. Toby Manning, the match referee for AlphaGo vs. Fan Hui, has described the program's style as "conservative". AlphaGo's playing style strongly favours greater probability of winning by fewer points over lesser probability of winning by more points. Its strategy of maximising its probability of winning is distinct from what human players tend to do which is to maximise territorial gains, and explains some of its odd-looking moves. It makes
8736-405: Was to decompose large projects physically into separate files . A less obvious feature was to decompose large projects logically into abstract data types . At the time, languages supported concrete (scalar) datatypes like integer numbers, floating-point numbers, and strings of characters . Abstract datatypes are structures of concrete datatypes, with a new name assigned. For example,
8832-433: Was to design a language so managers could read the programs. However, the lack of structured statements hindered this goal. COBOL's development was tightly controlled, so dialects did not emerge to require ANSI standards. As a consequence, it was not changed for 15 years until 1974. The 1990s version did make consequential changes, like object-oriented programming . ALGOL (1960) stands for "ALGOrithmic Language". It had
8928-425: Was to develop a language that was comprehensive, easy to use, extendible, and would replace Cobol and Fortran. The result was a large and complex language that took a long time to compile . Computers manufactured until the 1970s had front-panel switches for manual programming. The computer program was written on paper for reference. An instruction was represented by a configuration of on/off settings. After setting
9024-423: Was unveiled as "The IBM Mathematical FORmula TRANslating system". It was designed for scientific calculations, without string handling facilities. Along with declarations , expressions , and statements , it supported: It succeeded because: However, non-IBM vendors also wrote Fortran compilers, but with a syntax that would likely fail IBM's compiler. The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) developed
9120-464: Was used in the Fan Hui match. The Economist reported that it used 1,920 CPUs and 280 GPUs . At the time of play, Lee Sedol had the second-highest number of Go international championship victories in the world after South Korean player Lee Changho who kept the world championship title for 16 years. Since there is no single official method of ranking in international Go , the rankings may vary among
9216-450: Was widely praised. Computer program A computer program in its human-readable form is called source code . Source code needs another computer program to execute because computers can only execute their native machine instructions . Therefore, source code may be translated to machine instructions using a compiler written for the language. ( Assembly language programs are translated using an assembler .) The resulting file
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