The Air Base Alpnach ( ICAO code LSMA ) is a Swiss Air Force airfield near the town Alpnach in Canton of Obwalden in Switzerland . It has a concrete runway with a length of 1,500 meters (4,900 ft) and a width of 40 meters (130 ft), as well as several taxiways and hangars.
101-672: As early as 1929 there was a landing strip at Alpnach. It was expanded in 1939 to 850 by 130 meters (2,790 ft × 430 ft). In 1940 two wooden hangars were added and in September 1942, Fliegerabteilung 7 was based at Alpnach. This is considered the official start of the airfield. The first concrete runway was built in 1943 as part of the Swiss Reduitstrategie . It had a length of 875 meters (2,871 ft). Furthermore, eight type U-43 aircraft shelters and bunkers for command and ammunition were built. From 1947 to 1994,
202-504: A comparable assessment of countries' fiscal policies, promoting transparency and accountability at the international level. In addition, in an econometric study published in the Economic Modelling journal, an analysis on government energy technology spending showed that spending on the renewable energy sector created five more jobs per million dollars invested than spending on fossil fuels . Since sustainable infrastructure
303-426: A connection between cities, transportation for people and goods, and protection for land against flooding and erosion, they only last for 50 to 100 years. Many were built within the last 50 years, which means many infrastructures need substantial maintenance to continue functioning. However, concrete is not sustainable. The production of concrete contributes up to 8% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions. A tenth of
404-484: A coordinated focus on both creating the methods of transportation themselves and providing them with networks that are equally or more efficient than existing car networks such as aging highway systems. Another solution to transition into a more sustainable infrastructure is using more sustainable materials. A material is sustainable if the needed amount can be produced without depleting non-renewable resources. It also should have low environmental impacts by not disrupting
505-514: A dozen aircraft. In its invasion plan, Operation Tannenbaum , Germany planned to capture Geneva and Lucerne, and Italy would capture the Alps; both countries would then divide Switzerland. Swiss policy during the Cold War adopted a more aggressive defence of the borders that relied less on a retreat to the mountains. While Switzerland was again surrounded by an alliance, NATO was not considered
606-490: A general east–west line through the Alps, centering around the major fortress complexes of St. Maurice , St. Gotthard, and Sargans. These fortresses primarily defended the alpine crossings between Germany and Italy and were outside the industrialized and populated regions of Switzerland. These regions were defended by the "Border Line", and the "Army Position" somewhat farther back. While not intended as an impassable barrier, these lines contained significant fortifications, but
707-494: A higher level of relative sustainability than their traditional counterparts. In a sustainable city, urban resilience as well as infrastructure reliability must both be present. Urban resilience is defined by a city's capacity to quickly adapt or recover from infrastructure defects, and infrastructure reliability means that systems must work efficiently while continuing to maximize their output. When urban resilience and infrastructure reliability interact, cities are able to produce
808-526: A rating of "D+" on its infrastructure. This aging infrastructure is a result of governmental neglect and inadequate funding. As the United States presumably looks to upgrade its existing infrastructure, sustainable measures could be a consideration of the design, build, and operation plans. Public infrastructure is that owned or available for use by the public (represented by the government ). It includes: A way to embody personal infrastructure
909-403: A record high in 2010, partially due to governments' implemented economic stimulus measures with minimal consideration of the environmental consequences. The concern is whether this same pattern will repeat itself. The post-COVID-19 period could determine whether the world meets or misses the emissions goals of the 2015 Paris Agreement and limits global warming to 1.5 degrees C to 2 degrees C. As
1010-624: A region or district would be included with infrastructure, but the private irrigation systems on individual land parcels would be considered land improvements, not infrastructure. Service connections to municipal service and public utility networks would also be considered land improvements, not infrastructure. The term " public works " includes government-owned and operated infrastructure as well as public buildings, such as schools and courthouses. Public works generally refers to physical assets needed to deliver public services . Public services include both infrastructure and services generally provided by
1111-510: A result of the COVID-19 epidemic, a host of factors could jeopardize a low-carbon recovery plan: this includes reduced attention on the global political stage (2020 UN Climate Summit has been postponed to 2021), the relaxing of environmental regulations in pursuit of economic growth, decreased oil prices preventing low-carbon technologies from being competitive, and finally, stimulus programs that take away funds that could have been used to further
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#17327900822151212-525: A result of the worldwide Great Depression . Design work began in 1935, and in 1937 construction began on the expanded Alpine fortifications, the Border Line, and the Army line fortifications. General Henri Guisan developed a strategy for the defence of Switzerland that recognised its limited resources in equipment and manpower compared to its potential adversaries. Guisan proposed a delaying strategy in
1313-402: A result, they soak 30% more water than conventional gardens. Bioswales are planted in paved areas like parking lots or sidewalks and are made to allow for overflow into the sewer system by trapping silt and other pollutants, which are normally left over from impermeable surfaces. Both rain gardens and bioswales mitigate flood impacts and prevent stormwater from polluting local waterways; increase
1414-514: A specified area by using property tax increases. In order to facilitate investment of the private sector in developing countries' infrastructure markets, it is necessary to design risk-allocation mechanisms more carefully, given the higher risks of their markets. The spending money that comes from the government is less than it used to be. From the 1930s to 2019, the United States went from spending 4.2% of GDP to 2.5% of GDP on infrastructure. These under investments have accrued, in fact, according to
1515-801: A specified standard of service by the continuing replacement and refurbishment of its components". Civil defense planners and developmental economists generally refer to both hard and soft infrastructure, including public services such as schools and hospitals , emergency services such as police and fire fighting, and basic services in the economic sector . The notion of infrastructure-based development combining long-term infrastructure investments by government agencies at central and regional levels with public private partnerships has proven popular among economists in Asia (notably Singapore and China), mainland Europe, and Latin America. Military infrastructure
1616-565: A threat to Swiss independence; the Warsaw Pact alliance however was considered a threat. The Swiss strategy sought to exact a high price from any direct ground attack on Swiss territory. Control of the Alpine crossings remained a cornerstone of the Swiss strategy of neutrality. The dense network of passive and active barriers and large and small fortifications allowed considerable flexibility in
1717-449: A total of US$ 24.9 billion. In irrigation , governments represent almost all spending. In transport and energy a majority of investment is government spending. In ICT and water supply and sanitation , the private sector represents the majority of capital expenditure. Overall, between them aid, the private sector, and non- OECD financiers exceed government spending. The private sector spending alone equals state capital expenditure, though
1818-470: A way to preserve at least part of Swiss territory in the event of an invasion. The redoubt was to be manned by eight infantry divisions and three mountain brigades; the Swiss practiced for war by imitating the battles occurring around them. Switzerland's redoubt strategy during World War II was essentially one of deterrence. The idea was to make clear to Germany that an invasion would have a high cost. Simultaneously, economic concessions were made to Germany in
1919-428: Is a rooftop that is partially or completely covered with growing vegetation planted over a membrane. It also includes additional layers, including a root barrier and drainage and irrigation systems. There are several categories of green roofs, including extensive (have a growing media depth ranging from two to six inches) and intensive (have a growing media with a depth greater than six inches). One benefit of green roofs
2020-406: Is a series of fortifications set into the mountains on either side of the valley, dominating the region as far as Lake Geneva with their artillery. The principal fortification is the enormous Fort de Dailly , supported by forts Savatan, Fort du Scex , and Fort de Cindey , as well as lesser positions. The extent of the area designated as Fortress Saint-Maurice is not clearly defined, but according to
2121-438: Is defined as "those immobile, non-circulating capital goods that essentially contribute to the production of infrastructure goods and services needed to satisfy basic physical and social requirements of economic agents ". There are two distinct qualities of material infrastructures: 1) fulfillment of social needs and 2) mass production . The first characteristic deals with the basic needs of human life. The second characteristic
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#17327900822152222-527: Is generally paid for by metered user fees. Major investment projects are generally financed by the issuance of long-term bonds . Government-owned and operated infrastructure may be developed and operated in the private sector or in public-private partnerships , in addition to in the public sector . As of 2008 in the United States for example, public spending on infrastructure has varied between 2.3% and 3.6% of GDP since 1950. Many financial institutions invest in infrastructure. According to researchers at
2323-484: Is more beneficial in both an economic and environmental context, it represents the future of infrastructure. Especially with increasing pressure from climate change and diminishing natural resources, infrastructure not only needs to maintain economic development and job development, and a high quality of life for residents, but also protect the environment and its natural resources. Sustainable energy infrastructure includes types of renewable energy power plants as well as
2424-430: Is necessary to maintain growth and tackle poverty. The returns to investment in infrastructure are very significant, with on average thirty to forty percent returns for telecommunications ( ICT ) investments, over forty percent for electricity generation, and eighty percent for roads . The demand for infrastructure both by consumers and by companies is much higher than the amount invested. There are severe constraints on
2525-546: Is needed, and transmission of information within and between communities." The American Society of Civil Engineers publishes an "Infrastructure Report Card" which represents the organizations opinion on the condition of various infrastructure every 2–4 years. As of 2017 they grade 16 categories, namely aviation, bridges, dams, drinking water , energy, hazardous waste , inland waterways , levees , parks and recreation , ports , rail , roads , schools, solid waste , transit and wastewater . The United States has received
2626-409: Is that they reduce stormwater runoff because of its ability to store water in its growing media, reducing the runoff entering the sewer system and waterways, which also decreases the risk of combined sewer overflows. They reduce energy usage since the growing media provides additional insulation, reduces the amount of solar radiation on the roof's surface, and provides evaporative cooling from water in
2727-599: Is the buildings and permanent installations necessary for the support of military forces, whether they are stationed in bases, being deployed or engaged in operations. Examples include barracks, headquarters, airfields, communications facilities, stores of military equipment, port installations, and maintenance stations. Communications infrastructure is the informal and formal channels of communication, political and social networks , or beliefs held by members of particular groups, as well as information technology, software development tools. Still underlying these more conceptual uses
2828-405: Is the idea that infrastructure provides organizing structure and support for the system or organization it serves, whether it is a city, a nation, a corporation, or a collection of people with common interests. Examples include IT infrastructure , research infrastructure, terrorist infrastructure, employment infrastructure, and tourism infrastructure. The term "infrastructure" may be confused with
2929-812: Is the non-availability of infrastructure goods and services. Today, there are various materials that can be used to build infrastructure. The most prevalent ones are asphalt, concrete, steel, masonry, wood, polymers and composites. According to the business dictionary, economic infrastructure can be defined as "internal facilities of a country that make business activity possible, such as communication, transportation and distribution networks , financial institutions and related international markets, and energy supply systems". Economic infrastructure support productive activities and events. This includes roads, highways, bridges, airports, cycling infrastructure , water distribution networks, sewer systems , and irrigation plants. Social infrastructure can be broadly defined as
3030-746: Is the object of economic and legal policy. It compromises the growth and sets norms. It refers to the degree of fair treatment of equal economic data and determines the framework within which economic agents may formulate their own economic plans and carry them out in co-operation with others. Sustainable infrastructure refers to the processes of design and construction that take into consideration their environmental, economic, and social impact. Included in this section are several elements of sustainable schemes, including materials, water, energy, transportation, and waste management infrastructure. Although there are endless other factors of consideration, those will not be covered in this section. Material infrastructure
3131-692: Is the set of facilities and systems that serve a country, city, or other area, and encompasses the services and facilities necessary for its economy, households and firms to function. Infrastructure is composed of public and private physical structures such as roads , railways , bridges , airports , public transit systems , tunnels , water supply , sewers , electrical grids , and telecommunications (including Internet connectivity and broadband access ). In general, infrastructure has been defined as "the physical components of interrelated systems providing commodities and services essential to enable, sustain, or enhance societal living conditions " and maintain
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3232-803: Is to classify them as two distinct kinds: hard infrastructure and soft infrastructure . Hard infrastructure is the physical networks necessary for the functioning of a modern industrial society or industry . This includes roads, bridges, and railways. Soft infrastructure is all the institutions that maintain the economic , health , social , environmental , and cultural standards of a country. This includes educational programs , official statistics , parks and recreational facilities, law enforcement agencies, and emergency services . The word "infrastructure" has been used in French since 1875 and in English since 1887, originally meaning "installations that form
3333-514: Is to think of it in terms of human capital . Human capital is defined by the Encyclopædia Britannica as "intangible collective resources possessed by individuals and groups within a given population". The goal of personal infrastructure is to determine the quality of the economic agents' values. This results in three major tasks: the task of economic proxies in the economic process (teachers, unskilled and qualified labor, etc.);
3434-581: The Gotthard Rail Tunnel . Abandoned by the military in 1947, the fort is maintained as a museum by a preservation group and may be visited. Battery Motto Bartola 46°32′01.15″N 8°35′17.15″E / 46.5336528°N 8.5880972°E / 46.5336528; 8.5880972 is located just up the hill from Fort Airolo and mounted an additional four 120 mm guns. The fort, built between 1888 and 1890, also mounted four 84 mm guns, with extensive underground galleries linking
3535-561: The Jura . The strategic Alpine nodes of Saint-Maurice, Saint Gotthard, and Sargans were identified as the primary points of access to the Alpine redoubt for a potential aggressor. While Saint Gotthard and Saint-Maurice had been previously fortified, the area of Sargans was newly vulnerable because of a drainage program of former wetlands along the Rhine that would now provide easy access to the eastern Alpine gateway at Sargans. Debate continued over
3636-771: The Overseas Development Institute , the lack of infrastructure in many developing countries represents one of the most significant limitations to economic growth and achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) . Infrastructure investments and maintenance can be very expensive, especially in such areas as landlocked, rural and sparsely populated countries in Africa. It has been argued that infrastructure investments contributed to more than half of Africa's improved growth performance between 1990 and 2005, and increased investment
3737-1185: The Siegfried Line , or the Czechoslovak border fortifications . While the Maginot fortifications were typically armed with short-barreled 75 mm fortress howitzers or 120 mm mortar/howitzers, the Swiss fortifications were armed with 75 mm and 120 mm guns, upgraded in the 1950s to 105mm and 150 mm guns. The Swiss guns were typically casemate-mounted or turret-mounted long guns, not howitzers, and were more akin to naval guns than fortress guns. Because they were typically mounted on inaccessible cliffs or plateaus with an advantage of enfilade over any possible opposing force, they were not exposed to infantry attack or direct artillery fire and could afford to have exposed gun barrels. The French positions, which could be targeted by anti-tank weapons or infantry, avoided any exposed gun tubes. Fort Airolo 46°31′42.19″N 8°35′21.25″E / 46.5283861°N 8.5892361°E / 46.5283861; 8.5892361 , also known as Forte di Airolo ,
3838-573: The Swiss Army staff and the entire officer corps at the founding site of the Swiss confederation. In case of attack, the Swiss would defend only the High Alps , including the important transalpine roads and rail links. As a last resort, the army would make the routes useless to the Axis by destroying key bridges and tunnels. The plan meant that the populated lowlands, including the economic centres of
3939-625: The 19th Squadron was stationed in Alpnach. There were 2 extensions of the runway: 1952 to 1,500 meters (4,900 ft), and finally in 1959 to 1,950 meters (6,400 ft). From 1952 aircraft caverns were built into the rock of the adjacent Mueterschwanderberg Mountain which hosts also an artillery fortress facing Nidwalden . In 1960, the cavern facility was officially handed over to the Directorate of Military airfields. Beginning in 1958, de Havilland DH-112 Venom jets operated from Alpnach in
4040-435: The 2017 ASCE Infrastructure Report Card, from 2016 to 2025, infrastructure will be underinvested by $ 2 trillion. Compared to the global GDP percentages, The United States is tied for second-to-last place, with an average percentage of 2.4%. This means that the government spends less money on repairing old infrastructure and or on infrastructure as a whole. In Sub-Saharan Africa , governments spend around US$ 9.4 billion out of
4141-667: The Association Fort de Litroz, the Saint-Maurice sector comprises the Rhône narrows from just north of Saint-Maurice to Martigny, excluding Chillon and Champillon, as well as the fortifications of the lateral valleys. However, the effective control of the Saint-Maurice positions extended from Lac Léman to the Great Saint Bernard Pass . Fortress Sargans comprises six major fortifications centered on
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4242-486: The Bison project, which involved the installation of anti-tank guns in new bunkers at key locations to provide a modernized pre-positioned force capable of defeating modern armor. A project to install automatic 120 mm mortars was completed in 2003. In 1995, the Swiss army was reduced from 750,000 troops to 400,000. By 2004, army strength was 120,000, with 80,000 proposed by 2020. Infrastructure Infrastructure
4343-448: The French surrender, on 23 June, the border zones were reduced in priority in favor of the "advanced position" or Army Line. The army was shifted to the center of the country, leaving industries and population centres relatively unprotected. The final Guisan Plan, adopted on 12 July 1940, defined an organised retreat to the Alps in which supplies would be stocked for an indefinite resistance with no thought of further retreat. On 25 July 1940,
4444-649: The French word structure . The army use of the term achieved currency in the United States after the formation of NATO in the 1940s, and by 1970 was adopted by urban planners in its modern civilian sense. A 1987 US National Research Council panel adopted the term " public works infrastructure", referring to: "... both specific functional modes – highways, streets, roads, and bridges; mass transit ; airports and airways; water supply and water resources ; wastewater management ; solid-waste treatment and disposal; electric power generation and transmission; telecommunications; and hazardous waste management – and
4545-567: The G20 COVID-19 related fiscal measures was found to be climate friendly. Although it is readily apparent that much effort is needed to repair the economic damage inflicted by the Coronavirus epidemic, an immediate return to business as usual could be environmentally harmful, as shown by the 2007-08 financial crisis in the United States. While the ensuing economic slowdown reduced global greenhouse gas emissions in 2009, emissions reached
4646-587: The Leventina valley and a western battery overlooking the Bedretto valley and the main pass. The main entrance is located just to the north of Fort Ospizio, with 2,400 metres (7,900 ft) of galleries and four 105 mm gun positions. A proposed addition of two more guns in the late 1950s never proceeded. The position was used until 1999. It opened to the public as a museum on 25 August 2012. Infantry positions : A number of small infantry bunkers exist near
4747-542: The National Redoubt was planned as a nearly impregnable complex of fortifications that would deny an aggressor passage over or through the Alps by controlling the major mountain passes and railway tunnels running north-to-south through the region. This strategy was intended to deter an invasion altogether by denying Switzerland's crucial transportation infrastructure to an aggressor. The National Redoubt has been
4848-591: The Swiss alpine region began in the 1880s, shortly after the opening of the Gotthard railway . Forts similar to those of Belgian military engineer Henri Alexis Brialmont were built at Airolo , the Oberalp Pass , Furka Pass , and Grimsel Pass , all in the Central Alps . Additional positions were constructed in the area of Saint-Maurice , using mining and tunneling techniques in the steep mountainsides of
4949-765: The Swiss defensive plan was disseminated dictating a fallback to the Alps in the event of an Axis attack, focusing in particular on the Gotthard massif and destroying all access points as necessary once inside. The Redoubt strategy was emphasized on 24 May 1941. Until then, only about two thirds of the Swiss Army had been mobilized. After the swift overrunning of the Balkan countries by the Germans in April 1941, in which relatively-low mountains had proven to be little barrier to
5050-476: The airport, for example by in-line skaters. A model airplane club uses the southern half of the airfield . National Redoubt (Switzerland) The Swiss National Redoubt ( German : Schweizer Reduit ; French : Réduit national ; Italian : Ridotto nazionale ; Romansh : Reduit nazional ) is a defensive plan developed by the Swiss government beginning in the 1880s to respond to foreign invasion. In
5151-410: The amount of greenhouse gases. There are a variety of types of bioretention and infiltration practices, including rain gardens and bioswales. A rain garden is planted in a small depression or natural slope and includes native shrubs and flowers. They temporarily hold and absorb rain water and are effective in removing up to 90% of nutrients and chemicals and up to 80% of sediments from the runoff. As
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#17327900822155252-428: The appropriate built environments for these ecologically preferable modes of transportation. Cities will need to invest in public transportation networks, as well as bike path networks among other sustainable solutions that incentivize citizens to use these alternate transit options. Reducing the urban dependency on cars is a fundamental goal of developing sustainable transportation, and this cannot be accomplished without
5353-431: The area around Saint-Maurice in the western, French-speaking portion of Switzerland. The Rhône leaves the central Alpine region through a narrow defile , between 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) mountains to the south and 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) mountains to the north. The only comparatively easy access to the upper Rhône valley, and thus to the western National Redoubt, is through Saint-Maurice. Fortress Saint-Maurice
5454-471: The basis for any operation or system". It is a loanword from French, where it was already used for establishing a roadbed of substrate material, required before railroad tracks or constructed pavement could be laid on top of it. The word is a combination of the Latin prefix infra- , meaning "below", as many of these constructions are underground (for example, tunnels, water and gas systems, and railways), and
5555-401: The board. However, they must also scale up public investment to ensure successful reopening, boost growth and employment, and green their economies. The unusually large scale of the packages needed for COVID-19 was accompanied by widespread calls for "greening" them to meet the dual goals of economic recovery and environmental sustainability . However, as of March 2021, only a small fraction of
5656-407: The broken terrain of the borders to keep an invading force out of the open country in the central plateau for as long as possible to allow an orderly retreat to the secured Alpine perimeter. Once the retreat to the Alps was complete, the Swiss government could remain in hiding for an extended time. Accordingly, border fortifications were improved, with major programs along the Rhine and at Vallorbe in
5757-567: The case of a war. In 1973, the aircraft type used changed to the Hawker Hunter and in 1979 there was a further change to the F-5 "Tiger" . Because of the Army XXI reforms, flight operations from the caverns were terminated. On 20 January 1964, helicopter flying started at Alpnach. The Highway A8 was twice tested as an emergency takeoff runway, using temporary taxiways to the base. In 1994
5858-461: The combined system these modal elements comprise. A comprehension of infrastructure spans not only these public works facilities, but also the operating procedures, management practices, and development policies that interact together with societal demand and the physical world to facilitate the transport of people and goods, provision of water for drinking and a variety of other uses, safe disposal of society's waste products, provision of energy where it
5959-613: The construction and maintenance of facilities that support social services . Social infrastructures are created to increase social comfort and promote economic activity. These include schools, parks and playgrounds , structures for public safety , waste disposal plants, hospitals, and sports areas. Core assets provide essential services and have monopolistic characteristics. Investors seeking core infrastructure look for five different characteristics: income, low volatility of returns, diversification, inflation protection, and long-term liability matching. Core infrastructure incorporates all
6060-637: The country, would be effectively ceded to the Germans. The gold reserves of the Swiss National Bank in Zürich were moved farther away from the German border to the Gotthard Pass and Bern . The National Redoubt assumed great importance to the Swiss in 1940, when they were entirely surrounded by Axis powers and thus effectively at the mercy of Hitler and Mussolini. The National Redoubt was
6161-480: The defence of the borders and population centers and to extend the concept of defence in depth, pioneered in the redoubt, to the entire Swiss territory. That corresponded to an unspoken reliance on co-operation with NATO to secure the flanks of Swiss territory and to resupply Swiss forces, which already purchased equipment from members of NATO. The redoubt, with its determinedly-neutralist connotations, lost priority. Many billions of francs have been invested in building
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#17327900822156262-484: The disposition of Swiss forces and represented an almost-optimal scenario of defence in depth . The strategic importance of the Alpine crossings had only increased since the Second World War, and any incursion by Warsaw Pact forces would require them to be taken or for terms for their use to be agreed upon to the satisfaction of Switzerland. In 1953, Swiss policy was formalized to place greater emphasis on
6363-530: The economy. This has serious impacts on households, businesses, and federal, state and local governments. This is especially detrimental to infrastructure because it is so dependent on funding from government agencies – with state and local governments accounting for approximately 75% of spending on public infrastructure in the United States. Governments are facing enormous decreases in revenue, economic downturns, overworked health systems, and hesitant workforces, resulting in huge budget deficits across
6464-530: The entire population was mandated in 1978. New apartment buildings were required to have them on site; others paid for the construction of shelters in common buildings or transport tunnels. The National Redoubt fortifications, when compared to contemporary French, Belgian, German, or Czech fortifications, were much more extensive and heavily armed than the Maginot Line , the Belgian border fortifications ,
6565-446: The established steady-state equilibrium of it. The materials should also be resilient, renewable, reusable, and recyclable. Today, concrete is one of the most common materials used in infrastructure. There is twice as much concrete used in construction than all other building materials combined. It is the backbone of industrialization, as it is used in bridges, piers, pipelines, pavements, and buildings. However, while they do serve as
6666-546: The extent of the redoubt under the Guisan Plan. A proposal was developed by officers from German-speaking cantons, advocating a more compact redoubt. That was overcome by a proposal, authored by Guisan's chief of staff, Colonel Samuel Gonard, whose plan ratified the Saint-Maurice - Saint Gotthard - Sargans strategy, prefaced by a defence in depth. Additional impetus was provided by the fall of France in June 1940. Two days after
6767-461: The firing positions. Battery Foppa Grande mounted one 105 mm gun in a camouflaged turret above Motto Bartola, with three 20 mm anti-aircraft guns. The position featured a mortar battery, installed in 1953. The position was deactivated in 1997 and classified as potentially historical. The position may be visited by prior arrangement. Fort San Carlo is an artillery fort. Fort Stuei Saint Gotthard Tunnel South Portal monitored
6868-458: The following overlapping or related concepts. Land improvement and land development are general terms that in some contexts may include infrastructure, but in the context of a discussion of infrastructure would refer only to smaller-scale systems or works that are not included in infrastructure, because they are typically limited to a single parcel of land , and are owned and operated by the landowner. For example, an irrigation canal that serves
6969-428: The form of a large network; in other words, hard infrastructure . Efforts to devise more generic definitions of infrastructures have typically referred to the network aspects of most of the structures, and to the accumulated value of investments in the networks as assets. One such definition from 1998 defined infrastructure as the network of assets "where the system as a whole is intended to be maintained indefinitely at
7070-408: The fortifications in the mountains, which are partly still used by the army. The most important buildings of the redoubt were the fortifications of Sargans , St. Maurice , and the Gotthard region. At the time, caverns in these areas were equipped with essential military infrastructure. Besides cannons and howitzers , the infrastructure consisted of dormitories, kitchens, field hospitals, rooms for
7171-460: The glacial valley. In the immediate aftermath of World War I , there was little Swiss interest in further fortifications. However, during the 1930s, as France built the Maginot Line from the Swiss border to the Belgian border and Czechoslovakia built the Czechoslovak border fortifications , Switzerland re-examined its fixed defenses. At the same time, job creation programs became desirable as
7272-473: The government. Infrastructure may be owned and managed by governments or by privately held companies, such as sole public utility or railway companies. Generally, most roads, major airports and other ports, water distribution systems, and sewage networks are publicly owned, whereas most energy and telecommunications networks are privately owned. Publicly owned infrastructure may be paid for from taxes, tolls, or metered user fees, whereas private infrastructure
7373-544: The helicopter of the Swiss Air Force. Standard helicopter types used at Air Base Alpnach are the Aérospatiale Super Puma , Eurocopter AS532UL Cougar Mk1 and Eurocopter EC 635 . The RUAG Switzerland AG operates on the airfield a location for the maintenance of civil and military helicopter . The airfield is used for various other uses. The runways may be used outside normal operating hours of
7474-472: The holistic and effective management of water resources. Increasingly, policy makers and regulators are incorporating Nature-based solutions (NBS or NbS) into attempts to achieve sustainable water infrastructure. Sustainable waste management systems aim to minimize the amount of waste products produced by individuals and corporations. Commercial waste management plans have transitioned from simple waste removal plans into comprehensive plans focused on reducing
7575-647: The hope that the overall cost of a German invasion would be perceived to be higher than the potential benefits. However, it is clear that Hitler intended to invade eventually and that the Allied landing at Normandy and the difficulties faced in invading the Soviet Union were pivotal in merely delaying an invasion. Concessions included a national blackout and the destruction of a secret German radar system that had accidentally landed in Switzerland in exchange for
7676-480: The impact of raindrops on barren surfaces, minimize soil moisture through transpiration, and they help reduce stormwater runoff. Additionally, trees contribute to recharging local aquifers and improve the health of watershed systems. Trees also reduce energy usage by providing shade and releasing water into the atmosphere which cools the air and reduces the amount of heat absorbed by buildings. Finally, trees improve air quality by absorbing harmful air pollutants reducing
7777-451: The importance of personal infrastructure for an individual (short and long-term consumption of education); and the social relevance of personal infrastructure. Essentially, personal infrastructure maps the human impact on infrastructure as it is related to the economy, individual growth, and social impact. Institutional infrastructure branches from the term "economic constitution". According to Gianpiero Torrisi , institutional infrastructure
7878-458: The last Air Force jet training courses took place at Alpnach, and on 23 September 1995 the last Tiger F-5E left. In 2004, Air Base Alpnach was threatened with the closure of the airfield, but the Obwalden government successfully lobbied for the airfield. In May 2012, renovation work on Hangars 2 and 3 began as well the building for a new Hangar 4. Alpnach Air Base is the main logistical base of
7979-416: The little parts of the engineering world that make life more convenient and efficient. They are needed to ensure successful usage and marketing of an already finished product, like in the case of road bridges . Other examples are lights on sidewalks, landscaping around buildings, and benches where pedestrians can rest. Engineers generally limit the term "infrastructure" to describe fixed assets that are in
8080-635: The main types of infrastructure, such as roads, highways, railways, public transportation , water, and gas supply. Basic infrastructure refers to main railways, roads, canals, harbors and docks, the electromagnetic telegraph, drainage, dikes, and land reclamation. It consist of the more well-known and common features of infrastructure that we come across in our daily lives (buildings, roads, docks). Complementary infrastructure refers to things like light railways, tramways, and gas/electricity/water supply. To complement something means to bring it to perfection or complete it. Complementary infrastructure deals with
8181-487: The majority is focused on ICT infrastructure investments. External financing increased in the 2000s (decade) and in Africa alone external infrastructure investments increased from US$ 7 billion in 2002 to US$ 27 billion in 2009. China, in particular, has emerged as an important investor. The 2020 COVID-19 pandemic has only exacerbated the underfunding of infrastructure globally that has been accumulating for decades. The pandemic has increased unemployment and has widely disrupted
8282-556: The market by prevailing non renewable energy sources. Sustainable water infrastructure is focused on a community's sufficient access to clean, safe drinking water. Water is a public good along with electricity, which means that sustainable water catchment and distribution systems must remain affordable to all members of a population. "Sustainable Water" may refer to a nation or community's ability to be self-sustainable, with enough water to meet multiple needs including agriculture, industry, sanitation, and drinking water. It can also refer to
8383-601: The means of exchange from the plant to the homes and businesses that use that energy. Renewable energy includes well researched and widely implemented methods such as wind, solar, and hydraulic power, as well as newer and less commonly used types of power creation such as fusion energy. Sustainable energy infrastructure must maintain a strong supply relative to demand, and must also maintain sufficiently low prices for consumers so as not to decrease demand. Any type of renewable energy infrastructure that fails to meet these consumption and price requirements will ultimately be forced out of
8484-496: The mobile German forces, the entire Swiss army was mobilised. The Swiss, lacking a significant armored force, drew the conclusion that withdrawal to the redoubt was the only sound course. Any actions in the Central Plateau would be delaying actions only. The plan was revealed to the public after Switzerland was surrounded by German and Italian forces, with the so-called Rütli Report, a historic and highly-symbolic meeting of
8585-627: The natural processes needed to manage water, reduce the effects of disasters such as flooding, and create healthier urban environments. In a more practical sense, it refers to a decentralized network of stormwater management practices, which includes green roofs, trees, bioretention and infiltration, and permeable pavement. Green infrastructure has become an increasingly popular strategy in recent years due to its effectiveness in providing ecological, economic, and social benefits – including positively impacting energy consumption, air quality, and carbon reduction and sequestration. A green roof
8686-473: The opening years of the Second World War the plan was expanded and refined to deal with a potential German invasion . The term "National Redoubt" primarily refers to the fortifications begun in the 1880s that secured the mountainous central part of Switzerland, providing a defended refuge for a retreating Swiss Army . The National Redoubt encompassed a widely distributed set of fortifications on
8787-567: The original south entrance to the Gotthard Rail Tunnel . Portions of the original installation remain, but the tunnel entrance has been extended to the south and the historic portal no longer exists. These positions were built in 1886-87 and represent the first modern fortifications in Switzerland. A gallery (a long horizontal tunnel) links the main tunnel positions back to Fort Airolo. Redoubt Hospiz 46°33′24.20″N 8°34′06.37″E / 46.5567222°N 8.5684361°E / 46.5567222; 8.5684361 , also known as Forte Ospizio ,
8888-492: The plants, which reduce the roof surface temperatures and heat influx. Green roofs also reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide since the vegetation sequesters carbon and, since they reduce energy usage and the urban heat island by reducing the roof temperature, they also lower carbon dioxide emissions from electricity generation. Tree planting provides a host of ecological, social, and economic benefits. Trees can intercept rain, support infiltration and water storage in soil, diminish
8989-622: The process of decarbonization . Research suggests that a recovery plan based on lower-carbon emissions could not only make significant emissions reductions needed to battle climate change, but also create more economic growth and jobs than a high-carbon recovery plan would. A study published in the Oxford Review of Economic Policy, more than 200 economists and economic officials reported that "green" economic-recovery initiatives performed at least as well as less "green" initiatives. There have also been calls for an independent body could provide
9090-596: The sick, bakeries, and enough space to accommodate 100 to 600 soldiers for up to several months. Because tensions between the West and the Soviet Union, which later fell, cooled down and bunkers became increasingly obsolete because of newer weapon systems, many of the buildings were closed after the Cold War, in the mid-to-late 1990s and the early 2000s. Some of them have been reopened as museums and can be visited. The construction of enough civilian nuclear fallout shelters for
9191-437: The subject of debate in Swiss society, with many fortifications decommissioned by the early 21st century. The concept of " réduit " is a recurring theme in Swiss defence theory. Having stayed neutral during World War II , Switzerland retained the concept for its plans of resistance against a putative Soviet invasion during the Cold War , when it became a strong influence on the Swiss concept of neutrality . Fortification of
9292-478: The supply side of the provision of infrastructure in Asia. The infrastructure financing gap between what is invested in Asia-Pacific (around US$ 48 billion) and what is needed (US$ 228 billion) is around US$ 180 billion every year. In Latin America, three percent of GDP (around US$ 71 billion) would need to be invested in infrastructure in order to satisfy demand, yet in 2005, for example, only around two percent
9393-648: The surrounding environment. Especially in light of the massive societal transformations needed to mitigate and adapt to climate change, contemporary infrastructure conversations frequently focus on sustainable development and green infrastructure . Acknowledging this importance, the international community has created policy focused on sustainable infrastructure through the Sustainable Development Goals , especially Sustainable Development Goal 9 " Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure ". One way to describe different types of infrastructure
9494-1171: The top of the pass, most notably Bunker No. 3. Construction took place in three stages: 1886–87, 1892–1920, and 1946–1973. These works exhibit a high quality of workmanship and integration into the landscape. Fort Bühl 46°38′35.45″N 8°35′24.97″E / 46.6431806°N 8.5902694°E / 46.6431806; 8.5902694 Fortin Altkirch 46°38′37″N 8°35′30″E / 46.64361°N 8.59167°E / 46.64361; 8.59167 Fort Bäzberg 46°38′40″N 8°34′38″E / 46.64444°N 8.57722°E / 46.64444; 8.57722 Fort Stöckli 46°39′28.99″N 8°37′17.21″E / 46.6580528°N 8.6214472°E / 46.6580528; 8.6214472 Oberalp infantry positions Fort Gütsch 46°39′17″N 8°36′53″E / 46.65472°N 8.61472°E / 46.65472; 8.61472 Fort Galenhütten 46°34′38.24″N 8°23′27.61″E / 46.5772889°N 8.3910028°E / 46.5772889; 8.3910028 Fort Fuchsegg Fortress Saint-Maurice encompasses
9595-471: The total amount of waste produced before removal. Sustainable waste management is beneficial environmentally, and can also cut costs for businesses that reduce their amount of disposed goods. Sustainable transportation includes a shift away from private, greenhouse gas emitting cars in favor of adopting methods of transportation that are either carbon neutral or reduce carbon emissions such as bikes or electric bus systems. Additionally, cities must invest in
9696-582: The town of Sargans in St. Gallen canton . Fort Schollberg Fort Anstein Fort Magletsch is as of 2012 still in use by the Swiss military. Shut down in 2017 Fort Castels is as of 2012 still in use by the Swiss military. Shut down in 2017 Fort Furggels Fort Passatiwand Fort Molinära Fort Haselboden Fort Tschingel Fort Nusslock Fort Tamina Ragaz (Sources: ) The Redoubt positions and others in Switzerland were augmented by
9797-442: The usable water supply by reducing the amount of water needed for outdoor irrigation; improve air quality by minimizing the amount of water going into treatment facilities, which also reduces energy usage and, as a result, reduces air pollution since less greenhouse gases are emitted. Smart cities use innovative methods of design and implementation in various sectors of infrastructure and planning to create communities that operate at
9898-460: The world's industrial water usage is from producing concrete. Even transporting the raw materials to concrete production sites adds to airborne pollution. Furthermore, the production sites and the infrastructures themselves all strip away agricultural land that could have been fertile soil or habitats vital to the ecosystem. Green infrastructure is a type of sustainable infrastructure. Green infrastructure uses plant or soil systems to restore some of
9999-406: Was built between 1887 and 1890 at the southern end of the Gotthard Pass overlooking Airolo . The fort was a compact massif similar to a Brialmont fort, with an encircling ditch defended by caponiers and provided with a twin 120 mm gun turret and four 53 mm gun turrets for close defence, with five 84 mm guns in casemates . A 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) tunnel links Fort Airolo to
10100-588: Was built in 1894 and operated until 1947 near the summit of the Gotthard Pass. The fort mounted two single 120 mm gun turrets. The fort is now operated as a museum and may be visited by the public. Fort Sasso da Pigna 46°33′31.68″N 8°33′59.50″E / 46.5588000°N 8.5665278°E / 46.5588000; 8.5665278 was built during the early part of World War II , becoming operational in 1943, effectively replacing Redoubt Hospiz. The fort consists of an eastern battery overlooking
10201-772: Was invested leaving a financing gap of approximately US$ 24 billion. In Africa, in order to reach the seven percent annual growth calculated to be required to meet the MDGs by 2015 would require infrastructure investments of about fifteen percent of GDP, or around US$ 93 billion a year. In fragile states , over thirty-seven percent of GDP would be required. The source of financing for infrastructure varies significantly across sectors. Some sectors are dominated by government spending , others by overseas development aid (ODA) , and yet others by private investors. In California, infrastructure financing districts are established by local governments to pay for physical facilities and services within
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