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118-534: The territory was famous for heron plumes, which adorned European courts. At the same time, it was the scene of armed encounters that marked the evolution of the War for Independence , as well as numerous battles during the civil war. In the Apurean environs, Rómulo Gallegos was inspired to write his novel Doña Bárbara , which describes the magnitude of this land. The state capital is San Fernando de Apure . Based on

236-548: A British army engineer who worked in Egypt prior to World War II . Bagnold investigated the physics of particles moving through the atmosphere and deposited by wind. He recognized two basic dune types, the crescentic dune, which he called " barchan ", and the linear dune, which he called longitudinal or "seif" (Arabic for "sword"). Bagnold developed a classification scheme that included small-scale ripples and sand sheets as well as various types of dunes. Bagnold's classification

354-723: A Liberal movement that involved the installation of democracy in Spain , inspired by the French Revolution and with the participation of important members of the society. Regardless this attempt at democracy failed, and some of their members were sent to prisons in Spanish Colonies , one of them, Juan Batista Picornell, was sent to the Port of La Guaira ,  where he secretly met with Manuel Gual and Jose Maria España. His revolutionary Ideas spread like wildfire throughout

472-518: A Scottish soldier of fortune , who had previously been active in New Granada, managed to escape with their forces into the interior of the country, defeating Morales at El Juncal in September 1816 before moving south to Guayana. Boves's locally raised Llanero army was replaced in 1815 by a formal expedition sent from Spain under the leadership of Pablo Morillo . It was the largest expedition

590-406: A Y-junction with the fork directed upwind. They have a sharp sinuous or en echelon crest. They are thought to form from a bimodal seasonal wind pattern, with a weak wind season characterized by wind directed an at acute angle to the prevailing winds of the strong wind season. The strong wind season produces a barchan form and the weak wind season stretches this into the linear form. Another possibility

708-510: A battle in which the British Legion played a central role and its commander, Rooke, was killed in action. In the battle of Boyacá (1819), Spanish power was crushed in New Granada, except in the south. Páez occupied Barinas and, from New Granada, Bolívar invaded Venezuela. In 1819, to break this impasse Bolívar invaded New Granada , which had been reconquered by Morillo's expeditionary force three years earlier. Bolívar decisively defeated

826-413: A boulder or an isolated patch of vegetation. Here the sand builds up to the angle of repose (the maximum stable slope angle), about 34 degrees, then begins sliding down the slip face of the patch. A sandfall is a sand shadow of a cliff or escarpment. Closely related to sand shadows are sand drifts . These form downwind of a gap between obstructions, due to the funneling effect of the obstructions on

944-514: A central role in the symbolism of the Venezuelan government led by Chávez , this long-forgotten change was revived in the 2006 revision to the flag.) Once in Guayana, Bolívar quickly cashiered Piar, who had been trying (or was accused of trying—historians still debate this) to form a pardo force of his own, by having him arrested and executed after a court martial in which Brión was one of

1062-446: A change in the wind pattern about 3000 years ago. Complex dunes show Little lateral growth but strong vertical growth and are important sand sinks. Vegetated parabolic dunes are crescent-shaped, but the ends of the crescent point upwind, not downwind. They form from the interaction of vegetation patches with active sand sources, such as blowouts. The vegetation stabilizes the arms of the dune, and an elongated lake sometimes forms between

1180-479: A combination of a local uprising and Spanish royalist reconquest . Only as part of Bolívar's campaign to liberate New Granada in 1819-20 did Venezuela achieve a lasting independence from Spain (initially as part of Gran Colombia ). On 17 December 1819, the Congress of Angostura declared Gran Colombia an independent country. After two more years of war, the country achieved independence from Spain in 1821 under

1298-699: A congress of Venezuelan provinces to establish a government for the region. Initially, both the Junta and Congress upheld the "rights of Ferdinand VII ," meaning that they recognized themselves to still be part of the Spanish Monarchy, but had established a separate government due to the French invasion of the Iberian Peninsula. As Congress deliberated, a faction proposing outright independence quickly won favor. Persons such as Francisco de Miranda ,

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1416-531: A desert. Vegetation is effective at suppressing aeolian transport. Vegetation cover of as little as 15% is sufficient to eliminate most sand transport. The size of shore dunes is limited mostly by the amount of open space between vegetated areas. Aeolian transport from deserts plays an important role in ecosystems globally. For example, wind transports minerals from the Sahara to the Amazon basin . Saharan dust

1534-418: A distinctive crescent shape with the tips of the crescent directed downwind. The dunes are widely separated by areas of bedrock or reg. Barchans migrate up to 30 meters (98 ft) per year, with the taller dunes migrating faster. Barchans first form when some minor topographic feature creates a sand patch. This grows into a sand mound, and the converging streamlines of the air flow around the mound build it into

1652-489: A lack of soil moisture and a large supply of unconsolidated sediments . Although water is a much more powerful eroding force than wind, aeolian processes are important in arid environments such as deserts . The term is derived from the name of the Greek god Aeolus , the keeper of the winds. Aeolian processes are those processes of erosion , transport , and deposition of sediments that are caused by wind at or near

1770-498: A large aklé or barchanoid dune. They form over a prolonged period of time in areas of abundant sand and show a complex internal structure. Careful 3-D mapping is required to determine the morphology of a draa preserved in the geologic record. Linear dunes can be traced up to tens of kilometers, with heights sometimes in excess of 70 meters (230 ft). They are typically several hundred meters across and are spaced 1 to 2 kilometers (0.62 to 1.24 mi)apart. They sometimes coalesce at

1888-775: A local indigenous chieftain named Apur. The conquest of Apure began in the mid 17th century when the land was populated by many indigenous peoples, including the Arawak and the Caribs . Actual settlement did not start until the early 18th century with large cattle foundations started by landowners looking to expand their already crowded cattle ranches in San Carlos de Austria and other cities. Some of these included Jose Ignacio Pumar (Marquee of Pumar), Joseph Blanco Y Salazar along with Franciscan missionaries from Andalucia and others missionaries and landowners that would "pacify" and remove

2006-583: A long-term Venezuelan expatriate , and Simón Bolívar , a young, Criollo aristocrat—both influenced by Age of Enlightenment ideas and the example of the French Revolution —led the movement. The Congress declared Venezuela's independence on 5 July 1811, establishing the Republic of Venezuela. Even before the Congress began its sessions in November 1810, a civil war started between those who supported

2124-632: A much drier climate than the current one, but a mechanism of dune formation that acts only in the dry season since the lowering of the water level of the Orinoco at the rivers' lowest point, especially that of those that originate in the llanos, extensive beaches of fine sand are left behind, that the trade winds very quickly will transfer to the southeast, forming what now constitutes el Parque Nacional Santos Luzardo (the Santos Luzardo National Park), which takes its name from one of

2242-411: A network of sinuous ridges perpendicular to the wind direction. Aklé dunes are preserved in the geologic record as sandstone with large sets of cross-bedding and many reactivation surfaces. Draas are very large composite transverse dunes. They can be up to 4,000 meters (13,000 ft) across and 400 meters (1,300 ft) high and extend lengthwise for hundreds of kilometers. In form, they resemble

2360-405: A sheet-like surface of rock fragments that remains after wind and water have removed the fine particles. The rock mantle in desert pavements protects the underlying material from further deflation. Areas of desert pavement form the regs or stony deserts of the Sahara . These are further divided into rocky areas called hamadas and areas of small rocks and gravel called serirs . Desert pavement

2478-594: A small fleet, Bolívar sailed west along the Venezuelan coast to Ocumare de la Costa (the Expedition of Los Cayos), where, in fulfillment of Pétion's request, he officially proclaimed the end of slavery (although this went unheeded). Morales, back in Venezuela after subduing New Granada, attacked the republican expeditionary force with an army that vastly outnumbered the republicans. Bolívar fled, sailing once again to Haiti with Brión. However, Piar and Gregor MacGregor ,

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2596-597: A successful movement to depose the Spanish Governor and Captain-General, Vicente Emparán . A junta was established in Caracas, and soon other Venezuelan provinces followed suit. The reverberations of this act of independence could be felt throughout Venezuela almost immediately. Across Venezuela, towns and cities decided to either side with the movement based in Caracas or not, and de facto civil war ensued throughout much of Venezuela. The Caracas Junta called for

2714-549: A united leadership, much less a united strategy. One group of patriots launched an expedition to eastern Venezuela that ended in failure. Bolívar thereafter sought to join forces with Manuel Piar , another patriot leader but differences between them prevented a united republican front. Bolívar then went to the Llanos where he joined forces with José Antonio Páez , but a failed attack on central Venezuela forced Bolivar to retreat back to Apure . Morillo counterattacked successfully but

2832-403: A vigorous low-latitude wind system plus more exposed continental shelf due to low sea levels. Wind-deposited sand bodies occur as ripples and other small-scale features, sand sheets , and dunes . Wind blowing on a sand surface ripples the surface into crests and troughs whose long axes are perpendicular to the wind direction. The average length of jumps during saltation corresponds to

2950-453: A zone where the springs, the branches, the rivers, the lagoons, and the swamps extraordinarily complicate the hydrography. Apure relies on an abundant phreatic zone that supplies the cities and towns with potable water, and a few decades ago networks of modules were created that allowed water storage for use in periods of drought. The most important rivers in the state are: the Apure for which

3068-513: Is silt deposited by wind, is common in humid to subhumid climates. Much of North America and Europe are underlain by sand and loess of Pleistocene age originating from glacial outwash. The lee (downwind) side of river valleys in semiarid regions are often blanketed with sand and sand dunes. Examples in North America include the Platte , Arkansas , and Missouri Rivers. Wind erodes

3186-576: Is also important in periglacial areas, on river flood plains , and in coastal areas. Coastal winds transport significant amounts of siliciclastic and carbonate sediments inland, while wind storms and dust storms can carry clay and silt particles great distances. Wind transports much of the sediments deposited in deep ocean basins. In ergs (desert sand seas), wind is very effective at transporting grains of sand size and smaller. Particles are transported by winds through suspension, saltation (skipping or bouncing) and creeping (rolling or sliding) along

3304-479: Is also responsible for forming red clay soils in southern Europe. Dust storms are wind storms that have entrained enough dust to reduce visibility to less than 1 kilometer (0.6 mi). Most occur on the synoptic (regional) scale, due to strong winds along weather fronts , or locally from downbursts from thunderstorms. Crops , people, and possibly even climates are affected by dust storms. On Earth, dust can cross entire oceans, as occurs with dust from

3422-537: Is bordered on the north by the states of Táchira , Barinas , and Guárico , on the east and southeast by the states of Bolívar and Amazonas and on the south and west by Colombia . Originating in the Tertiary ( Neogene ) and Quaternary ( Pleistocene ) periods, the Llanos (plains) of Apure are formed by sediments of little or no consolidation, with sandy and clayey deposits built up by floods in recent times. On

3540-440: Is downwind movement of particles in a series of jumps or skips. Saltation is most important for grains of up to 2 mm in size. A saltating grain may hit other grains that jump up to continue the saltation. The grain may also hit larger grains (over 2 mm in size) that are too heavy to hop, but that slowly creep forward as they are pushed by saltating grains. Surface creep accounts for as much as 25 percent of grain movement in

3658-552: Is extremely common in desert environments. Blowouts are hollows formed by wind deflation. Blowouts are generally small, but may be up to several kilometers in diameter. The smallest are mere dimples 0.3 meters (1 ft) deep and 3 meters (10 ft) in diameter. The largest include the blowout hollows of Mongolia, which can be 8 kilometers (5 mi) across and 60 to 100 meters (200 to 400 ft) deep. Big Hollow in Wyoming , US, extends 14 by 9.7 kilometers (9 by 6 mi) and

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3776-457: Is important in semiarid and arid regions. Wind erosion is increased by some human activities, such as the use of 4x4 vehicles . Deflation is the lifting and removal of loose material from the surface by wind turbulence. It takes place by three mechanisms: traction/surface creep, saltation , and suspension. Traction or surface creep is a process of larger grains sliding or rolling across the surface. Saltation refers to particles bouncing across

3894-435: Is most applicable in areas devoid of vegetation. In 1941, John Tilton Hack added parabolic dunes, which are strongly influenced by vegetation, to the list of dune types. The discovery of dunes on Mars reinvigorated aeolian process research, which increasingly makes use of computer simulation. Wind-deposited materials hold clues to past as well as to present wind directions and intensities. These features help us understand

4012-575: Is on the Loess Plateau in China . This very same Asian dust is blown for thousands of miles, forming deep beds in places as far away as Hawaii. The Peoria Loess of North America is up to 40 meters (130 ft) thick in parts of western Iowa . The soils developed on loess are generally highly productive for agriculture. Small whirlwinds, called dust devils , are common in arid lands and are thought to be related to very intense local heating of

4130-469: Is sliced by numerous rivers of great length and breadth, all of which are part of the Orinoco river basin. The Apure River , the most important of these, is at the same time the main Venezuelan tributary of the Orinoco from its left border, and the second longest in the country: it covers some 1,000 km (620 mi) from its source to its mouth. All of the lands in the south of the state constitute

4248-609: Is that these dunes result from secondary flow , though the precise mechanism remains uncertain. Complex dunes (star dunes or rhourd dunes) are characterized by having more than two slip faces. They are typically 500 to 1,000 meters (1,600 to 3,300 ft) across and 50 to 300 meters (160 to 980 ft) high. They consist of a central peak with radiating crests and are thought to form where strong winds can come from any direction. Those in Gran Desierto de Altar of Mexico are thought to have formed from precursor linear dunes due to

4366-463: Is the wearing down by collisions of particles entrained in a moving fluid. It is effective at rounding sand grains and at giving them a distinctive frosted surface texture. Collisions between windborne particles is a major source of dust in the size range of 2-5 microns. Most of this is produced by the removal of a weathered clay coating from the grains. Wind dominates the transport of sand and finer sediments in arid environments. Wind transport

4484-437: Is up to 90 meters (300 ft) deep. Abrasion (also sometimes called corrasion ) is the process of wind-driven grains knocking or wearing material off of landforms . It was once considered a major contributor to desert erosion, but by the mid-20th Century, it had come to be considered much less important. Wind can normally lift sand only a short distance, with most windborne sand remaining within 50 centimeters (20 in) of

4602-441: Is usually less than the fluid threshold. In other words, there is hysteresis in the wind transport system. Small particles may be held in the atmosphere in suspension. Turbulent air motion supports the weight of suspended particles and allows them to be transported for great distances. Wind is particularly effective at separating sediment grains under 0.05 mm in size from coarser grains as suspended particles. Saltation

4720-663: The Battle of Lake Maracaibo . In the following years Venezuelan forces, as part of the army of Gran Colombia, continued campaigning under the leadership of Bolívar to liberate the southern parts of New Granada and Ecuador . Once this was accomplished, Gran Colombia continued its fight against the Spanish in Peru and Bolivia , completing the efforts of Chilean and Argentine patriots, such as José de San Martín , who liberated southern South America. San Blas Conspiracy It consisted of

4838-523: The Battle of Urica , Boves was killed and Morales took command and carried out mopping up operations against the remaining patriot resistance, which included the capture and execution of Ribas. As was still common in the early 19th century, Morales had his head boiled in oil (to preserve it) and sent to Caracas. (See the Execution of Miguel Hidalgo in Mexico.) Boves died shortly thereafter in battle, but

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4956-658: The governor , the majority of the Municipal Councils of the State or 10% of the voters. For an Amendment or Reform created by the Legislative Branch to be approved, it needs to receive an absolute majority of the votes of the parliamentarians, nor is it necessary to submit the reform to a referendum. It is composed of the Governor of Apure State and a group of State Secretaries. The Governor is elected by

5074-569: The mantuano -controlled center of Venezuela. In the east, the royalists started recovering territory. After suffering a setback, Mariño and Bolívar joined their forces, but they were defeated by Boves in 1814. Republicans were forced to evacuate Caracas and flee to the east, where, in the port of Carúpano, Piar was still holding out. Piar, however, did not accept Bolívar's supreme command, and once again Bolívar left Venezuela and went to New Granada (1815). (See Bolívar in New Granada ). Resistance to

5192-438: The wavelength , or distance between adjacent crests, of the ripples. In ripples, the coarsest materials collect at the crests causing inverse grading . This distinguishes small ripples from dunes, where the coarsest materials are generally in the troughs. This is also a distinguishing feature between water laid ripples and aeolian ripples. A sand shadow is an accumulation of sand on the downwind side of an obstruction, such as

5310-403: The windward side. The downwind portion of the dune, the lee slope, is commonly a steep avalanche slope referred to as a slipface . Dunes may have more than one slipface. The minimum height of a slipface is about 30 centimeters. Wind-blown sand moves up the gentle upwind side of the dune by saltation or creep. Sand accumulates at the brink, the top of the slipface. When the buildup of sand at

5428-462: The 2011 Census, the racial composition of the population was: Agriculture and livestock are the main economic activities in Apure State. Sugar cane , caraota , beans , fruit trees , oil palms , bananas and cassava , among others, are grown in the agricultural areas. The livestock sector is basically specialized in the production of cattle, concentrating about 30% of the heads of cattle in

5546-466: The 2011 census information, the estimated population of Apure State in 2011 is 459,025 inhabitants. Apure state derives its name from the Apure River , which runs through the state. The river was known by that name in Spanish no later than the 1648 works of friar Jacinto de Carvajal . The source of the name of the river is less certain, with theories attributing it to the name of a local shrub or to

5664-476: The 5000 pesos reward on his head. He stayed in the port until he was captured, tortured and dismembered by the Spanish authorities. His parts where displayed all around the city of Caracas , which set an example of what happened to anybody that challenged their authority. According to the "Instituto Panamericano de Geografía e Historia" Gual never set foot again in Venezuela , and died while being persecuted by

5782-569: The Apure River are formed by the Uribante and the Sarare , whose lower parts are found in the state of Apure. The warm, rainy tropical savannah climate is dominant, with a severe dry season and a rainy season. Also, the temperature can be high all year round. 700 and the 1500 mm. Due to the characteristics of the state relief, the temperature presents a relative uniformity in almost all

5900-490: The Earth's surface by deflation (the removal of loose, fine-grained particles by the turbulent action of the wind) and by abrasion (the wearing down of surfaces by the grinding action and sandblasting by windborne particles). Once entrained in the wind, collisions between particles further break them down, a process called attrition . Worldwide, erosion by water is more important than erosion by wind, but wind erosion

6018-499: The Earth's total land surface. The sandy areas of today's world are somewhat anomalous. Deserts, in both the present day and in the geological record, are usually dominated by alluvial fans rather than dune fields. The present relative abundance of sandy areas may reflect reworking of Tertiary sediments following the Last Glacial Maximum. Most modern deserts have experienced extreme Quaternary climate change, and

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6136-460: The Republic this time came from the people of the vast southern plains, the Llaneros , who organized under the command of Spanish immigrant, José Tomás Boves . The war was transformed. The Llaneros had a dislike for the urban and elite Criollos who led the independence movement. Negroes were supplied with maps and lists of rebel plantations by royalists. The Llanero army routed the patriots in

6254-426: The Republic was successfully suppressed. By 1812 the situation increasingly became aggravated for the young Republic. It was short of funds, Spanish Regency set up a blockade (although it was easily bypassed by British and American merchant ships), and, shortly after, on 26 March 1812, a devastating earthquake affected republican areas. In these desperate moments, Miranda was given dictatorial powers, nevertheless, he

6372-675: The Sahara that reaches the Amazon Basin . Dust storms on Mars periodically engulf the entire planet. When the Mariner 9 spacecraft entered its orbit around Mars in 1971, a dust storm lasting one month covered the entire planet, thus delaying the task of photo-mapping the planet's surface. Most of the dust carried by dust storms is in the form of silt -size particles. Deposits of this windblown silt are known as loess . The thickest known deposit of loess, up to 350 meters (1,150 ft),

6490-526: The Spanish Monarchy. In 1821, the Gran Colombian army won a decisive victory at the second Battle of Carabobo , after which the only cities in the hands of the royalist forces were Cumaná , which fell shortly thereafter, and Puerto Cabello , which managed to resist a siege before finally capitulating in October 1823. The Spanish sent a fleet in 1823 to reconquer the country but were defeated at

6608-551: The Spanish authorities with relative ease, as Caracas had done at first. The autonomous movement swept through New Granada, but the country remained politically disunited. Bogotá inherited the role of capital from Spain, but the royalists were entrenched in southern Colombia ( Popayán and Pasto ). Cali was a bastion of the independence movement just north of royalist territory. Cartagena declared independence not only from Spain but also from Bogotá. Bolívar arrived in Cartagena and

6726-461: The Spanish had ever sent to the Americas. Venezuela's proximity to Cuba, Puerto Rico and Spain made it the first target of the royalist counterattack. The Llaneros were either demobilized or incorporated into the expeditionary units. The republican patriots found themselves once more dispersed, and again the war took a local character. Different patriot guerrilla bands formed, but could not agree on

6844-537: The Spanish throne by his brother, Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte of France . At the same time, the process of creating a stable government in Spain, which would be widely recognized throughout the empire, took two years. ( See Junta (Peninsular War) .) This created a power vacuum in the Spanish possessions in America , which created further political uncertainty. On April 19, 1810 the municipal council of Caracas headed

6962-477: The Spanish. Legacy These events inspired liberals in the Americas to realize that this goal may be achieved. The Spanish authorities instead of achieving what they wanted with their treatment of revolutionaries, inspired even more hate and liberalism in the overall public. This conspiracy gave the Americas a message, that was transmitted through not only speech but by text and Ideas, Documents like "Derechos del Hombre y del Ciudadano" where widely spread throughout

7080-502: The State Legislative Council according to the constitution of that entity to complete the remaining government period, after Governor-elect Jesus Aguilarte Gamez presented his resignation alleging "health problems", Aguilarte's administration was being questioned even by sectors of his own party had been serving as governor since 2004 and had been re-elected in 2008. Like the other 23 federal entities of Venezuela ,

7198-648: The State maintains its own police force, which is supported and complemented by the National Police and the Venezuelan National Guard . The state legislature is the responsibility of the Legislative Council of Apure State, a unicameral parliament, elected by the people by direct and secret vote every four years, with the possibility of re-election for two consecutive periods, under a system of proportional representation of

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7316-442: The air that results in instabilities of the air mass. Dust devils may be as much as one kilometer high. Dust devils on Mars have been observed as high as 10 kilometers (6.2 mi), though this is uncommon. Wind is very effective at separating sand from silt and clay. As a result, there are distinct sandy (erg) and silty (loess) aeolian deposits, with only limited interbedding between the two. Loess deposits are found further from

7434-556: The arms of the dune. Clay dunes are uncommon but have been found in Africa, Australia, and along the Gulf Coast of North America. These form on mud flats on the margins of saline bodies of water subject to strong prevailing winds during a dry season. Clay particles are bound into sand-sized pellets by salts and are then deposited in the dunes, where the return of the cool season allows the pellets to absorb moisture and become bound to

7552-639: The banks of the Orinoco one finds outcroppings of rocks, from the Archean era, which are part of the Guiana Shield and appear at heights called galleys. Likewise, in the Andean foothills, rocks from the Tertiary Period form hills and short slopes in the mountain range. A large part of the state of Apure is constituted by an extensive field of dunes (occupying some 30,000 km²), which has

7670-683: The beginnings of the war. On 5 July 1811, seven of the ten provinces of the Captaincy General of Venezuela declared their independence in the Venezuelan Declaration of Independence . The First Republic of Venezuela was lost in 1812 following the 1812 Caracas earthquake and the 1812 Battle of La Victoria . Simón Bolívar led an " Admirable Campaign " to retake Venezuela, establishing the Second Republic of Venezuela in 1813; but this too did not last, falling to

7788-442: The brink exceeds the angle of repose , a small avalanche of grains slides down the slipface. Grain by grain, the dune moves downwind. Dunes take three general forms. Linear dunes, also called longitudinal dunes or seifs, are aligned in the direction of the prevailing winds. Transverse dunes, which include crescent dunes (barchans), are aligned perpendicular to the prevailing winds. More complex dunes, such as star dunes, form where

7906-475: The center of the country. Finally Boves marched towards Caracas, forcing the Republicans to flee to the east of the country, ending the second republic. The traditional image of the Venezuelan llanos swarming with caudillos like Boves exaggerates the situation. Boves was the only significant pro-Spain caudillo and he was acting in concert with Francisco Tomás Morales , who was a regular officer of Spain. In

8024-585: The city of Caracas; nevertheless, the negative balance thrown by that phenomenon has been reverted when receiving an important flow of immigrants from the Venezuelan Andes and Colombia. The population is mostly concentrated in urban areas and 48% is made up of young individuals between 10 and 40 years of age. Its main cities are: San Fernando and Guasdualito. Its main towns are Achaguas , Biruaca , Bruzual , Mantecal, El Amparo , Elorza , La Victoria, Puerto Paez and San Juan de Payara . According to

8142-460: The colonists. One of the main objectives this movement followed was the equality of man and equal rights for every one, either black or white, rich or poor. According to Tomas Fernandez and Elena Tamaro, this conspiracy had gained a lot of supporters both inside and outside the country, even the British and French navies supported their ambition of freedom against the Spanish rule. In July of 1797

8260-845: The conspiracy was supposed to materialize it's ambitions, but the Spanish Authorities including the Bishop of Caracas and the Governor of the Captaincy General of Venezuela , were quick enough to capture, interrogate and torture every individual suspected to be part of this conspiracy. Both Manuel Gual and Jose Maria España escaped to the Antilles , and even met again in Trinidad shortly after. España came back in 1799, he arrived to Barcelona and came back to la Guaira where he aspired to continue with his ambitions, regardless of

8378-491: The country and helped achieve the ultimate goal of independence from the colonists. Aeolian processes Aeolian processes , also spelled eolian , pertain to wind activity in the study of geology and weather and specifically to the wind's ability to shape the surface of the Earth (or other planets ). Winds may erode , transport, and deposit materials and are effective agents in regions with sparse vegetation ,

8496-507: The country had been returned to royalist control. Morillo arrived in Venezuela and began operations with Morales. In Spain, anti-French forces had liberated the country, and the restored Ferdinand VII sent a large expeditionary force to Venezuela and New Granada under Pablo Morillo , who had distinguished himself during Spain's War of Independence . Royalist forces under Morillo and Morales captured Cartagena and Bogotá in 1816. Before leaving for New Granada Morillo had decommissioned most of

8614-625: The country, and sooner than later both Gual and España found themselves leading a conspiracy against the Spanish rule. Manuel Gual and Jose Maria España This conspiracy took place in the city of La Guaira , it was inspired by both the San Blas Conspiracy and the French revolution , and similar to the first one, it was led by very important members of the society, lawyers, engineers, and merchants, regardless of this, people from all races and status in society joined and conspired against

8732-542: The country. In 1813 Bolívar joined the army of United Provinces of New Granada . After winning a series of battles, Bolívar received the approval of the New Granadan Congress to lead a liberating force into Venezuela in what became known as the Admirable Campaign . At the same time, Santiago Mariño invaded from the northeast in an independently organized campaign. Both forces quickly defeated

8850-415: The directions of the winds are highly variable. Additional dune types arise from various kinds of topographic forcing, such as from isolated hills or escarpments. Transverse dunes occur in areas dominated by a single direction of the prevailing wind. In areas where sand is not abundant, transverse dunes take the form of barchans or crescent dunes. These are not common, but they are highly recognizable, with

8968-428: The distinctive crescent shape. Growth is ultimately limited by the carrying capacity of the wind, which as the wind becomes saturated with sediments, builds up the slip face of the dune. Because barchans develop in areas of limited sand availability, they are poorly preserved in the geologic record. Where sand is more abundant, transverse dunes take the form of aklé dunes, such as those of the western Sahara. These form

9086-628: The dune surface. Deserts cover 20 to 25 percent of the modern land surface of the earth, mostly between the latitudes of 10 to 30 degrees north or south. Here the descending part of the tropical atmospheric circulation (the Hadley cell ) produces high atmospheric pressure and suppresses precipitation. Large areas of this desert is floored with windblown sand. Such areas are called ergs when they exceed about 125 square kilometers (48 sq mi) in area or dune fields when smaller. Ergs and dune fields make up about 20% of modern deserts or about 6% of

9204-603: The first Latin American republic to become independent . With the support of the Haitian president Alexandre Pétion and with the naval aid of Luis Brión , another émigré, who was a merchant from Curaçao, Bolívar returned to Margarita Island , a secure republican redoubt, but his command of the republican forces was still not firm. Mariño, who had come back with Bolívar from Haiti, headed his own expeditions and succeeded in temporarily capturing Cumaná in 1817. With Brión supplying

9322-404: The ground. The minimum wind velocity to initiate transport is called the fluid threshold or static threshold and is the wind velocity required to begin dislodging grains from the surface. Once transport is initiated, there is a cascade effect from grains tearing loose other grains, so that transport continues until the wind velocity drops below the dynamic threshold or impact threshold , which

9440-467: The illusion that there were fortunes to be made in Venezuela, which was hardly the case. There is no evidence that the British government was backing them, but since Spain was no longer a British ally, it was not hindering them either. In Europe, generally, Bolívar's name was known as was the Spanish American movement for independence, which had the sympathy of every liberal-minded person, as did

9558-532: The independence of Greece, then also in the process of emancipation . Morillo had his hands full and pardos were starting to look towards patriot leaders. Campaigns in eastern Venezuela began turning the tide for independence and in the llanos Páez defeated Morillo and Morales in Apure. This cleared the way for Bolívar and Santander to invade New Granada, where, in Pantano de Vargas , the Spaniards were defeated in

9676-402: The irregular forces that had fought under Boves, except those that he took to New Granada. With little prospects, some pardos and llaneros began to join the rebellions that were breaking out against Spanish rule in the broad plains of southern Venezuela. In the meantime, Bolívar chose to sail to Jamaica to enlist British aid, which was refused. From there, he went to Haiti , which had been

9794-576: The judges. British veterans of the Napoleonic wars began arriving in Venezuela, where they formed the nucleus of what later became known as the British Legion . Morillo returned to Caracas and Morales was given troops to dominate eastern Venezuela, which he did successfully. Francisco de Paula Santander , a New Granadan who had retreated to the llanos after Morillo's invasion, met with Bolívar and agreed to join forces. Morillo's other lieutenant,

9912-518: The juntas, and eventually independence, and royalists who wanted to maintain the union with Spain. Two provinces, Maracaibo Province and Guayana Province , and one district, Coro , never recognized the Caracas Junta and remained loyal to the governments in Spain. Military expeditions to bring Coro and Guayana under the control of the Republic failed. In 1811 an uprising in Valencia against

10030-469: The leadership of Simón Bolívar . Venezuela, along with the present-day countries of Colombia , Panama , and Ecuador , formed part of the Republic of Gran Colombia until 1830, when Venezuela separated and became a sovereign state. The French invasion of Spain in 1808 led to the fall of the Spanish Monarchy . Most subjects of Spain did not accept the government of Joseph Bonaparte , placed on

10148-565: The llanos is referred to as the godmother of the herd), according to the work of Calzadilla Valdés. Also, they allow the livestock to take refuge from the floods. The ecosystem in the savanna is the result of having been modeled by the wind ( aeolian processes ). It is not, as noted in the Atlas of Venezuela: A Spatial Image ( Atlas de Venezuela: Una imagen espacial , also known as El Atlas de Petróleos de Venezuela ), an ecosystem of "paleodunas", literally 'old dunes,' formed in an environment with

10266-466: The llanos) and Morillo (entrenched in Caracas, triumphant in eastern Venezuela, and operating in the llanos as far as Apure). This is the time during which (according to Marx ), Bolívar dilly-dallied and lost one skirmish after another, also saying that European officers in Angostura were egging him on to attack the center of Venezuela. (Bolívar did attempt to do so, but suffered defeat at La Puerta.) At

10384-475: The main characters in the novel Doña Bárbara by Rómulo Gallegos . It is almost entirely flat, with extensive plains from the convergence of the Apure, Arauca, and Capanaparo Rivers with the Orinoco to the foothills of the Andes. With little unevenness of terrain, the altitude fluctuates between 40 and 200 meters above sea level. The Apurean llanos feature several important physiographic events, generated by

10502-525: The margins of dune fields, although they also occur within ergs. Conditions that favor the formation of sand sheets, instead of dunes, may include surface cementation, a high water table, the effects of vegetation, periodic flooding, or sediments rich in grains too coarse for effective saltation. A dune is an accumulations of sediment blown by the wind into a mound or ridge . They differ from sand shadows or sand drifts in that they are independent of any topographic obstacle. Dunes have gentle upwind slopes on

10620-551: The narrowest and deepest part of the Orinoco River , hence its name, subsequently changed to Ciudad Bolívar ), to where Bolívar headed and was chosen as supreme leader of the independence movement. (It was at this time that Bolívar ordered the addition of a new star for Guayana to the seven stars on the Venezuelan flag , which represented the number of provinces that originally had favored independence. Since Bolívar played

10738-461: The natives by the sword or converting them to Christianity. In the colonial era, Apure was at one time part of the Province of Mérida del Espíritu Santo de la Grita , which merged with Maracaibo in 1676 to form Maracaibo Province . Its territory was part of the territory split from Maracaibo Province in 1786 to form Barinas Province . Apure Province was split from Barinas in 1823, and in 1864 it

10856-489: The nature of the mixture. Similarly, exposure to very humid or somewhat drier climatic conditions is relevant. The result is uneven, so that the soils are distributed as follows: in the dune areas, they are acidic and low in nutrients; in sectors of constantly flooded plains, they are of medium quality and deficient in fertility; in the banks they have good drainage and medium textures; and in the northeast (towards Biruaca) they have extraordinary agricultural power. In almost all

10974-610: The original source of sediments than ergs. An example of this is the Sand Hills of Nebraska , US. Here vegetation-stabilized sand dunes are found to the west and loess deposits to the east, further from the original sediment source in the Ogallala Formation at the feet of the Rocky Mountains. Some of the most significant experimental measurements on aeolian landforms were performed by Ralph Alger Bagnold ,

11092-403: The peculiarity of not being a desert climate but a savannah, with natural grasslands alternating with corridors of jungle and voluminous rivers with sand dunes of more than 100 km (62 mi) in length and 20 m in height. Some of these dunes are used by llaneros to establish dairy farms, which, in addition to processing milk, prepare a group of cattle to go to the head of the pack (which in

11210-485: The people by direct and secret vote for a period of four years and with the possibility of immediate re-election for equal periods, being in charge of the state administration. The formet governor is Ramon Carrizales of the PSUV party for the 2012–2016 term. Since 1989 governors are directly elected by the citizens of the state, the current governor is Ramon Carrizales who has been in office since February 2011, appointed by

11328-492: The population of the state and its municipalities. Apure is made up of 7 municipalities and 26 parishes. The municipalities Páez and Rómulo Gallegos make up the Distrito del Alto Apure. With a population density of 7 inhabitants/km, Apure is one of the most unpopulated states in the country. Extensive empty or almost uninhabited areas characterize its territory, traditionally affected by a strong emigration towards Aragua and

11446-460: The present climate and the forces that molded it. For example, vast inactive ergs in much of the modern world attest to late Pleistocene trade wind belts being much expanded during the Last Glacial Maximum. Ice cores show a tenfold increase in non-volcanic dust during glacial maxima. The highest dust peak in the Vostok ice cores dates to 20 to 21 thousand years ago. The abundant dust is attributed to

11564-526: The prevailing wind. They form mostly in softer material such as silts. Abrasion produces polishing and pitting, grooving, shaping, and faceting of exposed surfaces. These are widespread in arid environments but geologically insignificant. Polished or faceted surfaces called ventifacts are rare, requiring abundant sand, powerful winds, and a lack of vegetation for their formation. In parts of Antarctica wind-blown snowflakes that are technically sediments have also caused abrasion of exposed rocks. Attrition

11682-576: The royalist troops in various battles, such as Alto de los Godos . Bolívar entered Caracas on 6 August 1813, proclaiming the restoration of the Venezuelan Republic and his supreme leadership of it, something which was not fully recognized by Mariño based in Cumaná , although the two leaders did cooperate militarily. In the viceroyalties of La Plata and New Granada the Creoles displaced

11800-471: The royalists at Boyacá . With the liberation of New Granada, the republicans had a significant base from which to attack Morillo's forces. A republican Congress at Angostura (today Ciudad Bolívar ), which already had a small New Granada delegation, declared the union of New Granada and Venezuela in a Republic of Colombia (the Gran Colombia of contemporary accounts) to present a united front against

11918-581: The second in command of the expeditionary force, Miguel de la Torre , was ordered to put down a significant rebellion in the llanos of Apure led by José Antonio Páez . At the time in the Southern Cone of South America, José de San Martín had concluded the liberation of Chile with the essential support of the Chilean Bernardo O'Higgins . The year 1818 saw a stalemate between the patriots based in Angostura (and free-wheeling in part of

12036-656: The state is named; the Arauca, at more than 700 km (430 mi) long, which has its source in Colombia and forms the border between the two countries for a stretch, and unites the Apure by means of various branches and springs before flowing into the Orinoco; the Orichuna Channel at more than 500 km (310 mi) long; the Capanaparo , Cinaruco , Cunaviche , Matiyure , and Meta . The upper courses of

12154-613: The surface and practically none normally being carried above 2 meters (6 ft). Many desert features once attributed to wind abrasion, including wind caves, mushroom rocks , and the honeycomb weathering called tafoni , are now attributed to differential weathering, rainwash, deflation rather than abrasion, or other processes. Yardangs are one kind of desert feature that is widely attributed to wind abrasion. These are rock ridges, up to tens of meters high and kilometers long, that have been streamlined by desert winds. Yardangs characteristically show elongated furrows or grooves aligned with

12272-420: The surface for short distances. Suspended particles are fully entrained in the wind, which carries them for long distances. Saltation likely accounts for 50–70 % of deflation, while suspension accounts for 30–40 % and surface creep accounts for 5–25 %. Regions which experience intense and sustained erosion are called deflation zones. Most aeolian deflation zones are composed of desert pavement ,

12390-536: The surface of the earth. Sediment deposits produced by the action of wind and the sedimentary structures characteristic of these deposits are also described as aeolian . Aeolian processes are most important in areas where there is little or no vegetation. However, aeolian deposits are not restricted to arid climates. They are also seen along shorelines; along stream courses in semiarid climates; in areas of ample sand weathered from weakly cemented sandstone outcrops; and in areas of glacial outwash . Loess , which

12508-526: The territory prevails a vegetation of savannah, herbaceous , grassland , scrub and bushes It is an autonomous and politically equal state, organizing its administration and public powers through the Constitution of the State of Apure. The current Constitution was adopted on 15 October 2002 and partially reformed in 2005. Amendments or Reforms to the Constitution may be proposed by the Legislature,

12626-633: The territory. From the Andean foothills, temperatures will decrease in proportion to the increase in altitude, reaching up to 10 °C in the extreme northwest of the state, above 3,200 meters above sea level in El Tamá. The shape of the precipitation distribution in the Apure state is one of the fundamental characteristics, being related to modifying factors such as latitude, relief, cold fronts and intertropical convergence. They vary in quality and texture according to age and drainage , elements that influence

12744-456: The time James Rooke did in fact command over 1,000 European soldiers within Bolívar's army in Venezuela. But Morillo had larger forces, and not just of Spanish line troops but also of pardos still loyal to the Spanish crown. In 1819 Bolívar proclaimed the republic of Great Colombia , which included Venezuela and New Granada. New volunteers arrived in Venezuela, though most, like those that preceded them, were in essence mercenaries probably under

12862-538: The type of soil, climate, and its hydrological pattern. Protruding between them are zones of dunes, delta plains, and such features as shoals, banks, and estuaries, which are very prone to floods during the rainy season. Furthermore, in the west of the territory, one finds foothills and mountains with altitudes of greater than 3 km, in a portion of the Cordillera Oriental Andina (Eastern Andean Range) that borders Estado Táchira . The state

12980-420: The west headed by Bolívar and one in the east headed by Mariño. But neither the successful invasions nor Bolívar's decree were provoking a massive enrollment of pardos in the cause of Independence. Rather it was the other way around. In the Llanos a populist Spanish immigrant caudillo, José Tomás Boves , initiated a widespread pardo movement against the restored Republic. Bolívar and Ribas held and defended

13098-749: The whole national territory. Apure state has several national parks and herds or farms that receive national and foreign tourists 7°54′N 67°28′W  /  7.900°N 67.467°W  / 7.900; -67.467 Venezuelan War of Independence [REDACTED] Simón Bolívar ( Commander-in-Chief ) [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Ferdinand VII ( King of Spain from 1813) New Spain American Confederation of Venezuela Caudillismo Andean Hegemony Democratic period Bolivarian Revolution The Venezuelan War of Independence (Spanish: Guerra de Independencia de Venezuela , 1810–1823)

13216-555: The wind. Sand sheets are flat or gently undulating sandy deposits with only small surface ripples. An example is the Selima Sand Sheet in the eastern Sahara Desert, which occupies 60,000 square kilometers (23,000 sq mi) in southern Egypt and northern Sudan . This consists of a few feet of sand resting on bedrock. Sand sheets are often remarkably flat and are sometimes described as desert peneplains . Sand sheets are common in desert environments, particularly on

13334-402: Was defeated at the Battle of Las Queseras del Medio . A long-term stalemate ensued in which the royalists controlled the highly populated, urban north and the republicans the vast, under-populated plains of the south. Bolívar and Brión returned and tried in 1817 to capture Barcelona, where the Spaniards repulsed them. In the meantime, Piar and Mariño had occupied defenceless Angostura (a city at

13452-486: Was given state status. Apure has been an autonomous state since 1864, when the Venezuelan territory organized itself as los Estados Unidos de Venezuela, or United States of Venezuela . In 1881 it formed part of the state of Bolívar along with Guayana, but recovered the category of autonomous state in 1899. The state of Apure is located to the southwest of Venezuela, positioned between 06º03’45’’ and 08º04’22’’ latitude North and 66º21’45’’ and 72º22’30’’ longitude West. It

13570-537: Was having second thoughts on his side. At the time that Bolívar was victorious in the west, Santiago Mariño and Manuel Piar , a pardo from the Dutch island of Curaçao , were successfully fighting royalists in eastern Venezuela. Quickly losing ground (much as Miranda had a year earlier) Monteverde took refuge in Puerto Cabello, and Bolívar occupied Caracas, re-establishing the Republic, with two "states", one in

13688-838: Was one of the Spanish American wars of independence of the early nineteenth century, when independence movements in South America fought a civil war for secession and against unity of the Spanish Empire , emboldened by Spain's troubles in the Napoleonic Wars . The establishment of the Supreme Caracas Junta following the forced deposition of Vicente Emparan as Captain General of the Captaincy General of Venezuela on 19 April 1810, marked

13806-590: Was unable to stem the royalist advance headed by Captain Domingo de Monteverde . By midyear, after the Battle of La Victoria , the Republic collapsed. Miranda capitulated to Monteverde and signed an armistice on 25 July 1812. Bolívar and other republicans continued the resistance from other parts of the Spanish South America and the Caribbean, or organized guerrilla movements in the interior of

13924-593: Was well received, as he was later in Bogotá, where he joined the army of the United Provinces of New Granada . He recruited a force and invaded Venezuela from the southwest, by crossing the Andes (1813). His chief lieutenant was the headstrong José Félix Ribas . In Trujillo, an Andean province, Bolívar emitted his infamous Decree of War to the Death with which he hoped to get the pardos and any mantuano who

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