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57-685: All of Israel have a part in the World to Come. But the following have no part in the World to Come: One who says that the resurrection of the dead is not biblical, or that the Torah is not from Heaven, or the Epicurean. All of the Jewish people have a share in the World-to-Come, as it is stated: “And your people also shall be all righteous, they shall inherit the land forever; the branch of My planting,

114-574: A pagan belief related to Babylonian religion , in which Mesopotamian gods had already been venerated in the form of planets and stars since antiquity. According to Ibn al-Nadim , our only source for these star-worshipping 'Sabians of the Marshes', they "follow the doctrines of the ancient Aramaeans [ ʿalā maḏāhib an-Nabaṭ al-qadīm ] and venerate the stars". However, there is also a large corpus of texts by Ibn Wahshiyya (died c. 930), most famously his Nabataean Agriculture , which describes at length

171-522: A period from Mishnaic to Geonic times, often showing evidence of having been worked and reworked from earlier materials, and frequently coming to us in multiple variants. A compact list of these works [based on ( Holtz 2008 )] is given below; a more thorough annotated list can be found under Midrash. The timeline below must be approximate because many of these works were composed over a long span of time, borrowing and collating material from earlier versions; their histories are therefore somewhat uncertain and

228-689: A poorly understood pagan religion that existed in Harran during the early Islamic period (7th–10th century), were known for their astral cult. The related term astrolatry usually implies polytheism . Some Abrahamic religions prohibit astrolatry as idolatrous . Pole star worship was also banned by imperial decree in Heian period Japan. Astrolatry has the suffix -λάτρης, itself related to λάτρις latris 'worshipper' or λατρεύειν latreuein 'to worship' from λάτρον latron 'payment'. Babylonian astronomy from early times associates stars with deities, but

285-564: A significant place in the context of Christian astrology. His birth is associated with an astronomical event, symbolized by the star of the king of the Jews. This event played a role in heralding his arrival and was considered a sign of his divine nature. The belief in Jesus as the Messiah , the anointed one, drew upon astrological concepts and symbolism. The incorporation of cosmological elements into

342-448: Is actually a singular case of disrespecting the entire Torah or its rabbinic scholar-sages. In his work Mishneh Torah (Yad, Teshuvah 3:8), Maimonides rules that an Epikoros is a person who denies that God communicates with humans through prophecy ; one who denies the prophecy of Moses ; or one who denies God's knowledge of the affairs of humans (i.e., one who maintains there is no divine providence ). Maimonides probably encountered

399-555: Is aligned with the star Thuban in the constellation Draco, which was the pole star at the time. This alignment likely served both symbolic and practical purposes, connecting the Pharaoh's eternal journey with the stars. Among the various religious groups which in the 9th and 10th centuries CE came to be identified with the mysterious Sabians mentioned in the Quran (sometimes also spelled 'Sabaeans' or 'Sabeans', but not to be confused with

456-964: Is also prevalent in many Nichiren-shū Buddhist temples due to the clan's connections with the school's Nakayama lineage. Celestial objects hold a significant place within Indigenous American cultures. From the Lakota in North America to the Inca in South America, the celestial realm was integrated into daily life. Stars served as navigation aids , temporal markers, and spiritual conduits , illustrating their practical and sacred importance. Heavenly bodies held spiritual wisdom. The Pleiades , revered in various cultures, symbolized diverse concepts such as agricultural cycles and ancestral spirits . In North America, star worship

513-615: Is an episode described in three of the canonical gospels in which the sky becomes dark during the day, during the crucifixion of Jesus as a sign of his divinity. Augustine of Hippo criticized sun- and star-worship in De Vera Religione (37.68) and De civitate Dei (5.1–8). Pope Leo the Great also denounced astrolatry and the cult of Sol Invictus , which he contrasted with the Christian nativity. Jesus Christ holds

570-608: Is apparent that the term is derived from his name. Epicurus was a pagan philosopher whose views contradicted Jewish scripture , the strictly monotheistic conception of God in Judaism , and the Jewish belief in the World to Come ; see Epicureanism § Philosophy . The Talmudic interpretation is that the Aramaic word is derived from the root-word פק"ר ‎ (PQR; lit. licentious ), hence disrespect, and accordingly: § [The mishna teaches that those who have no share in

627-656: Is further highlighted by its association with the goddess Isis during later periods, particularly in the Ptolemaic era, where Isis was often depicted as the star itself. Sopdet is the consort of Sah , the personified constellation of Orion near Sirius. Their child Venus was the hawk god Sopdu , "Lord of the East". As the bringer of the New Year and the Nile flood, she was associated with Osiris from an early date and by

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684-635: Is no firm evidence for any of these identifications. Apart from the Sabians of Harran, there were also various religious groups living in the Mesopotamian Marshes who were called the 'Sabians of the Marshes' (Arabic: Ṣābiʾat al-baṭāʾiḥ ). Though this name has often been understood as a reference to the Mandaeans , there was in fact at least one other religious group living in the marshlands of Southern Iraq. This group still held on to

741-460: Is recorded as having abolished all kinds of idolatry in Judah, but astrolatry was continued in private (Zeph. 1:5; Jer. 8:2, 19:13). Ezekiel (8:16) describes sun-worship practised in the court of the temple of Jerusalem, and Jeremiah (44:17) says that even after the destruction of the temple, women in particular insisted on continuing their worship of the "Queen of Heaven" . Crucifixion darkness

798-648: Is the entire spectrum of works authored by rabbis throughout Jewish history . The term typically refers to literature from the Talmudic era (70–640 CE), as opposed to medieval and modern rabbinic writings . It aligns with the Hebrew term Sifrut Chazal ( Hebrew : ספרות חז״ל ), which translates to “literature [of our] sages” and generally pertains only to the sages ( Chazal ) from the Talmudic period. This more specific sense of "Rabbinic literature"—referring to

855-661: The Chiba and the Sōma clans being among the deity's notable devotees. One legend claims that Taira no Masakado was a devotee of Myōken, who aided him in his military exploits. When Masakado grew proud and arrogant, the deity withdrew his favor and instead aided Masakado's uncle Yoshifumi , the ancestor of the Chiba clan. Owing to his status as the Chiba clan's ujigami (guardian deity), temples and shrines dedicated to Myōken are particularly numerous in former Chiba territories. Myōken worship

912-532: The Ptolemaic period Sah and Sopdet almost solely appeared in forms conflated with Osiris and Isis . Additionally, the alignment of architectural structures, such as pyramids and temples, with astronomical events reveals the deliberate integration of cosmological concepts into Egypt's built environment. For example, the Great Pyramid of Giza is aligned with the cardinal points, and its descending passage

969-604: The Sabaeans of South Arabia ), at least two groups appear to have engaged in some kind of star worship. By far the most famous of these two are the Sabians of Harran , adherents of a Hellenized Semitic pagan religion that had managed to survive during the early Islamic period in the Upper Mesopotamian city of Harran . They were described by Syriac Christian heresiographers as star worshippers. Most of

1026-506: The Talmud , Midrashim ( Hebrew : מדרשים ), and related writings, but hardly ever to later texts—is how the term is generally intended when used in contemporary academic writing. The terms mefareshim and parshanim (commentaries and commentators) almost always refer to later, post-Talmudic writers of rabbinic glosses on Biblical and Talmudic texts. The Midr'she halakha , Mishnah , and Tosefta (compiled from materials pre-dating

1083-511: The responsa literature, or even the siddur (Jewish prayerbook), and more. Classic Torah and/or Talmud commentaries have been written by the following individuals: Classical Talmudic commentaries were written by Rashi. After Rashi the Tosafot were written, which was an omnibus commentary on the Talmud by the disciples and descendants of Rashi; this commentary was based on discussions done in

1140-565: The 7th-century BCE. The Chaldeans gained ascendancy, ruling Babylonia from 608 to 557 BCE. The Hebrew Bible was substantially composed during this period (roughly corresponding to the period of the Babylonian captivity ). Astral cults were probably an early feature of religion in ancient Egypt . Evidence suggests that the observation and veneration of celestial bodies played a significant role in Egyptian religious practices, even before

1197-459: The 8th century. Midrash (pl. Midrashim ) is a Hebrew word referring to a method of reading details into, or out of, a biblical text. The term midrash also can refer to a compilation of Midrashic teachings, in the form of legal, exegetical, homiletical, or narrative writing, often configured as a commentary on the Bible or Mishnah . There are a large number of "classical" Midrashic works spanning

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1254-606: The Christian censorship of the Talmud , starting with the aftermath of the Disputation of Barcelona and during the Roman Inquisition and the Spanish Inquisition , the term spread within the Jewish classical texts. Censors shunned expressions like minim ("sectarian"), which they viewed as referring to the Christian faith, and replaced them with the term Epikoros or Epicurus (hence a heretic as

1311-547: The Church would also persecute heretics ). The censors also replaced terms that refer to Christians with the word Hebrew : עכו"ם , romanized :  ʿakum , an abbreviation of Hebrew : עֲבוֹדַת כּוֹכָבִים וּמַזָּלוֹת , romanized :  ʿavoḏat koḵāvim umazzāloṯ , lit.   ' worshiper of stars and constellations ', a belief that both Jews and their Christian censors abhorred. Rabbinic literature Rabbinic literature , in its broadest sense,

1368-602: The Emperor’s ability to align these celestial forces with earthly governance was seen as essential to his legitimacy. This star worship, along with indigenous shamanism and medical practice , formed one of the original bases of Taoism . The Heavenly Sovereign was identified with the Big Dipper and the North Star . Worship of Heaven in the southern suburb of the capital was initiated in 31 BCE and firmly established in

1425-558: The Harranian Sabians indirectly depends, may have practiced a different, more philosophically inspired variant of the original Harranian religion. However, apart from the fact that it contains traces of Babylonian and Hellenistic religion , and that an important place was taken by planets (to whom ritual sacrifices were made), little is known about Harranian Sabianism. They have been variously described by scholars as (neo)- Platonists , Hermeticists , or Gnostics , but there

1482-513: The Nile, a crucial event that sustained Egyptian agriculture. The goddess was venerated as a harbinger of the inundation, marking the beginning of a new agricultural cycle and symbolizing fertility and renewal. This connection between Sopdet and the Nile flood underscores the profound link between celestial phenomena and earthly prosperity in ancient Egyptian culture. She was known to the Greeks as Sothis . The significance of Sirius in Egyptian religion

1539-423: The World-to-Come include] an epikoros. Rav and Rabbi Ḥanina both say: This is one who treats a Torah scholar with contempt. Rabbi Yoḥanan and Rabbi Yehoshua ben Levi say: This is one who treats another with contempt before a Torah scholar . According to Maimonides , scorning a Talmid Chakham ( Hebrew : ת"ח , romanized :  talmiḏ ḥaḫām , lit.   'Wise Student' "Torah scholar")

1596-564: The Zhou dynasty, Tian not only became synonymous with the physical sky but also embodied the divine will, representing the moral order of the universe. This evolution marked a shift from the earlier concept of Shangdi to a more abstract and universal principle that guided both natural and human affairs. In the Han dynasty the worship of Heaven would be highly ritualistic and require that the emperor hold official sacrifices and worship at an altar of Heaven,

1653-682: The adaptability of star worship in China, where it was syncretized with various religious traditions over time. The cult of the Big Dipper was eventually absorbed into the cults of various Buddhist divinities, Myōken being one of these. Star worship was also practiced in Japan. Japanese star worship is largely based on Chinese cosmology. According to Bernard Faure, "the cosmotheistic nature of esoteric Buddhism provided an easy bridge for cultural translation between Indian and Chinese cosmologies, on

1710-462: The associations of the planets with deities in Sumerian religion , and hence in Babylonian and Greco - Roman religion, viz. Mercury , Venus , Mars , Jupiter , and Saturn . Gods, goddesses, and demons may also be considered personifications of astronomical phenomena such as lunar eclipses, planetary alignments, and apparent interactions of planetary bodies with stars. The Sabians of Harran ,

1767-542: The belief that the celestial realm offered insights into origins and purpose. The Hebrew Bible contains repeated reference to astrolatry. Deuteronomy 4:19, 17:3 contains a stern warning against worshipping the Sun, Moon, stars or any of the heavenly host . Relapse into worshipping the host of heaven, i.e. the stars, is said to have been the cause of the fall of the kingdom of Judah in II Kings 17:16. King Josiah in 621 BCE

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1824-571: The cult of the pole star left its mark on imperial rituals such as the emperor's enthronement and the worship of the imperial clan deity at Ise Shrine. Worship of the pole star was also practiced in Onmyōdō , where it was deified as Chintaku Reifujin (鎮宅霊符神). Myōken worship was particularly prevalent among clans based in eastern Japan (the modern Kantō and Tōhoku regions), with the Kanmu Taira clan (Kanmu Heishi) and their offshoots such as

1881-572: The customs and beliefs — many of them going back to Mespotamian models — of Iraqi Sabians living in the Sawād . Heaven worship is a Chinese religious belief that predates Taoism and Confucianism , but was later incorporated into both. Shangdi is the supreme unknowable god of Chinese folk religion . Over time, namely following the conquests of the Zhou dynasty who worshipped Tian (天 lit. "sky" ), Shangdi became synonymous with Tian, or Heaven. During

1938-544: The development of a dominant solar theology. The early Egyptians associated celestial phenomena with divine forces, seeing the stars and planets as embodiments of gods who influenced both the heavens and the earth. Direct evidence for astral cults, seen alongside the dominant solar theology which arose before the Fifth Dynasty , is found in the Pyramid Texts. These texts, among the oldest religious writings in

1995-425: The eastern provinces. By the Heian period , pole star worship had become widespread enough that imperial decrees banned it for the reason that it involved "mingling of men and women", and thus caused ritual impurity. Pole star worship was also forbidden among the inhabitants of the capital and nearby areas when the imperial princess ( Saiō ) made her way to Ise to begin her service at the shrines. Nevertheless,

2052-480: The embodiments of Fortune ( Fu ), presiding over planet Jupiter, Prosperity (Lu), presiding over Ursa Major, and Longevity ( Shou ), presiding over Sirius. During the Tang dynasty , Chinese Buddhism adopted Taoist Big Dipper worship, borrowing various texts and rituals which were then modified to conform with Buddhist practices and doctrines. The integration of Big Dipper worship into Buddhist practices highlights

2109-525: The first century CE (Western Han). The Sanxing ( Chinese : 三星 ; lit. 'Three Stars') are the gods of the three stars or constellations considered essential in Chinese astrology and mythology: Jupiter, Ursa Major, and Sirius. Fu , Lu , and Shou ( traditional Chinese : 福 祿 壽 ; simplified Chinese : 福 禄 寿 ; pinyin : Fú Lù Shòu ; Cantonese Yale : Fūk Luhk Sauh ), or Cai , Zi and Shou ( 財子壽 ) are also

2166-418: The identification of the heavens as the residence of an anthropomorphic pantheon, and later of monotheistic God and his retinue of angels, is a later development, gradually replacing the notion of the pantheon residing or convening on the summit of high mountains. Archibald Sayce (1913) argues for a parallelism of the "stellar theology" of Babylon and Egypt, both countries absorbing popular star-worship into

2223-598: The most famous of which is the Temple of Heaven in Beijing . Heaven worship is closely linked with ancestor veneration and polytheism , as the ancestors and the gods are seen as a medium between Heaven and man. The Emperor of China , also known as the " Son of Heaven ", derived the Mandate of Heaven , and thus his legitimacy as ruler, from his supposed ability to commune with Heaven on behalf of his nation. This mandate

2280-605: The name of Epicurus some time between composing his commentary on the Mishnah and before composing The Guide for the Perplexed . In the first source, he erroneously states that the rabbinic term epikoros is an Aramaic word; in the Guide , Maimonides has become aware of the atheistic doctrine of the philosopher by that name. He cites the source of his information as Alexander of Aphrodisias 's treatise On Providence . Following

2337-468: The narrative of Jesus' life and divinity contributed to the development and interpretation of Christian theology . Worship of heavenly bodies is in Islamic tradition strongly associated with Sabians who allegedly stated that God created the planets as the rulers of this world and thus deserve worship. While the planetary worship was linked to devils ( shayāṭīn ), abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi reported that

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2394-511: The official pantheon of their respective state religions by identification of gods with stars or planets. The Chaldeans , who came to be seen as the prototypical astrologers and star-worshippers by the Greeks, migrated into Mesopotamia c. 940–860 BCE. Astral religion does not appear to have been common in the Levant prior to the Iron Age , but becomes popular under Assyrian influence around

2451-417: The one hand, and between Indian astrology and local Japanese folk beliefs about the stars, on the other". The cult of Myōken is thought to have been brought into Japan during the 7th century by immigrants ( toraijin ) from Goguryeo and Baekje . During the reign of Emperor Tenji (661–672), the toraijin were resettled in the easternmost parts of the country; as a result, Myōken worship spread throughout

2508-496: The planets are considered angelic spirits at the service of God. He refutes the notion that astrology is based on the interference of demons or "guesswork" and established the study of the planets as a form of natural sciences. By building a naturalistic connection between the planets and their earthly influence, abu Marsha saved astrology from accusations of devil-worship. Such ideas were universally shared, for example, Mashallah ibn Athari denied any physical or magical influence on

2565-656: The planets are explained to derive from the Anima mundi , the writings clearly distanced them from demonic entities such as jinn and devils. At a later stage, the planetary spirits have been identified with the angels and demons. The idea of seven demon-kings developed under influence of Hellenistic astrological sources. In the Kitāb al-Bulhān , higher spirits ( rūḥāiya ulia ) are depicted as angels and lower spirits ( rūḥāiya sufula ) as demons. However, invocation of such entities would work only by permission of God. Permission granted by

2622-647: The rabbinic academies of Germany and France. Modern Torah commentaries which have received wide acclaim in the Jewish community include: Modern Siddur commentaries have been written by: Astrolatry The worship of heavenly bodies is the veneration of stars (individually or together as the night sky), the planets, or other astronomical objects as deities , or the association of deities with heavenly bodies. In anthropological literature these systems of practice may be referred to as astral cults . The most notable instances of this are Sun gods and Moon gods in polytheistic systems worldwide. Also notable are

2679-498: The rabbis of Sura and Pumbeditha, in Babylon (650 - 1250) : The Rishonim are the rabbis of the early medieval period (1000 - 1550) The Acharonim are the rabbis from 1550 to the present day. Mefareshim is a Hebrew word meaning "commentators" (or roughly meaning " exegetes "), Perushim means "commentaries". In Judaism these words refer to commentaries on the Torah (five books of Moses), Tanakh , Mishnah , Talmud ,

2736-685: The scholars and courtiers working for the Abbasid and Buyid dynasties in Baghdad during the ninth–eleventh centuries who were known as 'Sabians' were either members of this Harranian religion or descendants of such members, most notably the Harranian astronomers and mathematicians Thabit ibn Qurra (died 901) and al-Battani (died 929). There has been some speculation on whether these Sabian families in Baghdad, on whom most of our information about

2793-400: The sky in barques : Sebegu (perhaps a form of Set ), Venus ("the one who crosses"), Mars (" Horus of the horizon"), Jupiter ("Horus who limits the two lands"), and Saturn ("Horus bull of the heavens.") One of the most significant celestial deities in ancient Egyptian religion was the goddess Sopdet , identified with the star Sirius . Sopdet's rising coincided with the annual flooding of

2850-1036: The subject of scholarly debate. In the table, "n.e." designates that the work in question is not extant except in secondary references. Tannaitic period (till 200 CE) Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael Mekhilta of Rabbi Shimon Mekilta le-Sefer Devarim (n.e.) Sifra Sifre Sifre Zutta Alphabet of Akiba ben Joseph (?) Seder Olam Rabbah 400–650 CE Genesis Rabbah Midrash Tanhuma Lamentations Rabbah Leviticus Rabbah 650–900 CE Midrash Proverbs Ecclesiastes Rabbah Deuteronomy Rabbah Pesikta de-Rav Kahana Pesikta Rabbati Avot of Rabbi Natan Pirkei de-Rabbi Eliezer Seder Olam Zutta Tanna Devei Eliyahu 900–1000 CE Midrash Psalms Exodus Rabbah Ruth Zuta Lamentations Zuta 1000–1200 Midrash Aggadah of Moses ha-Darshan Midrash Tadshe Later Yalkut Shimoni Midrash ha-Gadol Ein Yaakov Numbers Rabbah The Geonim are

2907-485: The work of My hands, for My name to be glorified” (Isaiah 60:21). And these [are the exceptions,] the people who have no share in the World-to-Come [...] One who says: There is no resurrection of the dead derived from the Torah, and one who says: The Torah did not originate from Heaven, and an epikoros[.] The rabbinic literature uses the term Epikoros without a specific reference to the Greek philosopher Epicurus , but it

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2964-458: The world, contain hymns and spells that not only emphasize the importance of the Sun God Ra but also refer to stars and constellations as powerful deities that guide and protect the deceased Pharaoh in the afterlife. The growth of Osiris devotion led to stars being called "followers" of Osiris. They recognized five planets as "stars that know no rest" , interpreted as gods who sailed across

3021-404: The world. Abu Ma‘shar further describes the planets as sentient bodies, endowed with spirit ( rūḥ ) rather than mechanical entities. However, they would remain in complete obedience to God and act only with God's permission. Astrology was usually considered through the lens of Hellenistic philosophy such as Neo-Platonism and Aristotelianism . As the spiritual powers allegedly emanating from

3078-501: The year 200 CE) are the earliest extant works of rabbinic literature, expounding and developing Judaism's Oral Law , as well as ethical teachings. Following these came the two Talmuds: The earliest extant material witness to rabbinic literature of any kind is the Tel Rehov inscription dating to the 6th–7th centuries, also the longest Jewish inscription from late antiquity. Meanwhile, the earliest extant Talmudic manuscripts are from

3135-596: Was already established during the Han dynasty (202 BCE–220 CE), with the Nine Imperial Gods becoming star lords. The Big Dipper (Beidou) and the North Star (Polaris) were particularly significant in Chinese star worship. The Big Dipper was associated with cosmic order and governance, while the North Star was considered the throne of the celestial emperor. These stars played a crucial role in state rituals, where

3192-636: Was practiced by the Lakota people and the Wichita people . The Inca civilization engaged in star worship, and associated constellations with deities and forces, while the Milky Way represented a bridge between earthly and divine realms. Indigenous American cultures encapsulate a holistic worldview that acknowledges the interplay of humanity, nature, and the cosmos. Oral traditions transmitted cosmic stories, infusing mythologies, songs, and ceremonies with cosmic significance. These narratives emphasized

3249-552: Was reinforced through celestial observations and rituals, as astrological phenomena were interpreted as omens reflecting the favor or disfavor of Heaven. The Emperor’s role was to perform the necessary rites to maintain harmony between Heaven and Earth, ensuring the prosperity of his reign. Star worship was widespread in Asia, especially in Mongolia and northern China, and also spread to Korea. According to Edward Schafer, star worship

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