105-622: Arthur Vivian Watkins (December 18, 1886 – September 1, 1973) was a Republican U.S. Senator from Utah , serving two terms from 1947 to 1959. He was influential as a proponent of terminating federal recognition of American Indian tribes , in the belief that they should be assimilated and all treaty rights abrogated. In 1954 he chaired the Watkins Committee, which led to the censure of Senator Joseph McCarthy , who had made extensive allegations of communist infiltration of government and art groups. Watkins voted in favor of
210-411: A nonpartisan blanket primary (also known as a "jungle primary" or "top-two primary") is held in which all candidates participate in a single primary regardless of party affiliation and the top two candidates in terms of votes received at the primary election advance to the general election, where the winner is the candidate with the greater number of votes. In Louisiana, the blanket primary is considered
315-399: A Senator in 1946. His orthodoxy and faith blurred the lines between civic and religious duties, as can be seen in correspondence to the church general authorities written on April 13, 1954: The more I go into this Indian problem the more I am convinced that we have made some terrible mistakes in the past. It seems to me that the time has come for us to correct some of these mistakes and help
420-541: A book entitled Enough Rope , which detailed the work of the Watkins Committee and the censure of Joseph McCarthy. Watkins died in Orem, Utah , on September 1, 1973, and was buried at Eastlawn Memorial Hills cemetery, Orem, Utah County, Utah, on September 3, 1973. United States Senate Minority (49) The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress . The Senate and
525-524: A chair in the front of the Senate chamber. The powers of the presiding officer of the Senate are far less extensive than those of the speaker of the House . The presiding officer calls on senators to speak (by the rules of the Senate, the first senator who rises is recognized); ruling on points of order (objections by senators that a rule has been breached, subject to appeal to the whole chamber); and announcing
630-521: A claim of BIA mismanagement, but to receive the payment, were told to come up with a plan for termination. When speaking with the Klamath Tribes , Watkins invoked God's blessing upon termination and if that was not enough motivation, the three options proposed were clearly aimed at terminating the tribal relationships with the government: 1) Withdraw from the tribe and accept a cash settlement for any share they were due of tribal assets; 2) Remain in
735-402: A community, country, or area dominated by communists) and "expelee" (a refugee of German heritage who had been removed from a Soviet-controlled country or area). Congressional hearings on the bill included representatives from Catholic, Jewish and Protestant organizations, but there was no consensus among them on whether the bill should be approved, or rejected. The bill passed on August 7, 1953;
840-474: A full-term). The Seventeenth Amendment permits state legislatures to empower their governors to make temporary appointments until the required special election takes place. The manner by which the Seventeenth Amendment is enacted varies among the states. A 2018 report breaks this down into the following three broad categories (specific procedures vary among the states): In ten states within
945-508: A growing sensitivity to minority rights and the status of women. Immigration was an important issue in the run up to the election in 1952. The McCarran-Walter Act , which President Harry Truman 's administration had just passed, was criticized not only internally, but throughout Europe as a policy which maintained systematic racial and religious discrimination and was hampering immigration based on hostility and distrust of outsiders, rampant fear of Communism , and unfounded security claims. With
1050-568: A long career as mayor of Salt Lake City . Moss served three terms in the Senate, losing to Republican Orrin Hatch in 1976. Following his defeat, Watkins was hired as consultant to Interior Secretary Fred Seaton , but left in 1960 to accept an appointment by Eisenhower on the Indian Claims Commission , becoming its chairman and subsequently its chief commissioner. In 1967 Watkins retired to write his memoirs and in 1969 published
1155-564: A lot of support from the public at large and his colleagues. By 1952 however, some of his attacks had helped lead to defeat of Democratic opponents and even resulted in criticism from some of his own party for debasing the decorum required of a public official. By 1953, with the Republican sweep in the White House and legislatures his attacks had become an assault on his own party. On April 22, 1954, McCarthy opened hearings to investigate
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#17327662928431260-407: A majority of the Senate constitutes a quorum to do business. Under the rules and customs of the Senate, a quorum is always assumed as present unless a quorum call explicitly demonstrates otherwise. A senator may request a quorum call by "suggesting the absence of a quorum"; a clerk then calls the roll and notes which members are present. In practice, senators rarely request quorum calls to establish
1365-418: A method to remove that disqualification: a two-thirds vote of both chambers of Congress. Originally, senators were selected by the state legislatures , not by popular elections . By the early years of the 20th century, the legislatures of as many as 29 states had provided for popular election of senators by referendums. Popular election to the Senate was standardized nationally in 1913 by the ratification of
1470-575: A more deliberative and prestigious body than the House of Representatives due to its longer terms, smaller size, and statewide constituencies, which historically led to a more collegial and less partisan atmosphere. The Senate chamber is located in the north wing of the Capitol Building in Washington, D.C. , the nation's capital. Despite not being a senator, the vice president of
1575-401: A regular or special Senate election. Senators serve terms of six years each; the terms are staggered so that approximately one-third of the seats are up for election every two years. This was achieved by dividing the senators of the 1st Congress into thirds (called classes ), where the terms of one-third expired after two years, the terms of another third expired after four, and the terms of
1680-556: A representative must be twenty-five. And the former must have been a citizen nine years; as seven years are required for the latter. The propriety of these distinctions is explained by the nature of the senatorial trust, which, requiring greater extent of information and stability of character, requires at the same time that the senator should have reached a period of life most likely to supply these advantages; and which, participating immediately in transactions with foreign nations, ought to be exercised by none who are not thoroughly weaned from
1785-423: A result, it is uncertain whether an Alaska governor may appoint an interim senator to serve until a special election is held to fill the vacancy. In May 2021, Oklahoma permitted its governor again to appoint a successor who is of the same party as the previous senator for at least the preceding five years when the vacancy arises in an even-numbered year, only after the appointee has taken an oath not to run in either
1890-514: A senator by a two-thirds vote. Fifteen senators have been expelled in the Senate's history: William Blount , for treason, in 1797, and fourteen in 1861 and 1862 for supporting the Confederate secession . Although no senator has been expelled since 1862, many senators have chosen to resign when faced with expulsion proceedings – for example, Bob Packwood in 1995. The Senate has also censured and condemned senators; censure requires only
1995-447: A separate ballot referendum that took effect on the same day, but that conflicted with each other. The effect of the ballot-approved law is to withhold from the governor authority to appoint a senator. Because the 17th Amendment vests the power to grant that authority to the legislature – not the people or the state generally – it is unclear whether the ballot measure supplants the legislature's statute granting that authority. As
2100-443: A simple majority and does not remove a senator from office. Some senators have opted to withdraw from their re-election races rather than face certain censure or expulsion, such as Robert Torricelli in 2002. The "majority party" is the political party that either has a majority of seats or can form a coalition or caucus with a majority of seats; if two or more parties are tied, the vice president's affiliation determines which party
2205-794: A substantial impact in the Western United States , the secretary of the interior has typically come from a western state; only one secretary since 1949, Rogers Morton , was not a resident or native of a state lying west of the Mississippi River . Secretary of the Interior is a Level I position in the Executive Schedule , thus earning a salary of US$ 246,400, as of January 2024. Following Senate confirmation in March 2021, former U.S. representative Deb Haaland
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#17327662928432310-406: A uniform law) the power to legislate a method by which senators are elected. Ballot access rules for independent and minor party candidates also vary from state to state. In 45 states, a primary election is held first for the Republican and Democratic parties (and a select few third parties , depending on the state) with the general election following a few months later. In most of these states,
2415-410: Is anticipated. The Constitution authorizes the Senate to elect a president pro tempore ( Latin for "president for a time"), who presides over the chamber in the vice president's absence and is, by custom, the senator of the majority party with the longest record of continuous service. Like the vice president, the president pro tempore does not normally preside over the Senate, but typically delegates
2520-449: Is so disturbing," but rather his overall pattern of behavior. Ultimately a "bill of particulars" listing 46 charges was added to the censure resolution. Before McCarthy, there had only been five cases of censure in the history of the Senate, but his conduct had become so outrageous that it was felt something must be done. Vice President Richard Nixon, appointed a bi-partisan committee, headed by Watkins to review and determine whether censure
2625-468: Is the majority party. One hundred desks are arranged in the chamber in a semicircular pattern and are divided by a wide central aisle. The Democratic Party traditionally sits to the presiding officer's right, and the Republican Party traditionally sits to the presiding officer's left, regardless of which party has a majority of seats. Each senator chooses a desk based on seniority within
2730-437: Is the majority party. The next-largest party is known as the minority party. The president pro tempore, committee chairs, and some other officials are generally from the majority party; they have counterparts (for instance, the "ranking members" of committees) in the minority party. Independents and members of third parties (so long as they do not caucus support either of the larger parties) are not considered in determining which
2835-574: Is the sole judge of a senator's qualifications. During its early years, however, the Senate did not closely scrutinize the qualifications of its members. As a result, four senators who failed to meet the age requirement were nevertheless admitted to the Senate: Henry Clay (aged 29 in 1806), John Jordan Crittenden (aged 29 in 1817), Armistead Thomson Mason (aged 28 in 1816), and John Eaton (aged 28 in 1818). Such an occurrence, however, has not been repeated since. In 1934, Rush D. Holt Sr.
2940-524: The Civil Rights Act of 1957 . Watkins was born in Midway, Wasatch County, Utah to Arthur Watkins (1864–1959) and Emily Adelia Gerber (1864–1947). He was the eldest of 6 siblings. He attended Brigham Young University (BYU) from 1903 to 1906, and New York University (NYU) from 1909 to 1910. He graduated from Columbia University Law School in 1912, and returned to Utah. There he was admitted to
3045-618: The Constitution debated more about how to award representation in the Senate than about any other part of the Constitution. While bicameralism and the idea of a proportional "people's house" were widely popular, discussions about Senate representation proved contentious. In the end, some small states—unwilling to give up their equal power with larger states under the Articles of Confederation —threatened to secede in 1787, and won
3150-529: The Federal Employees Retirement System (FERS) or Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS). FERS has been the Senate's retirement system since January 1, 1987, while CSRS applies only for those senators who were in the Senate from December 31, 1986, and prior. As it is for federal employees, congressional retirement is funded through taxes and the participants' contributions. Under FERS, senators contribute 1.3% of their salary into
3255-458: The Interior , to map out a strategy on February 27, 1953. Subsequent talks were held with South Dakota Republican Congressman E.Y. Berry , Nevada Democratic Senator Patrick McCarran , South Dakota Republican Senator Karl E. Mundt , North Dakota Republican Senator William Langer , and Washington Democratic Senator Henry M. Jackson . After a series of consultations, the policy Watkins envisioned
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3360-613: The Seventeenth Amendment . Elections to the Senate are held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November in even-numbered years, Election Day , and occur simultaneously with elections for the House of Representatives . Senators are elected by their state as a whole. The Elections Clause of the United States Constitution grants each state (and Congress, if it so desires to implement
3465-590: The United States House of Representatives (which is the lower chamber of Congress) comprise the federal bicameral legislature of the United States . Together, the Senate and the House have the authority under Article One of the U.S. Constitution to pass or defeat federal legislation. The Senate has exclusive power to confirm U.S. presidential appointments to high offices, approve or reject treaties, and try cases of impeachment brought by
3570-413: The gavel of the Senate to maintain order. A " hold " is placed when the leader's office is notified that a senator intends to object to a request for unanimous consent from the Senate to consider or pass a measure. A hold may be placed for any reason and can be lifted by the senator who placed it at any time. A senator may place a hold simply to review a bill, to negotiate changes to the bill, or to kill
3675-434: The parliamentarian . In the early 1920s, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began. The Senate's legislative and executive business is managed and scheduled by the Senate's majority leader, who on occasion negotiates some matters with the Senate's minority leader. A prominent practice in the Senate is the filibuster on some matters and its remedy the vote on cloture . The drafters of
3780-414: The senior senator , while the other is the junior senator . For example, majority leader Chuck Schumer is the senior senator from New York, having served in the senate since 1999, while Kirsten Gillibrand is New York's junior senator, having served since 2009. Like members of the House of Representatives, Senators use the prefix " The Honorable " before their names. Senators are usually identified in
3885-423: The state legislature of their respective states. However, since 1913, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment , senators have been elected through a statewide popular vote . As the upper chamber of Congress, the Senate has several powers of advice and consent . These include the approval of treaties , as well as the confirmation of Cabinet secretaries , federal judges (including justices of
3990-695: The "godless Communist menace" – which characterized 1950s America, pushed society as a whole to relish the American sense of freedom, as well as responsibility. These values can clearly be seen in what Watkins called his policy, "the freeing of the Indian from wardship status," equating it with the Emancipation Proclamation , which freed slaves during the Civil War. Watkins was the driving force behind termination. His position as chairman of
4095-555: The Congress to determine its convening and adjournment dates and other dates and schedules as it desires. Article 1, Section 3, provides that the president has the power to convene Congress on extraordinary occasions at his discretion. A member who has been elected, but not yet seated, is called a senator-elect ; a member who has been appointed to a seat, but not yet seated, is called a senator-designate . The Constitution requires that senators take an oath or affirmation to support
4200-430: The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that state's consent. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. Before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, senators were elected by the individual state legislatures . Problems with repeated vacant seats due to
4305-519: The Constitution, the vice president serves as president of the Senate. They may vote in the Senate ( ex officio , for they are not an elected member of the Senate) in the case of a tie, but are not required to. For much of the nation's history the task of presiding over Senate sessions was one of the vice president's principal duties (the other being to receive from the states the tally of electoral ballots cast for president and vice president and to open
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4410-600: The Constitution. Congress has prescribed the following oath for all federal officials (except the President), including senators: I, ___ ___, do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same; that I take this obligation freely, without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion; and that I will well and faithfully discharge
4515-583: The FERS retirement plan and pay 6.2% of their salary in Social Security taxes. The amount of a senator's pension depends on the years of service and the average of the highest three years of their salary. The starting amount of a senator's retirement annuity may not exceed 80% of their final salary. In 2006, the average annual pension for retired senators and representatives under CSRS was $ 60,972, while those who retired under FERS, or in combination with CSRS,
4620-1014: The Fourth Judicial District of Utah 1928–1933, losing his position in the Roosevelt Democratic landslide in 1932. In the early 1930s, he served as the director of the Provo River Water Users Association and director of the Orem Chamber of Commerce. An unsuccessful candidate for the Republican nomination to the Seventy-fifth Congress in 1936, Watkins was elected as a Republican to the United States Senate in 1946, and reelected in 1952. He served from January 3, 1947, to January 3, 1959. Watkins
4725-537: The House. The Senate and the House provide a check and balance on the powers of the executive and judicial branches of government. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution . Each of the 50 states is represented by two senators who serve staggered six-year terms . In total, the Senate consists of 100 members. From its inception in 1789 until 1913, senators were appointed by
4830-641: The Indians stand on their own two feet and become a white and delightsome people as the Book of Mormon prophesied they would become. Of course, I realize that the Gospel of Jesus Christ will be the motivating factor, but it is difficult to teach the Gospel when they don't understand the English language and have had no training in caring for themselves. The Gospel should be a great stimulus and I am longing and praying for
4935-776: The Interior is the head of the United States Department of the Interior . The secretary and the Department of the Interior are responsible for the management and conservation of most federal land along with natural resources , leading such agencies as the Bureau of Land Management , the United States Geological Survey , Bureau of Indian Affairs and the National Park Service . The secretary also serves on and appoints
5040-555: The Ogden and Weber rivers that could later be accessed for use on farmland. On August 29, 1949, Congress authorized the project (63 Stat. 677) which empowered the United States Secretary of the Interior , through the Bureau of Reclamation "to construct, operate, and maintain reservoirs, irrigation and drainage works, power plants, and transmission lines in the area." It authorized that a conservancy organization within
5145-443: The Senate mails one of three forms to the state's governor to inform them of the proper wording to certify the appointment of a new senator. If a special election for one seat happens to coincide with a general election for the state's other seat, each seat is contested separately. A senator elected in a special election takes office as soon as possible after the election and serves until the original six-year term expires (i.e. not for
5250-557: The Senate Immigration Subcommittee introduced a bill for the Refugee Relief Act , largely based on Eisenhower's proposal and recommendations. The two crucial elements of the bill were that it made refugee quotas distinct from visa quotas and it defined the terms "refugee" (a person facing persecution residing a non-communist country), "escapee" (a person facing persecution who currently resided in
5355-444: The Senate has several officers who are not members. The Senate's chief administrative officer is the secretary of the Senate , who maintains public records, disburses salaries, monitors the acquisition of stationery and supplies, and oversees clerks. The assistant secretary of the Senate aids the secretary's work. Another official is the sergeant at arms who, as the Senate's chief law enforcement officer, maintains order and security on
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#17327662928435460-541: The Senate premises. The Capitol Police handle routine police work, with the sergeant at arms primarily responsible for general oversight. Other employees include the chaplain , who is elected by the Senate, and pages , who are appointed. The Senate uses Standing Rules for operation. Like the House of Representatives , the Senate meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. At one end of
5565-486: The Senate ultimately voted were: On December 2, 1954, the Senate voted to "condemn" McCarthy on both counts by a vote of 67 to 22. The Democrats present voted unanimously and the Republicans were split on whether condemnation should prevail. John F. Kennedy , who was hospitalized for back surgery, was not present at the vote and did not indicate specifically how he would have voted. McCarthy's anti-communist rhetoric
5670-666: The State of Utah could be developed to collect taxes and make the project self-supporting. On July 9, 1952, the first appropriation of construction funds was made. In 1969, to honor Watkins for making the project come to life, the Willard Dam was renamed the Arthur V. Watkins Dam . Watkins was appointed chair of the Senate Interior Committee Subcommittee on Indian Affairs in 1947, shortly after he
5775-629: The Subcommittee on Rules and Administration, which had called him to testify in 1951 and 1952, and his abuse of then- Brigadier General Ralph W. Zwicker in the Army hearings of 1954. The Zwicker count was eventually dropped and one regarding his statements about the Watkins committee itself was added. One final attempt was made before the charges were brought to the full Senate to obtain an apology from McCarthy, but he refused. The two counts on which
5880-503: The Supreme Court ), flag officers , regulatory officials, ambassadors , other federal executive officials , and federal uniformed officers . If no candidate receives a majority of electors for vice president , the duty falls to the Senate to elect one of the top two recipients of electors for that office. The Senate conducts trials of officials who have been impeached by the House. The Senate has typically been considered both
5985-409: The United States serves as presiding officer and president of the Senate by virtue of that office ; the vice president may vote only if the Senate is equally divided. In the vice president's absence, the president pro tempore , who is traditionally the most senior member of the Senate's majority party, presides over the Senate, and more often by rule allows a junior senator to take the chair, guided by
6090-479: The United States Constitution disqualifies as senators any federal or state officers who had taken the requisite oath to support the Constitution but who later engaged in rebellion or aided the enemies of the United States. This provision, which came into force soon after the end of the Civil War, was intended to prevent those who had sided with the Confederacy from serving. That Amendment, however, also provides
6195-699: The United States Senate Subcommittee on Indian Affairs gave him tremendous leverage to determine the direction of federal Indian policy and he consolidated his influence through other western legislators. While partisanship may have played a role, geographic location may have been a much stronger motivator than party affiliation. The largest concentration of Native populations and federal lands were located in western states, as were national parks and dam projects. He initially met with Wyoming Republican Congressman William H. Harrison and Orme Lewis, Arizona Republican and Assistant Secretary of
6300-479: The United States for at least nine years; and (3) they must be inhabitants of the states they seek to represent at the time of their election. The age and citizenship qualifications for senators are more stringent than those for representatives. In Federalist No. 62 , James Madison justified this arrangement by arguing that the "senatorial trust" called for a "greater extent of information and stability of character": A senator must be thirty years of age at least; as
6405-587: The bar the same year and commenced practice in Vernal, Utah . He founded and edited a weekly newspaper in Utah County in 1914 called The Voice of Sharon, which eventually became the Orem-Geneva Times. In the same year, Watkins was appointed assistant county attorney of Salt Lake County . From 1919 to 1925, he ran a 600-acre (2.4 km) ranch near Lehi . Watkins served as district judge of
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#17327662928436510-409: The bill. A bill can be held for as long as the senator who objects to the bill wishes to block its consideration. Holds can be overcome, but require time-consuming procedures such as filing cloture. Holds are considered private communications between a senator and the leader, and are sometimes referred to as "secret holds". A senator may disclose the placement of a hold. The Constitution provides that
6615-483: The certificates "in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives", so that the total votes could be counted). Since the 1950s, vice presidents have presided over few Senate debates. Instead, they have usually presided only on ceremonial occasions, such as swearing in new senators, joint sessions, or at times to announce the result of significant legislation or nomination, or when a tie vote on an important issue
6720-409: The chamber of the Senate is a dais from which the presiding officer presides. The lower tier of the dais is used by clerks and other officials. Sessions of the Senate are opened with a special prayer or invocation and typically convene on weekdays. Sessions of the Senate are generally open to the public and are broadcast live on television, usually by C-SPAN 2 . Senate procedure depends not only on
6825-607: The day by a vote of 5–4 in what became known as the Connecticut Compromise . The Connecticut Compromise provided, among other things, that each state—regardless of population—would be represented by two senators. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate . The name is derived from the senatus , Latin for council of elders , derived from senex , meaning old man in Latin. Article Five of
6930-524: The duties of the office on which I am about to enter. So help me God. The annual salary of each senator, since 2009, is $ 174,000; the president pro tempore and party leaders receive $ 193,400. In 2003, at least 40 senators were millionaires; by 2018, over 50 senators were millionaires (partly due to inflation). Along with earning salaries, senators receive retirement and health benefits that are identical to other federal employees, and are fully vested after five years of service. Senators are covered by
7035-463: The election of Dwight D. Eisenhower , rather than attempt to revise the McCarran Act, a decision was made to provide an emergency relief bill, which would be seen as a temporary program. On April 22, 1953, Eisenhower made a presentation to Congress outlining his main criteria for a refugee bill: sponsorship by a creditable citizen that the refugee had a job, housing, and would not become a ward of
7140-534: The final category above – Arizona , Hawaii , Kentucky , Maryland , Montana , North Carolina , Oklahoma , Utah , West Virginia , and Wyoming – the governor must appoint someone of the same political party as the previous incumbent. In September 2009, Massachusetts changed its law to enable the governor to appoint a temporary replacement for the late senator Edward Kennedy until the special election in January 2010. In 2004, Alaska enacted legislation and
7245-413: The general election and candidates receiving a majority of the votes is declared the winner, skipping a run-off. In Maine and Alaska , ranked-choice voting is used to nominate and elect candidates for federal offices, including the Senate. The Seventeenth Amendment requires that vacancies in the Senate be filled by special election. Whenever a senator must be appointed or elected, the secretary of
7350-477: The hearings, and insisted that McCarthy conform to Senate protocol. When McCarthy appeared before the committee and began badgering the committee members, Watkins expelled him from the procedures. Most of the charges were rejected either because they either fell into actions that had long been tolerated, or they were judged to have the potential to limit Senatorial investigations in the future. The two charges they finally decided to bring related to his failure to attend
7455-503: The inability of a legislature to elect senators, intrastate political struggles, bribery and intimidation gradually led to a growing movement to amend the Constitution to allow for the direct election of senators. In contrast to the House of Representatives, the Senate has historically had stronger norms of conduct for its members. Article I, Section 3, of the Constitution , sets three qualifications for senators: (1) they must be at least 30 years old; (2) they must have been citizens of
7560-416: The inside of the desk's drawer with a pen. Except for the president of the Senate (who is the vice president), the Senate elects its own officers, who maintain order and decorum, manage and schedule the legislative and executive business of the Senate, and interpret the Senate's rules, practices and precedents. Many non-member officers are also hired to run various day-to-day functions of the Senate. Under
7665-418: The last third expired after six years. This arrangement was also followed after the admission of new states into the union. The staggering of terms has been arranged such that both seats from a given state are not contested in the same general election, except when a vacancy is being filled. Class I comprises Senators whose six-year terms are set to expire on January 3, 2025. There is no constitutional limit to
7770-442: The media and other sources by party and state; for example, Democratic majority leader Chuck Schumer , who represents New York, may be identified as "D–New York" or (D-NY). And sometimes they are identified as to whether they are the junior or senior senator in their state ( see above ). Unless in the context of elections, they are rarely identified by which one of the three classes of senators they are in. The Senate may expel
7875-457: The nadir of Indians' power, the delegation by this committee pushed back, Erdrich writes, being the first Indian band to "mount a fierce defense and prevail." The Menominee, led by Ada Deer regained Federal recognition, details described in her memoir, Making a Difference: My fight for Native Rights and Social Justice . By 1954, the policy was also being questioned at a conference of social scientists, primarily anthropologists, who concluded that
7980-456: The nominee may receive only a plurality, while in some states, a runoff is required if no majority was achieved. In the general election, the winner is the candidate who receives a plurality of the popular vote. However, in five states, different methods are used. In Georgia , a runoff between the top two candidates occurs if the plurality winner in the general election does not also win a majority. In California , Washington , and Louisiana ,
8085-454: The number of terms a senator may serve. The Constitution set the date for Congress to convene — Article 1, Section 4, Clause 2, originally set that date for the third day of December. The Twentieth Amendment , however, changed the opening date for sessions to noon on the third day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. The Twentieth Amendment also states that the Congress shall assemble at least once every year, and allows
8190-463: The party. By custom, the leader of each party sits in the front row along the center aisle. Forty-eight of the desks date back to 1819, when the Senate chamber was reconstructed after the original contents were destroyed in the 1812 Burning of Washington . Further desks of similar design were added as new states entered the Union. It is a tradition that each senator who uses a desk inscribes their name on
8295-405: The prepossessions and habits incident to foreign birth and education. The term of nine years appears to be a prudent mediocrity between a total exclusion of adopted citizens, whose merits and talents may claim a share in the public confidence, and an indiscriminate and hasty admission of them, which might create a channel for foreign influence on the national councils. The Senate (not the judiciary)
8400-562: The private citizens on the National Park Foundation Board. The secretary is a member of the United States Cabinet and reports to the president of the United States . The function of the U.S. Department of the Interior is different from that of the interior minister designated in many other countries. As the policies and activities of the Department of the Interior and many of its agencies have
8505-502: The quorum as present; instead, quorum calls are generally used to temporarily delay proceedings. Usually, such delays are used while waiting for a senator to reach the floor to speak or to give leaders time to negotiate. Once the need for a delay has ended, a senator may request unanimous consent to rescind the quorum call. United States Secretary of the Interior The United States Secretary of
8610-427: The resolution did not, in itself, terminate any tribes, but it established that on a tribe by tribe basis, legislation would be enacted for those deemed sufficiently able to sustain themselves. Watkins and his fellow legislators acted out of a belief that they needed to "fix the Indian problem" once and for all, and they believed that assimilation of the tribes into mainstream culture was their best hope for survival. It
8715-461: The responsibility of presiding to a majority-party senator who presides over the Senate, usually in blocks of one hour on a rotating basis. Frequently, freshmen senators (newly elected members) are asked to preside so that they may become accustomed to the rules and procedures of the body. It is said that, "in practice they are usually mere mouthpieces for the Senate's parliamentarian , who whispers what they should do". The presiding officer sits in
8820-399: The results of votes. Each party elects Senate party leaders . Floor leaders act as the party chief spokesmen. The Senate majority leader is responsible for controlling the agenda of the chamber by scheduling debates and votes. Each party elects an assistant leader (whip) , who works to ensure that his party's senators vote as the party leadership desires. In addition to the vice president,
8925-549: The rule , who had the respect of other senators, were neither liberal nor media hounds , and were not presidential contenders. They began meeting on August 31, 1954, for what would amount to 2 months of hearings. The Watkins Committee divided the 46 counts into five categories: contempt of the Senate or a senatorial committee; encouragement of federal employees to break the law; receipt of classified documents from executive files; abuse of Senate colleagues; and abuse of military personnel. Watkins barred television cameras and media from
9030-434: The rules, but also on a variety of customs and traditions. The Senate commonly waives some of its stricter rules by unanimous consent . Unanimous consent agreements are typically negotiated beforehand by party leaders. A senator may block such an agreement, but in practice, objections are rare. The presiding officer enforces the rules of the Senate, and may warn members who deviate from them. The presiding officer sometimes uses
9135-447: The security of the U.S. Army. Aired on national television, McCarthy badgered witnesses, ignored common courtesies, subverted parliamentary procedure, and negatively turned public opinion against himself and the government. On June 11, 1954, Republican Senator Ralph Flanders of Vermont introduced a measure to strip McCarthy of all of his chairmanships. There were many in the Senate who believed that McCarthy should be curtailed, but there
9240-480: The state; proof that the refugee would be admitted back to his/her country of origin; complete background information for the last two years must be provided. Given this information, Eisenhower stressed that no discrimination based on race, religion or origin would prohibit visa issuance and that priority would be given to those refugees who had skills that were needed in the U.S. or who were family members of U.S. citizens. On May 31, 1953, Senator Watkins, as chairman of
9345-523: The thought that "assimilation of the American Indian into the normal stream of American life is inevitable, that Indian tribes and communities will disappear" is completely unwarranted. Though the legislation was supposed to give tribes input and obtain their consent, many tribes felt pressure to agree. For example, the Menominee received an appropriation of $ 8.5 million in 1951 to settle
9450-603: The time when the Indians will accept it in overwhelming numbers. While serving as a missionary in New York, Watkins met Andrea Rich. They married in Salt Lake City on June 18, 1913, and had six children. After his first wife's death, on March 1, 1972, Watkins married Dorothy Eva Watkins in Salt Lake City. After their marriage, they relocated to Orem. Planning for the Weber Basin Project began in 1942, but
9555-468: The tribe and help form a tribal association to manage the trust responsibilities instead of the federal government; or 3) Refuse a cash settlement and the government would appoint a guardian to manage the remaining assets of the tribe. Even the Osage Nation of Oklahoma was told by Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Dillon S. Myer , to prepare for termination and paying taxes because "'the best country in
9660-491: The tribe including poverty, alcoholism, high suicide rates, low educational achievement, disintegration of the family, poor housing, high dropout rates from school, trafficking of Indian women for prostitution, disproportionate numbers in penal institutions, increased infant mortality, decreased life expectancy, and loss of identity. In addition, the era of conformity was moving into the Sixties and its calls for social change and
9765-572: The world' needed financial support from all citizens to fight communists in North Korea". When Watkins proposed termination of the Paiute Indian Tribe of Utah , despite the fact that they did not meet the established "readiness" benchmarks of policy, it contained no protections for the tribe's mineral rights. Only public outcry over loss of the mineral rights forced addition of protections for their oil into their termination bill. It
9870-402: Was $ 35,952. By tradition, seniority is a factor in the selection of physical offices and in party caucuses' assignment of committees. When senators have been in office for the same length of time, a number of tiebreakers are used, including comparing their former government service and then their respective state population. The senator in each state with the longer time in office is known as
9975-595: Was a lifelong member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) and took up his missionary call in 1907, going to missions in New York and New Jersey. In 1929, he moved to the Wasatch Front Community near Orem, and was selected to serve as the president upon the creation of Utah's Sharon Stake by the LDS Church. Watkins held that position until he left to move to Washington, DC as
10080-526: Was a pressing problem, costing the government money at a time of huge war debt, and the means seemed to justify the wanted end. At the time, many Indian tribes reacted against this proposed policy; in the afterword of her novel, The Night Watchman , Louise Erdrich quotes from the letters of her grandfather, Patrick Gourneau, who served as the chairman of the Turtle Mountain Band Chippewa Advisory Committee. At
10185-436: Was criticized for excluding many desirable refugees, excluding employers or associations from sponsoring refugees, excessive bureaucracy involved in obtaining security clearances, and an overall failure to bring in desperate refugees in anywhere near the authorized quotas; and was allowed to expire on December 31, 1956. Early in 1950, when Republican Senator Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin began his anti-communist purges, he found
10290-415: Was elected to the Senate at the age of 29; he waited until he turned 30 (on the next June 19) to take the oath of office. On November 7, 1972, Joe Biden was elected to the Senate at the age of 29, which was only 13 days prior to his 30th birthday on November 20, 1972. Therefore, he reached his 30th birthday before the swearing-in ceremony for incoming senators in January 1973. The Fourteenth Amendment to
10395-552: Was elected to the Senate. Though his Mormon beliefs concerning Native Americans (see Lamanite ) have been cited by many as a basis for the Indian termination policy Watkins pursued, he was also influenced by not only his childhood growing up in the west on the fringe of the Uintah and Ouray Reservation , but also by various cultural movements at the time. The "Culture of Conformity " –endless pressure to be stable and normal, and to fear
10500-471: Was no clear consensus on whether removing his chairmanships was warranted because of rules on seniority and proper protocol. Convinced by colleagues that censure would be easier to attain, on July 30, 1954, Flanders introduced a resolution calling for McCarthy's censure citing that McCarthy's behavior ran "contrary to senatorial traditions" and brought the whole body into disrepute. "It was not his breaches of etiquette, or of rules or sometimes even of laws which
10605-433: Was set out with four fundamental tenets: In early June 1953, Senator Jackson introduced the termination bill in the Senate and Representative Harrison introduced it in the House. The defining moment for Watkins' legislation came on August 1, 1953, with passage of House concurrent resolution 108 , which made termination the federal government's ongoing policy and established the first thirteen tribes to be targeted. Passage of
10710-407: Was still popular with Utah's electorate and impacted Watkins' re-election bid in 1958. Former Utah Governor J. Bracken Lee took the opportunity to oppose Watkins for the senatorial nomination. Though Watkins won the Republican primary , Lee ran as an independent in the general election. This caused a split in the Republican vote and allowed Democrat Frank E. Moss to win the seat. Lee went on to
10815-450: Was suspended during the war years. After Watkins' election to the Senate in 1946, with increasing demand for municipal water and the need for irrigation of farmland, he began pushing for a reintroduction of legislation supporting the development plan. Investigations were made in January 1948, leading to a report issued in July 1949 recommending creation of a reservoir to store surplus water from
10920-412: Was warranted. On August 5, 1954, the names of the committee members were released: Arthur Watkins (Republican of Utah), Frank Carlson (Republican of Kansas), Francis Case (Republican of South Dakota), Edwin C. Johnson (Democrat of Colorado), John Stennis (Democrat of Mississippi), and Sam Ervin (Democrat of North Carolina). The senators were hand-picked by Nixon because they were men who played by
11025-796: Was widely believed that Alaskan natives' rights to the Tongass National Forest had been forsaken in favor of corporate timber interests. The western Oregon terminations of the Siletz and Grand Ronde tribes were seen by settlers and state politicians as a means of releasing tribal natural resources as a no-cost means of improving local economies. Even before Watkins lost his re-election bid, the policies he had pursued were proving to have disastrous effects on Native peoples, as anticipated. Tribes were cut off from services for education, health care, housing, sanitation and utility sources, and related resources. Termination directly caused decay within
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