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68-538: The artichoke ( Cynara cardunculus var. scolymus ), also known by the names French artichoke , globe artichoke , and green artichoke in the United States, is a variety of a species of thistle cultivated as food. The edible portion of the plant consists of the flower buds before the flowers come into bloom. The budding artichoke flower-head is a cluster of many budding small flowers (an inflorescence ), together with many bracts , on an edible base. Once
136-510: A curiosity. But very soon veers towards the northwest ... Artichoke beds are mentioned in Avignon by the notaries from 1532 onward; from the principal towns they spread into the hinterlands ... appearing as carchofas at Cavaillon in 1541, at Chateauneuf du Pape in 1553, at Orange in 1554. The local name remains carchofas , from the Italian carciofo ... They are very small, the size of
204-524: A delicate flavor. Salt may be added to the water if boiling artichokes. Covered artichokes, in particular those that have been cut, can turn brown due to the enzymatic browning and chlorophyll oxidation. Placing them in water slightly acidified with vinegar or lemon juice can prevent the discoloration. Leaves are often removed one at a time, and the fleshy base eaten, with vinaigrette , hollandaise , vinegar , butter , mayonnaise , aioli , lemon juice, or other sauces. The fibrous upper part of each leaf
272-421: A few years. The peak season for artichoke harvesting is the spring, but they can continue to be harvested throughout the summer, with another peak period in mid-autumn. When harvested, they are cut from the plant so as to leave an inch or two of stem. Artichokes possess good keeping qualities, frequently remaining quite fresh for two weeks or longer under average retail conditions. Apart from culinary applications,
340-541: A hen's egg ... and are still considered a luxury, a vaguely aphrodisiac tidbit that one preserved in sugar syrup. The Dutch introduced artichokes to England, where they grew in Henry VIII 's garden at Newhall in 1530. From the mid-17th century artichokes 'enjoyed a vogue' in European courts. The hearts were considered luxury ingredients in the new court cookery as recorded by writers such as François Pierre La Varenne ,
408-449: A large head from an edible bud about 8–15 cm (3–6 in) diameter with numerous triangular scales; the individual florets are purple. The edible portions of the buds consist primarily of the fleshy lower portions of the involucral bracts and the base, known as the heart ; the mass of immature florets in the center of the bud is called the choke or beard (which are inedible in older, larger flowers). The English word artichoke
476-469: A large, globose , massively spined capitulum up to 6 cm (2 in) in diameter. It is adapted to dry climates, native across a circum- Mediterranea area from Morocco and Portugal east to Libya and Greece and north to Croatia and Southern France ; it may also be native on Cyprus , the Canary Islands and Madeira . In France , the frost-tender cardoon only occurs wild in
544-414: A limited harvest at the end of the first growing season, even in regions where the plants are not normally winter-hardy. This means home gardeners in northern regions can attempt to produce a crop without the need to overwinter plants with special treatment or protection. The seed cultivar 'Imperial Star' has been bred to produce in the first year without such measures. An even newer cultivar, 'Northern Star',
612-434: A solar light process with TiO 2 slurry and H 2 O 2 system, achieving 98% benzene degradation, a substantial increase in the removal of benzene. Attempts were made to use solar energy for controlling disease agents in soil and in plant material already in the ancient civilization of India . In 1939, Groashevoy, who used the term "solar energy for sand disinfection", controlled Thielaviopsis basicola upon heating
680-506: A soup of cardoon cooked in chicken broth with little meatballs (lamb or, more rarely, beef), sometimes with the further addition of egg (which scrambles in the hot soup – called stracciatella ) or fried chopped liver and heart. The cardoon stalks are considered a delicacy in Spain , particularly in the northerns regions of Navarre and Aragon , where they are grown in large quantities. In Spain, cardoons are typically cooked by first boiling
748-608: A study reported after eight days of solarization 100% of V. dabliae (a fungus that causes farm crops to wilt and die) was killed at a depth of 25 centimeters. Soil solarization causes a decrease in beneficial microbes, however beneficial bacteria like the Bacillus species are able to survive and flourish under high temperatures in solarized soils. Other studies have also reported an increase in Trichoderma harzianum (fungicide) after solarization. Soil solarization allows for
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#1732772221987816-466: A time-saving substitute, though the consistency and stronger flavor of fresh hearts, when available, is often preferred. Deep-fried artichoke hearts are eaten in coastal areas of California . Throughout North Africa , the Middle East , Turkey , and Armenia , ground lamb is a favorite filling for stuffed artichoke hearts. Spices reflect the local cuisine of each country. In Lebanon , for example,
884-478: A transparent polyethylene cover to trap solar energy. This energy causes physical, chemical, and biological changes in the soil community. Soil solarization is dependent upon time, temperature, and soil moisture. It may also be described as methods of decontaminating soil or creating suppressive soils by the use of sunlight. Soil solarization is a hydrothermal process of disinfecting the soil of pests, accomplished by solar power (referred to as solar heating of
952-406: Is Jewish-style artichokes , which are deep-fried whole. The softer parts of artichokes are also eaten raw, one leaf at a time dipped in vinegar and olive oil, or thinly sliced and dressed with lemon and olive oil. There are many stuffed artichoke recipes. A common Italian stuffing uses a mixture of bread crumbs, garlic, oregano, parsley, grated cheese, and prosciutto or sausage. A bit of the mixture
1020-509: Is native to the Mediterranean region, where it was domesticated in ancient times and still occurs as a wild plant. The wild cardoon is a stout herbaceous perennial plant growing 0.8 to 1.5 m (31 to 59 in) tall, with deeply lobed and heavily spined green to grey-green tomentose (hairy or downy) leaves up to 50 cm (20 in) long, with yellow spines up to 3.5 cm long. The flowers are violet-purple, produced in
1088-497: Is a moderate source (10–19% DV) of vitamin K (16% DV), magnesium , sodium , and phosphorus (10–12% DV). Large globe artichokes are frequently prepared by removing all but 5–10 mm ( 3 ⁄ 16 – 3 ⁄ 8 in) or so of the stem. To remove thorns, which may interfere with eating, around a quarter of each scale can be cut off. To cook, the artichoke is simmered for 15 to 30 minutes, or steamed for 30–40 minutes (less for small ones). A cooked, unseasoned artichoke has
1156-506: Is also tied up with cord, and left so for about three weeks". Cardoons also are common vegetables in northern Africa, often used in Algerian or Tunisian couscous . Cardoon stalks can be covered with small, nearly invisible spines that can cause substantial pain if they become lodged in the skin. Several spineless cultivars have been developed to overcome this. Cardoon requires a long, cool growing season (about five months), and while it
1224-513: Is also used to make a 'Cin Cyn', a slightly less-bitter version of the Negroni cocktail , by substituting Cynar for Campari . The globe artichoke genome has been sequenced. The genome assembly covers 725 of the 1,084 Mb genome and the sequence codes for about 27,000 genes. An understanding of the genome structure is an important step in understanding traits of the globe artichoke, which may aid in
1292-486: Is an Arabicisation (through phono-semantic matching ) of the English word artichoke or other European terms like it. As in the case of Levantine Arabic ʔarḍī shawkī , names for the artichoke have frequently changed form due to folk etymology and phono-semantic matching. The Italian form articiocco seems to have been adapted to correspond to Italian arci- ('arch-, chief') and ciocco ('stump'). Forms of
1360-641: Is made in Romania. The flower portion is put into water and consumed as a herbal tea in Mexico. It has a slightly bitter, woody taste. Artichoke is the primary botanical ingredient of the Italian aperitif Cynar , with 16.5% alcohol by volume, produced by the Campari Group . It can be served over ice as an aperitif or as a cocktail mixed with orange juice, which is especially popular in Switzerland. It
1428-413: Is mulched during the hottest months (rather than the coldest, as in conventional plasticulture which is aimed at protecting the crop) in order to increase the maximal temperatures in an attempt to achieve lethal heat levels. In the first 10 years following the influential 1976 publication, soil solarization was investigated in at least 24 countries and has been now been applied in more than 50, mostly in
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#17327722219871496-604: Is native to the Mediterranean area. There was debate over whether the artichoke was a food among the ancient Greeks and Romans, or whether that cultivar was developed later, with Classical sources referring instead to the wild cardoon. The cardoon is mentioned as a garden plant in the eighth century BCE by Homer and Hesiod . Pliny the Elder mentioned growing of 'carduus' in Carthage and Cordoba . In North Africa, where it
1564-478: Is necessary to continue the mulching process to control for pathogens. Soil solarization practices requires soil temperatures reach 35-60 degrees Celsius (95 to 140°F), which kills pathogens at the top 30 centimeters of soil. Solarization does not sterilize the soil completely. Soil solarization enhances the soil towards promoting beneficial microorganisms . Soil solarization creates a beneficial microbe community by killing up to 90% of pathogens. More specifically,
1632-699: Is not particularly frost-sensitive, in heavier freezes it may lose its leaves and resprout, or in extended hard freezes, die. It also typically requires substantial growing space per plant, so is not much grown except where it is regionally popular. In cultivation in the United Kingdom , this plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit . Raw cardoon is 94% water, 4% carbohydrates , 1% protein , and has negligible fat (table). A 100 gram reference amount provides 17 calories and moderate amounts (10–19% of
1700-458: Is said to be able to overwinter in more northerly climates, and readily survives subzero temperatures. Commercial culture is limited to warm areas in USDA hardiness zone 7 and above. It requires good soil, regular watering and feeding, and frost protection in winter. Rooted suckers can be planted each year, so mature specimens can be disposed of after a few years, as each individual plant lives only
1768-563: Is still found in the wild state, the seeds of artichokes, probably cultivated, were found during the excavation of Roman-period Mons Claudianus in Egypt. Varieties of artichokes were cultivated in Sicily beginning in the classical period of the ancient Greeks; the Greeks calling them kaktos . In that period, the Greeks ate the leaves and flower heads, which cultivation had already improved from
1836-520: Is still used in Maghrebi Arabic today, while other variants in Arabic include kharshafa , and Modern Standard Arabic khurshūfa . These Arabic forms themselves derive from classical Arabic حرشفة ( harshafa ) singular word of the plural حراشف ( ḥarashef ) meaning "scale" . Other languages which derive their word for the artichoke from Arabic include Israeli Hebrew , which has
1904-507: Is then pushed into the spaces at the base of each leaf and into the center before boiling or steaming. In Spain, younger, smaller, and more tender artichokes are used. They can be sprinkled with olive oil and left in hot ashes in a barbecue, sautéed in olive oil with garlic, with rice as a paella , or sautéed and combined with eggs in a tortilla ( frittata ). Often cited is the Greek anginares alla Polita ("artichokes city-style", referring to
1972-468: Is usually discarded. The heart is eaten when the inedible choke has been peeled away from the base and discarded. The thin leaves covering the choke are also edible. In Italy, artichoke hearts in oil are the usual vegetable for the "spring" section of the "four seasons" pizza (alongside tomatoes and basil for summer, mushrooms for autumn, and prosciutto and olives for winter). A recipe well known in Rome
2040-484: The Daily Value ) of folate , magnesium , manganese , and sodium (table). While the flower buds can be eaten much as small (and spiny) artichokes , more often the stems are eaten after being braised in cooking liquid. Cardoon stems are part of Lyonnaise cuisine (e.g. gratin de cardons ). Only the innermost, white stalks are considered edible, and cardoons are therefore usually prepared for sale by protecting
2108-593: The Mediterranean south ( Gard , Hérault , Aude , Pyrénées-Orientales , Corsica ). It has become an invasive weed in the pampas of Argentina , and is also considered a weed in Australia and California . The "giant thistle of the Pampas" reported by Charles Darwin has been identified as cardoon. The two main cultivar groups are the cardoon ( Cynara cardunculus Cardoon Group, syn. C. cardunculus var. altilis DC), selected for edible leaf stems, and
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2176-527: The Vaal River . In 2020, the world produced approximately 1.5 million tons of artichokes. Source: UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Artichokes can be produced from seeds or from vegetative means such as division , root cuttings , or micropropagation . Although technically perennials that normally produce the edible flower during only the second and subsequent years, certain varieties of artichokes can be grown from seed as annuals, producing
2244-594: The artichoke ( Cynara cardunculus Scolymus Group, sometimes distinguished as Cynara scolymus or C. cardunculus var. scolymus (L.) Fiori), selected for larger edible flower buds. They differ from the wild plant in being larger (up to 2 m tall), much less spiny, and with thicker leaf stems and larger flowers, all characteristics selected by humans for greater crop yield and easier harvest and processing. Wild and cultivated cardoons and artichokes are very similar genetically, and are fully interfertile, but have only very limited ability to form hybrids with other species in
2312-495: The electromigration of cadmium in contaminated soil, and the removal efficiency that was achieved by the solar cell was comparable with that achieved by conventional power supply. In Korea, various remediation methods of soil slurry and groundwater contaminated with benzene at a polluted gas station site were evaluated, including a solar-driven, photocatalyzed reactor system along with various advanced oxidation processes (AOP). The most synergistic remediation method incorporated
2380-486: The French word artichaut (which also derives from Arabic, possibly via Spanish) have over the years included artichaud (corresponding to chaud , 'warm') and artihault (corresponding to haut , 'height'). Forms found in English have included hartichoak , corresponding to heart and choke , which were likely associated with the belief that the inedible centre of the vegetable could choke its eaters or that
2448-507: The author of Le Cuisinier François (1651). It was also claimed, in this period, that artichokes had aphrodisiac properties. They were taken to the United States in the nineteenth century—to Louisiana by French immigrants and to California by Spanish immigrants. Cultivation of the globe artichoke is concentrated in the Americas and the countries bordering the Mediterranean basin. The main European producers are Italy, Spain, and France and
2516-433: The banks of streams and rivers, and even drainage ditches on the sides of roads in rural areas. These plants look little like the cultivated variety found in stores. They have many thin stems with broad broad leaves at their ends. There is a reddish color on the stems, which grow tough, hollow and inedible as they age. The wild ones are picked in the spring and early summer. To use them, the leafy part should be removed, and
2584-501: The buds bloom, the structure changes to a coarse, barely edible form. Another variety of the same species is the cardoon , a perennial plant native to the Mediterranean region . Both wild forms and cultivated varieties ( cultivars ) exist. This vegetable grows to 1.4–2 m ( 4 + 1 ⁄ 2 – 6 + 1 ⁄ 2 ft) tall, with arching, deeply lobed, silvery, glaucous-green leaves 50–83 cm ( 19 + 1 ⁄ 2 – 32 + 1 ⁄ 2 in) long. The flowers develop in
2652-468: The city of Constantinople ), a hearty, savory stew made with artichoke hearts, potatoes, and carrots, and flavored with onion, lemon, and dill. The island of Tinos , or the villages of Iria and Kantia in the Peloponnese , still very much celebrate their local production, including with a day of the artichoke or an artichoke festival. Artichokes may also be prepared by completely breaking off all of
2720-453: The curd relies entirely on this vegetable rennet . This results in cheeses such as the Serra da Estrela and Nisa . The cardoon is also grown as an ornamental plant for its imposing architectural appearance, with very bright silvery-grey foliage and large flowers in selected cultivars. Cardoon has attracted recent attention as a possible source of biodiesel fuel. The oil, extracted from
2788-739: The flower buds are also employed in cheesemaking : the pistils of the cardoon flower are used as a vegetable rennet in the making of some cheeses such as the Torta del Casar and the Torta de la Serena cheeses in Spain, or the Queijo de Nisa and Serra da Estrela cheeses in Portugal. Cardoons were also said to have been used by the Romani or "gypsies" and this would make sense as their encampments would often be situated near sources of water. The vegetable
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2856-504: The genus Cynara . The earliest description of the cardoon may come from the fourth-century BC Greek writer Theophrastus , under the name κάκτος ( Latin : cactus ), although the exact identity of this plant is uncertain. The cardoon was popular in Greek , Roman , and Persian cuisine , and remained popular in medieval and early modern Europe. It also became common in the vegetable gardens of colonial America , but fell from fashion in
2924-407: The globe artichoke is also an attractive plant for its bright floral display, sometimes grown in herbaceous borders for its bold foliage and large, purple flower heads. Cooked unsalted artichoke is 82% water, 12% carbohydrates , 3% protein , and 3% fat . In a 100-gram reference serving, cooked artichoke supplies 74 calories , is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value , DV) of folate , and
2992-434: The hot regions, although there were some important exceptions. Studies have demonstrated effectiveness of solarization with various crops, including vegetables, field crops, ornamentals and fruit trees, against many pathogens, weeds and a soil arthropod. Those pathogens and weeds which are not controlled by solarization were also detected. The biological, chemical and physical changes that take in solarized soil during and after
3060-406: The identification of economically important genes from related species. Cynara cardunculus The cardoon ( Cynara cardunculus / ˈ s ɪ n ər ə k ɑːr ˈ d ʌ n k j ʊ l ə s / ), also called the artichoke thistle , is a thistle in the family Asteraceae . It is a naturally occurring species that also has many cultivated forms , including the globe artichoke . It
3128-557: The late 19th century and is now very uncommon. In Europe, cardoon is still cultivated in France ( Provence , Savoie , Lyonnais ), Spain , and Italy . In the Geneva region, where Huguenot refugees introduced it about 1685, the local cultivar Argenté de Genève ("Cardy") is considered a culinary specialty. "Before cardoons are sent to table, the stalks or ribs are blanched tying them together and wrapping them round with straw, which
3196-493: The leaf stalks from the sunlight for several weeks. This was traditionally done by burying the plant underground, thus, cardoon plantations in Spain are often formed by characteristic earth mounds surrounding each plant, the earth covering the stalks. In modern cultivation, the plant is usually instead wrapped in black plastic film or other opaque material. The flower buds of wild cardoons are still widely collected and used in southern Italy and Sicily . In Spain and Portugal ,
3264-418: The leaves, leaving the bare heart. The leaves are steamed to soften the fleshy base part of each leaf to be used as the basis for any number of side dishes or appetizing dips , or the fleshy part is left attached to the heart, while the upper parts of the leaves are discarded. The remaining concave-shaped heart is often filled with meat, then fried or baked in a savory sauce. Canned or frozen artichoke hearts are
3332-671: The main American producers are Argentina, Peru and the United States. In the United States, California provides nearly 100% of the U.S. crop, with about 80% of that being grown in Monterey County ; there, Castroville proclaims itself to be "The Artichoke Center of the World" and holds the annual Castroville Artichoke Festival . More recently, artichokes have been grown in South Africa in a small town called Parys , located along
3400-459: The mid Atlantic states, as well as some farmers' markets in the months of May, June, and July. As suggested above, they become available in the late autumn near Thanksgiving and Christmas. The main root can also be boiled and served cold. The stems are also traditionally served battered and fried at St. Joseph's altars in New Orleans. Cardoons can also be found in their "wild" state, on
3468-468: The national dishes of Spain, the cocido madrileño , a slow-cooking, one-pot, meat and vegetable dish simmered in broth. In Crete , cardoons are eaten raw, with a drizzle of lemon juice, as a meze , and are considered an excellent accompaniment for raki . In the US, it is rarely found in conventional grocery stores but is available in supermarkets that cater to largely Italian and European neighborhoods in
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#17327722219873536-432: The plant can take over a garden, choking out other plants. Artichokes are affected by fungal pathogens including Verticillium dahliae and Rhizoctonia solani . Soil solarization has been successful in other crop-fungus pathosystems and is evaluated for suppression of V. dahliae and R. solani by Guerrero et al. 2019. The artichoke is a domesticated variety of the wild cardoon ( Cynara cardunculus ), which
3604-555: The possible implications were indicated in the first publication, noticing the very long effect of the treatment. In 1977, American scientists from the University of California at Davis reported the control of Verticillium in a cotton field, based on studies started in 1976, thus denoting, for the first time, the possible wide applicability of this method. The use of polyethylene for soil solarization differs in principle from its traditional agricultural use. With solarization, soil
3672-624: The recolonization of competitive beneficial microbes by creating a favorable environment conditions. The number of beneficial microbes increases over time and makes solarized soils more resistant to pathogens. The success of solarization is not only due to the decrease in soil pathogens, but also to the increase in beneficial microbes such as Bacillus , Pseudomonas , and Talaromyces flavus . Soil solarization has been shown to suppress soil pathogens and cause an increase in plant growth. Suppressed soils promote rhizobacteria and have shown to increase total dry weight in sugar beets by 3.5 times. Also
3740-477: The sand by exposure to direct sunlight . Soil solarization is the third approach for soil disinfestation ; the two other main approaches, soil steaming and fumigation ; were developed at the end of the 19th century. The idea of solarization was based on observations by extension workers and farmers in the hot Jordan Valley , who noticed the intensive heating of the polyethylene-mulched soil. The involvement of biological control mechanisms in pathogen control and
3808-563: The seeds of the cardoon, and called artichoke oil , is similar to safflower and sunflower oil in composition and use. Cardoon is the feedstock for the first biorefinery in the world converting the installations of a petrochemical plant in Porto Torres , Sardinia , providing biomass and oils for the building blocks of bioplastics . Soil solarization Soil solarization is a non-chemical environmentally friendly method for controlling pests using solar power to increase
3876-554: The soil in early publications) and is relatively a new soil disinfestation method, first described in extensive scientific detail by Katan in 1976. The mode of action for soil solarization is complex and involves the use of heat as a lethal agent for soil pests from the use of transparent polyethylene tarps. To increase the effectiveness of solar heating requires optimal seasonal temperatures, mulching during high temperatures and solar irradiation , and moisture soil conditions. Soil temperatures are lower when decreasing in soil depth and it
3944-403: The soil temperature to levels at which many soil-borne plant pathogens will be killed or greatly weakened. Soil solarization is used in warm climates on a relatively small scale in gardens and organic farms. Soil solarization weakens and kills fungi , bacteria , nematodes , and insect and mite pests along with weeds in the soil by mulching the soil and covering it with a tarp, usually with
4012-481: The solarization have been investigated, as well as the interaction of solarization with other methods of control. Long-term effects including biological control and increased growth response were verified in various climatic regions and soils, demonstrating the general applicability of solarization. Computerized simulation models have been developed to guide researchers and growers whether the ambient conditions of their locality are suitable for solarization. Studies of
4080-579: The spread of artichoke cultivation in Italy and southern France in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, when the artichoke appeared as a new arrival with a new name, which may be taken to indicate an arrival of an improved cultivated variety: The blossom of the thistle, improved by the Arabs, passed from Naples to Florence in 1466, carried by Philippo Strozzi. Towards 1480 it is noticed in Venice , as
4148-621: The stalks to soften them, and then adding simple sauces such as almond sauce or small amounts of jamón ; they are sometimes combined with clams , artichokes , or beans as well. Because of their seasonality (from November to February), cardoons are a staple of the Christmas dinner in Navarre and the surrounding regions; for the same reason, cardoons are often sold as vegetable preserves, usually in water or brine , so that they can be eaten all year round. Cardoons are an ingredient in one of
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#17327722219874216-408: The stems cleaned of "stringy" fibers. This cleansing will stain the hands black, and so many people didn't want to prepare them (Source: Sicilian grandmothers born in Italy in the 1890's). Cardoon is one of the herbs used to flavour Amaro liqueur, which may be called Cardamaro . Cardoons are used as a vegetarian source of enzymes for cheese production. In Portugal , traditional coagulation of
4284-413: The study showed that plant growth promoting rhizobacteria on sugar beets treated with soil solarization increased root density by 4.7 times. Soil solarization is an important agricultural practice for ecologically friendly soil pathogen suppression. A 2008 study used a solar cell to generate an electric field for electrokinetic (EK) remediation of cadmium - contaminated soil . The solar cell could drive
4352-512: The typical filling would include lamb, onion, tomato, pinenuts , raisins, parsley, dill, mint, black pepper, and allspice . A popular Turkish vegetarian variety uses only onion, carrot, green peas, and salt. Artichokes are often prepared with white sauces or other kinds of sauces. Artichokes can also be made into a herbal tea . The infusion is consumed particularly among the Vietnamese . An artichoke-based herbal tea called Ceai de Anghinare
4420-805: The wild form. The Romans called the vegetable carduus (hence the name cardoon ). Further improvement in the cultivated form appears to have taken place in the medieval period in Muslim Spain and the Maghreb , although the evidence is inferential only. By the twelfth century, it was being mentioned in the compendious guide to farming composed by Ibn al-'Awwam in Seville (though it does not appear in earlier major Andalusian Arabic works on agriculture), and in Germany by Hildegard von Bingen . Le Roy Ladurie, in his book Les paysans de Languedoc , has documented
4488-465: The word חֻרְשָׁף ( khursháf ). The original Hebrew name (see Hebrew: he:ארטישוק ) is קינרס kinars , which is found in the Mishna . Despite being borrowed from Arabic, European terms for the artichoke have in turn influenced Arabic in their own right. For example, the modern Levantine Arabic term for artichoke is أرضي شوكي ( ʔarḍī shawkī ). This literally means 'earthy thorny', and
4556-478: Was borrowed in the sixteenth century from the northern Italian word articiocco (the standard modern Italian being carciofo ). The Italian term was itself borrowed either from Spanish alcarchofa (today usually alcachofa ) or directly from the source of the Spanish word—medieval Andalusi Arabic الخرشوفة ( al-kharshūfa , including the Arabic definite article al ). The Arabic form kharshūfa
4624-480: Was free for the picking, and could account for the widespread use of the plant. That part is speculative. Cardoon leaf stalks, which look like giant celery stalks, can be served steamed or braised, and have an artichoke-like flavor with a hint of bitterness. They are harvested in winter and spring, being best just before the plant flowers. In the Abruzzo region of Italy, Christmas lunch is traditionally started with
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