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37-515: Traditionally the centre of coal mining in Chile , large-scale coal mining in Arauco Basin ended in the 1990s. Given a high density of geological faults that have displaced the coal beds and the thin nature of these (less than one metre) mining activity in Arauco Basin has proven difficult to mechanize . The sedimentary fill has a maximum thickness of ca. 2,000 metres (6,600 ft). Parts of

74-774: A high density of geological faults that displace the coal beds and the thin nature of these (less than one metre) mining activity in Arauco Basin proved difficult to mechanize . Traditionally the centre of coal mining in Chile, large-scale coal mining in Arauco Basin ended in the 1990s. Despite the decline of the coal industry communities in the zone continue to identify with it. The following mines were at times active in Sector Sur of Zona Centro Sur: El Chiflón del Diablo , El Chiflón Costa, Mina Consolidada, Mina Chiflones Fortuna, Mina Manto Grande, Mina Socavón Victoria, Pique Anita and others. The Zona Sur coal district spans

111-520: A policy of a free land, notably the Homestead Act of 1862, coupled with railroad land grants that opened cheap (but not free) lands for settlers. In 1890, the frontier line had broken up; census maps defined the frontier line as a line beyond which the population was under 2 persons per square mile. The impact of the frontier in popular culture was enormous, as shown in dime novels , Wild West shows , and after 1910 Western films that were set on

148-477: Is a political and geographical term referring to areas near or beyond a boundary . In the United States , the frontier was the term applied by scholars to the impact of the zone of land beyond the region of existing European occupation. That is, as pioneers moved into the frontier zone they were changed significantly by the encounter. That is what Frederick Jackson Turner called "the significance of

185-584: Is believed to have caused the uplift of the basin plus some further tectonic inversion and contraction. Coal mining in Chile In Chile , coal mining is restricted to a few places located in its southern half. Energy originating from coal stands for 11,6% of Chile's electricity consumption. Currently the country is not considered a major producer of coal. The three zones of mining are Zona Central Sur (36–38° S), Zona Sur (39–42° S) and Zona Austral (51–54° S) in southernmost Chile. Most of

222-473: Is debated. The Canadian political thinker Charles Blattberg has argued that such events ought to be seen as part of a process in which Canadians advanced a "border," as distinct from a "frontier," from east to west. According to Blattberg, a border assumes a significantly sharper contrast between the civilized and the uncivilized since unlike a frontier process in which the civilizing force is not supposed to be shaped by what it civilizes. Blattberg criticizes both

259-640: Is that the coals of Zona Sur are of Oligo - Miocene age being thus younger than those of Arauco Basin further north. Yet findings of foraminifers appear to indicate for older ages, that is Eocene . The geological units containing economically significant amounts of coal are the Pupunahue Beds , the very similar Mulpún Beds , Cheuquemó Formation and Parga Formation . Some of the better known coal mines of Los Ríos Region are: Arrau, Catamutún , Ciruelo, Máfil, Mulpún and Pupunahue . While these mines had occasional spurts in activity only Catamutún

296-1010: The Appalachian Mountains included the Connecticut River Valley. The French and Indian Wars of the 1760s resulted in a complete victory for the British, who took over the French colonial territory west of the Appalachians to the Mississippi River. The Americans began moving across the Appalachians into areas such the Ohio Country and the New River Valley . After victory the American Revolutionary War and

333-719: The Kansas Territory would become "slave" or "free" helped to spark the American Civil War . In general before 1860, Northern Democrats promoted easy land ownership, and Whigs and Southern Democrats resisted the Homestead Acts for supporting the growth of a free farmer population that might oppose slavery and for depoulating the East. When the Republican Party came to power in 1860, it promoted

370-437: The "frontier" concept also had a massive impact on Native Americans like the declaration of terra nullius enacted by the British around 1835 to legitimize their colonization of Australia . The idea implicitly negated any recognition of legitimate pre-existing occupation and embodied a blank denial of land rights to the indigenous peoples whose territories were being annexed by European colonists. Throughout American history,

407-724: The Arauco Basin. First a phase of extension in the Late Cretaceous and Paleogene. Then a basin inversion lasting from the Middle Eocene to the Miocene causing the uplift and erosion that created the “main unconformity” and finally a post-inversion phase of strike-slip faulting in the Pliocene and Pleistocene . The subduction of the Mocha Fracture Zone under the basin that begun about 3.6 million years ago

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444-563: The British colonies generally pursued a more systematic policy of widespread settlement of the New World for cultivation and exploitation of the land, a practice that required the extension of European property rights to the new continent. The typical British settlements were quite compact and small: under a square mile. Conflict with the Native Americans arose out of political issues on who would rule. Early frontier areas east of

481-607: The Canadaian Prairies supported populist and democratic movements in the early 20th century. In the European Union , the frontier is a term used to describe the region beyond its expanding borders. The European Union has designated the countries surrounding it as part of the European Neighbourhood . That is a region primarily of less developed countries, many of which aspire to become part of

518-612: The European Union. Current applicants include Turkey and Croatia , and Ukraine has also set itself the primary task of eventually joining EU, as have many small countries in the Balkans and the South Caucasus . Romania and Bulgaria joined the European Union in 2007. Proposals to admit Turkey have been debated but are now currently stalled, partly on the grounds that Turkey is beyond Europe's historic frontier and

555-634: The Laurentian thesis: the most creative and major developments in Canadian history occurred in the metropolitan centres of Central Canada, and the civilization of North America is the civilization of Europe. Innis considered place to be critical in the development of the Canadian West and wrote of the importance of metropolitan areas, settlements, and indigenous people in the creation of markets. Turner and Innis have continued to exert influence over

592-480: The basin are on land in Arauco Peninsula where Eocene coal-bearing rocks of marine and continental origin and Eocene age are exposed. On top of these rocks and toward the centre of the peninsula Miocene and Pliocene sedimentary rocks exists. Towards the east Cretaceous sedimentary rocks crop out. The sedimentary formations defined in Arauco Basin include: Pliocene Tubul Formation is the oldest formation in

629-529: The basin that has not been folded . It lies on an unconformity that cuts across all other formations of the basin. At present it reaches 100 metres (330 ft) above sea level in some locations and is dissected by a number of small valleys. The base of the Ranquil Formation is the so-called “main unconformity” which is thought to have formed by erosion during a period of tectonic inversion . A three-stage model of evolution has been proposed for

666-469: The closed Mulpún mine, however the project was put on hold in 2013. Somewhat south, in Los Lagos Region, coal beds can be found in the geological formations of Cheuquemó and Parga . The thin coal beds of this last formation were subject of small-scale mining operations around the turn of the 20th century. In Magallanes Region, Riesco Island is being investigated for new projects. Coal

703-545: The coal resources of Chile lie in Zona Austral at southernmost Chile. Usage of coal from Bío Bío Region as fuel dates back to at least 1557 when, according to Diego de Rosales , governor García Hurtado de Mendoza stayed in Quiriquina Island . Early British travelers had differing opinions on the economic value of Chilean coals, or more specifically, the coals of Zona Central Sur. While David Barry found

740-418: The coal very cheaply and the exploited coal seams were easy to work as they laid almost at ground level. The mining district of Biobío Region can be divided in two sectors: one south and one north of Biobío River . In the northern sector the mine of Lirquén , which provided coal to the cement plant of "Melón" was once the most important one. The northern sector contains sub-bituminous coal . The coals of

777-478: The coals to be of good quality, Charles Darwin found them of little value. The British consul in Chile correctly predicted in 1825 that the area around the mouth of Biobío River would be a centre of coal industry. It was however not until the mid-19th century that large scale coal mining began in the region. The initial trigger of coal mining was the arrival of steamships to the port of Talcahuano . These steam ships, most of whom were English, bought initially

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814-536: The coast and the great rivers such as the St. Lawrence , Connecticut , Hudson , Delaware , Susquehanna River and James . British, French, Spanish, and Dutch patterns of expansion and settlement were quite different from one another. Only a few thousand French migrated to Canada; the habitants settled in villages along the St. Lawrence River, built communities that remained stable for long stretches, and did not leapfrog west

851-585: The edge of a settled area" is a special North American development. (Compare the Australian " outback ".) In the Turnerian sense, "frontier" was a technical term that was explicated by hundreds of scholars. In the earliest days of European settlement of the Atlantic Coast, the frontier was essentially any part of the forested interior of the continent beyond the fringe of existing settlements along

888-537: The expansion of settlement was largely from the east to the west and so the frontier is often identified with "the West." On the Pacific Coast, settlement moved eastward. In New England, it moved north. "Frontier" was borrowed into English from French in the 15th century with the meaning "borderland," the region of a country that fronts on another country (see also marches ). The use of frontier to mean "a region at

925-613: The frontier and the border "civilizing" processes. The pattern of settlement of the Canadian Prairies began in 1896, when the American Prairies had already achieved statehood. Pioneers then headed north to the " Last Best West ." Before the settlers began to arrive, the North West Mounted Police had been dispatched to the region. When the settlers began to arrive, a system of law and order

962-479: The frontier. The American frontier was generally the edge of settlement in the West and typically was more democratic and free-spirited in nature than the East because of the lack of social and political institutions. The idea that the frontier provided the core defining quality of the United States was elaborated by the great historian Frederick Jackson Turner , who built his Frontier Thesis in 1893 around

999-410: The frontier." For example, Turner argued in 1893, one change was that unlimited free land in the zone was available and thus offered the psychological sense of unlimited opportunity, which in turn had many consequences, such as optimism, future orientation, shedding of restraints caused by land scarcity, and wastefulness of natural resources. Operating in tandem with the doctrine of " manifest destiny ",

1036-456: The historiography of the American and Canadian Wests. The Quebec frontier showed little of the individualism or democracy that Turner ascribed to the American zone to the south. The Nova Scotia and Ontario frontiers were more democratic than the rest of Canada, but whether that was caused by the need to be self-reliant on the frontier itself or the presence of large numbers of American immigrants

1073-512: The notion. A Canadian frontier thesis was developed by the Canadian historians Harold Adams Innis and J. M. S. Careless , who emphasized the relationship between the center and periphery. Katerberg argues that "in Canada the imagined West must be understood in relation to the mythic power of the North" (Katerberg 2003). Innis's 1930 work The Fur Trade in Canada expounded on what became known as

1110-566: The regions of Los Ríos and Los Lagos , roughly from the area of Valdivia to Chiloé Archipelago . The coals of the Zona Sur district are sub-bituminous . The geological context of the coals of Zona Sur is not fully understood as there are divergent views on the stratigraphy and the ages the coals. The study of the coals is hampered by the fact that there are few coal outcrops and attempted correlation between different localities has not been satisfactory. Age estimations vary. A common view

1147-634: The signing Treaty of Paris in 1783, the United States gained formal, if not actual, control of the British lands west of the Appalachians. Many thousands of settlers, typified by Daniel Boone , had already reached Kentucky and Tennessee and adjacent areas. Some areas, such as the Virginia Military District and the Connecticut Western Reserve (both in Ohio ), were used by the states as rewards to veterans of

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1184-593: The southern sector, i.e. those of Arauco Basin , are chiefly of bituminous nature. Industrialist Matías Cousiño begun mining operations in Lota in 1852. Coal mining transformed rapidly Lota, from being a sparsely populated frontier zone in the mid-19th century, into a large industrial hub that attracted immigrants from all over Chile well into the 20th century. Lota's coal mines were nationalized by Salvador Allende due to civil unrest and heavy Socialist support, but privatized again under Augusto Pinochet . Given

1221-650: The war. How to formally include the new frontier areas into the nation was an important issue in the Continental Congress in the 1780s and was partly resolved by the Northwest Ordinance (1787). The Southwest Territory saw a similar pattern of settlement pressure. For the next century, the expansion of the nation into those areas, as well as the subsequently-acquired Louisiana Purchase , Oregon Country , and Mexican Cession , attracted hundreds of thousands of settlers. The question of whether

1258-945: The way that the Americans would. Although French fur traders ranged widely through the Great Lakes and Mississippi River watershed, as far as the Rocky Mountains , they did not usually settle down. Actual French settlement in those areas was limited to a few very small villages on the lower Mississippi and in the Illinois Country . Likewise, the Dutch set up fur trading posts in the Hudson River Valley, followed by large grants of land to patroons , who brought in tenant farmers who created compact permanent villages but did not push westward. In contrast,

1295-554: Was already in place, and the Dakotas' lawlessness that was famous for the American "Wild West" did not occur in Canada. The federal government had also sent teams of negotiators to meet with the indigenous peoples of the region. In a series of treaties, the basis for peaceful relations was established, and the long wars with the Natives that occurred in the United States largely did not spread to Canada. Like their American counterparts,

1332-557: Was first discovered in Magallanes Region by Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa who visited the Straits of Magellan in 1584. The following mines have been exploited in Zona Austral over the years: Chilenita, Chinita, El Chino, Estela, Elena, Fernández Rocuant, Invierno , Josefina, Loreto, Magdalena, Natales, Peckett, Punta Arenas, Servidora, Soledad, Tres Hermanos, Tres Pasos, Tres Puentes, Vulcano. Frontier A frontier

1369-559: Was in continuous operation in the 1940s–2001 period. Mining in Catamutún, the only active coal mine in Los Ríos Region at the time, halted after an underground fire in 2001. During a period of the 20th century the electric grid of the city of Valdivia was powered by coal from the mines near Máfil . Starting in 2009 Antofagasta Minerals and Carbon Energy developed together an underground coal gasification project in

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