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52-818: The archerfish (also known as spinner fish or archer fish ) or Toxotidae are a monotypic family (although some include a second genus ) of perciform tropical fish known for their unique predation technique of "shooting down" land-based insects and other small prey with jets of water spit from their specialized mouths. The family is small, consisting of ten species in a single genus , Toxotes . Most archerfish live in freshwater streams , ponds and wetlands , but two or three species are euryhaline , inhabiting both fresh and brackish water habitats such as estuaries and mangroves . They can be found from India , Bangladesh and Sri Lanka , through Southeast Asia , to Melanesia and Northern Australia . Archerfish have deep and laterally compressed bodies, with

104-602: A common ancestor ) or paraphyletic (excluding some descendants), these concepts do not apply to monotypic taxa because they contain only a single member. Monotypic taxa are part of a broader challenge in biological classification known as aphyly – situations where evolutionary relationships are poorly supported by evidence. This includes both monotypic groups and cases where traditional groupings are found to be artificial. Understanding how monotypic taxa fit into this bigger picture helps identify areas needing further research. The German lichenologist Robert Lücking suggests that

156-604: A blob directly before impact as the slower leading water is overtaken by the faster trailing water, and it is varied by the fish to account for differences in range. It also makes this one of the few animals that both make and use tools , as they both utilise the water and shape it to make it more useful to them. They are persistent and will make multiple shots if the first one fails. Young archerfish start shooting when they are about 2.5 cm (1 in) long but are inaccurate at first and must learn from experience. During this learning period , they hunt in small schools . This way,

208-467: A changing of behaviors relevant to the situation at hand, acting appropriately with the setting one is in. However, with the advent of electronic media , people began to find themselves in situations they may have not been exposed to in everyday life. Novel situations and information presented through electronic media has formed interactions that are completely new to people. While people typically behaved in line with their setting in face-to-face interaction,

260-445: A distant team member into angles and target distances that they later must use to hit. However, little of their social behaviour is currently known beyond that archerfish are sensitive to, and make changes to their shooting behaviour, when conspecifics are visible to them. This is probably as a result of the potential threat of kleptoparasitism that other archerfish represent to a shooting fish. An archerfish will often leap out of

312-410: A family. Some examples of monotypic groups are: Social behavior Social behavior is behavior among two or more organisms within the same species, and encompasses any behavior in which one member affects the other. This is due to an interaction among those members. Social behavior can be seen as similar to an exchange of goods, with the expectation that when you give, you will receive

364-646: A fear of people in general. Due to this pervasive fear of embarrassing oneself in front of others, it causes those affected to avoid interactions with other people. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is a neurodevelopmental disorder mainly identified by its symptoms of inattention , hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Hyperactivity-Impulsivity may lead to hampered social interactions, as one who displays these symptoms may be socially intrusive, unable to maintain personal space, and talk over others. The majority of children that display symptoms of ADHD also have problems with their social behavior. Autism spectrum disorder

416-423: A great deal, emphasizing how difficult it is to empirically test such behaviors. Nonverbal cues can serve the function of conveying a message, thought, or emotion both to the person viewing the behavior and the person sending these cues. A number of mental disorders affect social behavior. Social anxiety disorder is a phobic disorder characterized by a fear of being judged by others, which manifests itself as

468-448: A large impact on social behavior, particularly by inducing more helping behavior, cooperation, and sociability. Studies have shown that even subtly inducing positive affect within individuals caused greater social behavior and helping. This phenomenon, however, is not one-directional. Just as positive affect can influence social behavior, social behavior can have an influence on positive affect. Social behavior has typically been seen as

520-430: A large role in the development of a child's social behavior, as the parents or caregivers are typically those who decide the settings and situations that the child is exposed to. These various settings the child is placed in (for example, the playground and classroom) form habits of interaction and behavior insomuch as the child being exposed to certain settings more frequently than others. What takes particular precedence in

572-486: A region known for expressing fear, was activated specifically when the monkeys were faced with a social situation they had never encountered before. This region of the brain was shown to be sensitive to the fear that comes with a novel social situation, inhibiting social interaction. Another form of studying the brain regions that may be responsible for social behavior has been through looking at patients with brain injuries who have an impairment in social behavior. Lesions in

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624-466: A role in interventions of disorders that deal with atypical social behavior. Along with vasopressin, serotonin has also been inspected in relation to social behavior in humans. It was found to be associated with human feelings of social connection, and there is a drop in serotonin when one is socially isolated or has feelings of social isolation. Serotonin has also been associated with social confidence. Positive affect (emotion) has been seen to have

676-458: A verbal form. One also begins to classify themselves on the basis of their gender and other qualities salient about themselves, like race and age. When the child reaches school age, one typically becomes more aware of the structure of society in regards to gender, and how their own gender plays a role in this. They become more and more reliant on verbal forms of communication, and more likely to form groups and become aware of their own role within

728-618: Is a posterior pituitary hormone that is seen to potentially play a role in affiliation for young rats. Along with young rats, vasopressin has also been associated with paternal behavior in prairie voles . Efforts have been made to connect animal research to humans, and found that vasopressin may play a role in the social responses of males in human research. Oxytocin has also been seen to be correlated with positive social behavior, and elevated levels have been shown to potentially help improve social behavior that may have been suppressed due to stress. Thus, targeting levels of oxytocin may play

780-427: Is a result of interactions in day-to-day life, and are behaviors learned as one is exposed to those different situations. On the other hand, defensive behavior arises out of impulse, when one is faced with conflicting desires. Social behavior constantly changes as one continues to grow and develop, reaching different stages of life. The development of behavior is deeply tied with the biological and cognitive changes one

832-411: Is also the time that individuals more often form sexual pairs. Once the individual reaches child rearing age, one must begin to undergo changes within the own behavior in accordance to major life-changes of a developing family. The potential new child requires the parent to modify their behavior to accommodate a new member of the family. Come senescence and retirement , behavior is more stable as

884-461: Is an awareness and intent), or by pure impulse. These factors that determine behavior can work in different situations and moments, and can even oppose one another. While at times one can behave with a specific goal in mind, other times they can behave without rational control, and driven by impulse instead. There are also distinctions between different types of social behavior, such as mundane versus defensive social behavior. Mundane social behavior

936-436: Is communication, which is the basis for survival and reproduction . Social behavior is said to be determined by two different processes, that can either work together or oppose one another. The dual-systems model of reflective and impulsive determinants of social behavior came out of the realization that behavior cannot just be determined by one single factor. Instead, behavior can arise by those consciously behaving (where there

988-465: Is evident in many cases across different species. For instance, the diatom Licmophora juergensii is placed in a monotypic genus because scientists have not yet found clear evidence of its relationships to other species. Some taxonomists argue against monotypic taxa because they reduce the information content of biological classifications. As taxonomists Backlund and Bremer explain in their critique, "'Monotypic' taxa do not provide any information about

1040-437: Is experiencing at any given time. This creates general patterns of social behavior development in humans. Just as social behavior is influenced by both the situation and an individual's characteristics, the development of behavior is due to the combination of the two as well—the temperament of the child along with the settings they are exposed to. Culture (parents and individuals that influence socialization in children) play

1092-407: Is particularly associated with island species. Among 25 documented extinct monotypic genera studied, 22 occurred on islands, with flightless animals being particularly vulnerable to human impacts. Just as the term monotypic is used to describe a taxon including only one subdivision, the contained taxon can also be referred to as monotypic within the higher-level taxon, e.g. a genus monotypic within

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1144-432: Is the only genus in its family), then each level needs a distinct definition to maintain logical structure. Otherwise, the different taxonomic ranks become effectively identical, which creates problems for organizing biological diversity in a hierarchical system. When taxonomists identify a monotypic taxon, this often reflects uncertainty about its relationships rather than true evolutionary isolation . This uncertainty

1196-525: The dorsal fin and the profile a straight line from dorsal fin to mouth. The mouth is protractile, and the lower jaw juts out. Sizes are fairly small, typically up to about 12–18 cm (5–7 in), but T. chatareus can reach 40 cm (16 in). Archerfish are popular exotic fish for aquaria , but are difficult to feed and maintain by average fishkeepers since they prefer live prey over typical fish foods . Archerfish are remarkably accurate in their shooting ; an adult fish almost always hits

1248-422: The prefrontal cortex that occurred in adulthood can affect the functioning of social behavior. When these lesions or a dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex occur in infancy/early on in life, the development of proper moral and social behavior is effected and thus atypical. Along with neural correlates, research has investigated what happens within the body (and potentially modulates) social behavior. Vasopressin

1300-423: The probability is enhanced that at least one jet will hit its target. A 2006 experimental study found that archerfish appear to benefit from observational learning by watching a performing group member shoot, without having to practice: This instance of social learning in a fish is most remarkable as it could imply that observers can ‘‘change their viewpoint,’’ mapping the perceived shooting characteristics of

1352-445: The ability to communicate with both verbal and nonverbal behavior. Verbal behavior is the content of one's spoken word. Verbal and nonverbal behavior intersect in what is known as coverbal behavior, which is nonverbal behavior that contributes to the meaning of verbal speech (i.e. hand gestures used to emphasize the importance of what someone is saying). Although the spoken words convey meaning in and of themselves, one cannot dismiss

1404-408: The air-water interface when aiming at their prey. They typically spit at prey at a mean angle of about 74° from the horizontal but can still aim accurately when spitting at angles between 45° and 110°. When an archerfish selects its prey, it rotates its eye so that the image of the prey falls on a particular portion of the eye in the ventral temporal periphery of the retina , and its lips just break

1456-443: The behavior of the infant is correlated with that of the caregiver. The development of social behavior is influenced by their mothers' reactions to children's emotional displays. In infancy, there is already a development of the awareness of a stranger, in which case the individual is able to identify and distinguish between people. Come childhood, the individual begins to attend more to their peers, and communication begins to take

1508-440: The behavior that an individual is unconsciously pressured by the group to make his behavior tend to be consistent with the majority of people in the group. Generally speaking, the larger the group size, the easier it is for individuals to display conformity behaviors. Individuals may submit to the group for two reasons: first, to gain acceptance from the group ( normative social influence ); second, to obtain important information for

1560-412: The brain are responsible for social behavior, some have claimed that the paracingulate cortex is activated when one person is thinking about the motives or aims of another, a means of understanding the social world and behaving accordingly. The medial prefrontal lobe has also been seen to have activation during social cognition Research has discovered through studies on rhesus monkeys that the amygdala ,

1612-745: The common application of the term monotypic is frequently misleading, "since each taxon by definition contains exactly one type and is hence "monotypic", regardless of the total number of units", and suggests using "monospecific" for a genus with a single species, and "monotaxonomic" for a taxon containing only one unit. Species in monotypic genera tend to be more threatened with extinction than average species. Studies have found this pattern particularly pronounced in amphibians , where about 6.56% of monotypic genera are critically endangered , compared to birds and mammals where around 4.54% and 4.02% of monotypic genera face critical endangerment respectively. Studies have found that extinction of monotypic genera

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1664-700: The coverbal behaviors that accompany the words, as they place great emphasis on the thought and importance contributing to the verbal speech. Therefore, the verbal behaviors and gestures that accompany it work together to make up a conversation . Although many have posited this idea that nonverbal behavior accompanying speech serves an important role in communication, it is important to note that not all researchers agree. However, in most literature on gestures, unlike body language, gestures can accompany speech in ways that bring inner thoughts to life (often thoughts unable to be expressed verbally). Gestures (coverbal behaviors) and speech occur simultaneously, and develop along

1716-412: The group ( informational social influence ). Aggression is an important social behavior that can have both negative consequences (in a social interaction) and adaptive consequences (adaptive in humans and other primates for survival). There are many differences in aggressive behavior, and a lot of these differences are sex-difference based. Although most animals can communicate nonverbally, humans have

1768-401: The group. By puberty, general relations among same and opposite sex individuals are much more salient, and individuals begin to behave according to the norms of these situations. With increasing awareness of their sex and stereotypes that go along with it, the individual begins to choose how much they align with these stereotypes, and behaves either according to those stereotypes or not. This

1820-401: The individual has often established their social circle (whatever it may be) and is more committed to their social structure. With the advent of the field social cognitive neuroscience came interest in studying social behavior's correlates within the brain to see what is happening beneath the surface as organisms act in a social manner. Although there is debate on which particular regions of

1872-401: The influence of the setting are the people that the child must interact with their age, sex, and at times culture. Emotions also play a large role in the development of social behavior, as they are intertwined with the way an individual behaves. Through social interactions, emotion is understood through various verbal and nonverbal displays, and thus plays a large role in communication. Many of

1924-613: The intentions and desires of another person improves with age. That being said, the individual characteristics of the child (their temperament) is important to understanding how the individual learns social behaviors and cues given to them, and this learnability is not consistent across all children. When studying patterns of biological development across the human lifespan, there are certain patterns that are well-maintained across humans. These patterns can often correspond with social development, and biological changes lead to respective changes in interactions. In pre and post-natal infancy ,

1976-419: The interactions and people relevant to a certain setting, and therefore begin to intuitively know the appropriate form of social interaction depending on the situation. Therefore, behavior is constantly changing as required, and maturity brings this on. A child must learn to balance their own desires with those of the people they interact with, and this ability to correctly respond to contextual cues and understand

2028-497: The lines have become blurred when it comes to electronic media. This has led to a cascade of results, as gender norms started to merge, and people were coming in contact with information they had never been exposed to through face-to-face interaction. A political leader could no longer tailor a speech to just one audience, for their speech would be translated and heard by anyone through the media. People can no longer play drastically different roles when put in different situations, because

2080-401: The lyrics were more likely to act in an aggressive manner. Likewise, people listening to songs related to prosocial acts (relative to a song with neutral lyrics) were shown to express greater helping behaviors and more empathy afterwards. When these songs were played at restaurants, it even led to an increase in tips given (relative to those who heard neutral lyrics). Conformity refers to

2132-399: The other. This makes it an example of exaptation . There are 9 valid species, 8 in the genus Toxotes : Monotypy Monotypic taxa present several important theoretical challenges in biological classification . One key issue is known as "Gregg's Paradox": if a single species is the only member of multiple hierarchical levels (for example, being the only species in its genus, which

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2184-504: The processes that occur in the brain and underlay emotion often greatly correlate with the processes that are needed for social behavior as well. A major aspect of interaction is understanding how the other person thinks and feels, and being able to detect emotional states becomes necessary for individuals to effectively interact with one another and behave socially. As the child continues to gain social information, their behavior develops accordingly. One must learn how to behave according to

2236-405: The relationships of the immediately subordinate taxon". When monotypic taxa are sister to a single larger group, they might be merged into that group; however, when they are sister to multiple other groups, they may need to remain separate to maintain a natural classification. From a cladistic perspective, which focuses on shared derived characteristics to determine evolutionary relationships,

2288-569: The same trajectory within children as well. Behaviors that include any change in facial expression or body movement constitute the meaning of nonverbal behavior. Communicative nonverbal behavior include facial and body expressions that are intentionally meant to convey a message to those who are meant to receive it. Nonverbal behavior can serve a specific purpose (i.e. to convey a message), or can be more of an impulse / reflex . Paul Ekman , an influential psychologist, investigated both verbal and nonverbal behavior (and their role in communication)

2340-434: The same. This behavior can be affected by both the qualities of the individual and the environmental (situational) factors. Therefore, social behavior arises as a result of an interaction between the two—the organism and its environment. This means that, in regards to humans, social behavior can be determined by both the individual characteristics of the person, and the situation they are in. A major aspect of social behavior

2392-609: The situations overlap more as information is more readily available. Communication flows more quickly and fluidly through media, causing behavior to merge accordingly. Media has also been shown to have an impact on promoting different types of social behavior, such as prosocial and aggressive behavior. For example, violence shown through the media has been seen to lead to more aggressive behavior in its viewers. Research has also been done investigating how media portraying positive social acts, prosocial behavior , could lead to more helping behavior in its viewers. The general learning model

2444-407: The surface, squirting a jet of water at its victim. The archerfish does this by forming a small groove in the roof of its mouth and its tongue into a narrow channel. It then fires by contracting its gill covers and forcing water through the channel, shooting a stream that, shaped by its mouth parts, travels faster at the rear than at the front. This speed differential causes the stream to become

2496-409: The target on the first shot. Although it is presumed that all archerfish species do this, it has only been confirmed from T. blythii , T. chatareus and T. jaculatrix . They can bring down insects and other prey up to 3 m (10 ft) above the water's surface. This is partially due to their good eyesight, but also to their ability to compensate for the refraction of light as it passes through

2548-403: The theoretical status of monotypic taxa is complex. Some argue they can only be justified when relationships cannot be resolved through synapomorphies (shared derived characteristics); otherwise, they would necessarily exclude related species and thus be paraphyletic. However, others contend that while most taxonomic groups can be classified as either monophyletic (containing all descendants of

2600-435: The water and grab an insect in its mouth if it happens to be within reach. Individuals typically prefer to remain close to the surface of the water. New research has found that archerfish also use jets to hunt underwater prey, such as those embedded in silt . It is not known whether they learned aerial or underwater shooting first, but the two techniques may have evolved in parallel , as improvements in one can be adapted to

2652-697: Was established to study how this process of translating media into behavior works, and why. This model suggests a link between positive media with prosocial behavior and violent media with aggressive behavior, and posits that this is mediated by the characteristics of the individual watching along with the situation they are in. This model also presents the notion that when one is exposed to the same type of media for long periods of time, this could even lead to changes within their personality traits, as they are forming different sets of knowledge and may be behaving accordingly. In various studies looking specifically at how video games with prosocial content effect behavior, it

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2704-446: Was shown that exposure influenced subsequent helping behavior in the video-game player. The processes that underlay this effect point to prosocial thoughts being more readily available after playing a video game related to this, and thus the person playing the game is more likely to behave accordingly. These effects were not only found with video games, but also with music, as people listening to songs involving aggression and violence in

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