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88-738: The Arctic Council is a high-level intergovernmental forum that addresses issues faced by the Arctic governments and the indigenous people of the Arcticregion . At present, eight countries exercise sovereignty over the lands within the Arctic Circle , and these constitute the member states of the council: Canada; Denmark; Finland; Iceland; Norway; Russia; Sweden; and the United States. Other countries or national groups can be admitted as observer states, while organizations representing

176-493: A treaty that acts as a charter creating the group. Treaties are formed when lawful representatives (governments) of several states go through a ratification process, providing the IGO with an international legal personality. Intergovernmental organizations are an important aspect of public international law . Intergovernmental organizations in a legal sense should be distinguished from simple groupings or coalitions of states, such as

264-553: A Ministerial-level meeting, which is the culmination of the council's work for that period. Most of the eight-member nations are represented by a Minister from their Foreign Affairs, Northern Affairs, or Environment Ministry. A formal, although non-binding, "Declaration", named for the town in which the meeting is held, sums up the past accomplishments and the future work of the council. These Declarations cover climate change, sustainable development , Arctic monitoring and assessment, persistent organic pollutants and other contaminants, and

352-735: A capitalist economy. The oldest regional organization is the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine , created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna . There are several different reasons a state may choose membership in an intergovernmental organization. But there are also reasons membership may be rejected. Reasons for participation: Reasons for rejecting membership: Intergovernmental organizations are provided with privileges and immunities that are intended to ensure their independent and effective functioning. They are specified in

440-577: A chance for the indigenous people to influence the decision-making process. If consent is not achieved, the nation-state must still respect other areas of the convention that include the Indigenous Peoples' right to their lands. For example, Article 16 (2) requires that free informed consent must be given if is the relocation of people. The treaty is legally binding on all states that ratify it, which may need to adjust domestic legislation. In nations such as New Zealand, domestic legislation such as

528-640: A fair trial . Otherwise, the organizations' immunities may be put in question in national and international courts. Some organizations hold proceedings before tribunals relating to their organization to be confidential, and in some instances have threatened disciplinary action should an employee disclose any of the relevant information. Such confidentiality has been criticized as a lack of transparency . The immunities also extend to employment law . In this regard, immunity from national jurisdiction necessitates that reasonable alternative means are available to effectively protect employees' rights; in this context,

616-854: A first instance Dutch court considered an estimated duration of proceedings before the Administrative Tribunal of the International Labour Organization of 15 years to be too long. An international organization does not pay taxes, is difficult to prosecute in court and is not obliged to provide information to any parliament. The United Nations focuses on five main areas: "maintaining peace and security , protecting human rights , delivering humanitarian aid , supporting sustainable development , and upholding international law ". UN agencies , such as UN Relief and Works Agency , are generally regarded as international organizations in their own right. Additionally,

704-712: A footnote): "The use of the term 'peoples' in this declaration shall not be construed as having any implications as regard the rights which may attach to the term under international law." The Indigenous Permanent Participants are assisted by the Arctic Council Indigenous Peoples Secretariat . Approved intergovernmental organizations and Inter-parliamentary institutions (both global and regional), as well as non-governmental organizations can also obtain Observer Status. Organizations with observer status currently include

792-534: A good resource for developmental projects in developing countries. The UN has to protect against any kind of human rights violation, and in the UN system, some specialized agencies, like ILO and United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees ( UNHCR ), work in the human rights' protection fields. The UN agency, ILO, is trying to end any kind of discrimination in the work field and child labor; after that, this agency promotes fundamental labor rights and to get safe and secure for

880-541: A nation that has a wealth of natural resources and a large indigenous population. The risk of giving indigenous people a veto on government projects is an increase social conflict in certain regions. That was seen with the conflict surrounding the Isiboro Se´cure National Park and Indigenous Territory (TIPNIS). A road was planned through the park, and coca growers were for the project as it would expand their business. The indigenous population opposed

968-508: A shared secretariat 2006–2013. Each rotating Chair nation accepts responsibility for maintaining the secretariat , which handles the administrative aspects of the council, including organizing semiannual meetings, hosting the website, and distributing reports and documents. The Norwegian Polar Institute hosted the Arctic Council Secretariat for the six-year period from 2007 to 2013; this was based on an agreement between

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1056-529: A single Arctic state. The number of Permanent Participants should at any time be less than the number of members. The category of Permanent Participants has been created to provide for active participation and full consultation with the Arctic indigenous representatives within the Arctic Council. This principle applies to all meetings and activities of the Arctic Council. Permanent Participants may address

1144-552: A special connection to their land and resources and inhabit one fifth of the Earth's surface . Such areas are environmentally rich in both renewable and non-renewable resources. The collective ownership style of most Indigenous Peoples conflicts with the modern global market and its continuous need for resources and land. To protect Indigenous Peoples' rights, international human rights law has created processes and standards to safeguard their way of life and to encourage participation in

1232-595: A variety of issues—was the League of Nations , founded on 10 January 1920 with a principal mission of maintaining world peace after World War I. The United Nations followed this model after World War II . This was signed on 26 June 1945, in San Francisco, at the conclusion of the United Nations Conference on International Organization, and came into force on 24 October 1945. Currently, the UN

1320-653: Is a "natural prolongation" of the land. Canada, Russia, and Denmark (via Greenland) have all submitted partially overlapping claims to the UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS), which is charged with confirming the continental shelf's outer limits. Once the CLCS makes its rulings, Russia, Denmark, and Canada will need to negotiate to divide their overlapping claims. Disputes also exist over

1408-505: Is an international waterway . The increase in the number of observer states drew attention to other national security issues. Observers have demonstrated their interests in the Arctic region. China has explicitly shown its desire to extract natural resources in Greenland. Military infrastructure is another point to consider. Canada, Denmark, Norway and Russia are rapidly increasing their defence presence by building up their militaries in

1496-627: Is an ambiguous term. In August 2016, the World Bank adopted its new Environmental and Social Standards, including Environmental and Social Standard 7 (ESS7) on Indigenous Peoples/Sub-Saharan African Historically Underserved Traditional Local Communities (Indigenous Peoples, "IPs"), which requires free prior informed consent if the project will: Since the early 2000s, Indigenous Peoples have started developing their own protocols on how FPIC processes are to be carried out. The first protocols were sector specific, namely Canadian First Nations addressing

1584-515: Is an international treaty adopted by the ILO in 1989. The Convention aims to overcome discriminatory practices affecting indigenous people and enable them in the decision-making process. The fundamental foundations of the Convention are participation and consultation. The requirement for consultation falls upon the government of the state and not on private persons or companies and may be delegated, but

1672-539: Is beneficial to all. Looking at these two different perspectives, some suggest that the Arctic Council should expand its role by including peace and security issues as its agenda. A 2010 survey showed that large majorities of respondents in Norway, Canada, Finland, Iceland, and Denmark were very supportive on the issues of an Arctic nuclear-weapons free zone . Although only a small majority of Russian respondents supported such measures, more than 80 percent of them agreed that

1760-484: Is intended to be ensured by legal mechanisms that are internal to the intergovernmental organization itself and access to administrative tribunals. In the course of many court cases where private parties tried to pursue claims against international organizations, there has been a gradual realization that alternative means of dispute settlement are required as states have fundamental human rights obligations to provide plaintiffs with access to court in view of their right to

1848-720: Is made up of member and observer states, Indigenous "permanent participants", and observer organizations. Only states with territory in the Arctic can be members of the council. The member states consist of the following: Observer status is open to non-Arctic states approved by the Council at the Ministerial Meetings that occur once every two years. Observers have no voting rights in the council. As of September 2021, thirteen non-Arctic states have observer status. Observer states receive invitations for most Council meetings. Their participation in projects and task forces within

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1936-753: Is the control of their natural resources. The ICCPR in Article 27 states that minorities shall not be denied access to their culture. In the Human Rights Committee (HRC) in General Comment 23, that was found to include the right of indigenous people to their land and resources. The HRC has interpreted that to mean that states have a positive duty to engage with IP prior to any development or granting of resource concession in IP lands. The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR),

2024-817: Is the main IGO with its arms such as the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), the General Assembly (UNGA), the International Court of Justice (ICJ), the Secretariat (UNSA), the Trusteeship Council (UNTC) and the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). When defined as "organizations with at least three state parties, a permanent headquarters or secretariat, as well as regular meetings and budgets",

2112-594: Is their issue to redress, not that of the company or the people wishing to carry out the project. The International Labour Organization [1] requires a consultation to take place in a climate of mutual trust, and circumstances are considered appropriate if they create favourable conditions for reaching agreement and consent. In a pilot study by the UN-Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation UN-REDD [2] of FPIC application in Vietnam

2200-703: The Arctic Ocean including, notably, the Law of the Sea , and that this framework provides a solid foundation for responsible management of this ocean". Pending observer states need to request permission for their presence at each individual meeting; such requests are routine and most of them are granted. At the 2013 Ministerial Meeting in Kiruna , Sweden — the European Union (EU) requested full observer status. It

2288-782: The G7 or the Quartet . Such groups or associations have not been founded by a constituent document and exist only as task groups . Intergovernmental organizations must also be distinguished from treaties. Many treaties (such as the North American Free Trade Agreement , or the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade before the establishment of the World Trade Organization ) do not establish an independent secretariat and instead rely on

2376-608: The International Telecommunication Union and other standards organizations ). Common types include: In regional organizations like the European Union , African Union , NATO , ASEAN and Mercosur , there are restrictions on membership due to factors such as geography or political regimes. To enter the European Union (EU), the states require different criteria; member states need to be European, liberal-democratic political system, and be

2464-512: The Philippines have included FPIC in their national law . The role of Indigenous Peoples' FPIC in decisions about infrastructure or extractive industries developed on their ancestral domain is an issue in international law . Projects lacking FPIC are called development aggression by Indigenous Peoples, whose lack access to accountability and grievance mechanisms to address human rights violations have been formally raised with

2552-561: The Resource Management Act 1991 refers to the need to consider in developments Maori relationship with land and water sites. The spiritual and practical connection that Maori have to the land has been considered in a number cases before the court including the Supreme Court case Paki v Attorney General . The United Nations describes FPIC both directly and indirectly in numerous conventions and treaties. One of

2640-686: The United Nations Human Rights Council . Asian Indigenous Peoples urged the UN to address the issue before the economic integration of ASEAN in 2015, because of the human rights records of member states such as Myanmar and Laos , which are among the world's most repressive societies. The International Labour Organization (ILO) has been working with indigenous people since the 1920s and currently has 187 member states, including New Zealand . ILO Convention 169 (the Convention) on indigenous and tribal peoples

2728-596: The United Nations REDD Programme published a report on its efforts to develop a methodology for FPIC for REDD+ in the case of its country program in Vietnam. Early in 2013, the global United Nations REDD Programme issued guidelines for the application of FPIC, including an analysis of jurisprudence on FPIC in various contexts, that are mandatory for all UN-REDD country programmes. Some countries have incorporated FPIC into national legislation,

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2816-898: The Wampis in Peru, the Juruna in Brazil or the Embera Chami in Colombia, whose states have, despite ratifying ILO Convention 169 , adopted regulations that fall far short of FPIC as defined in international law. During the UNFCCC climate change negotiations on reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+), it was noted that the United Nations General Assembly had adopted UNDRIP, meaning that

2904-579: The Arctic had been extremely limited. The only outstanding land dispute was between Canada and Denmark, the Whisky War , over Hans Island , which was resolved in the summer of 2022 with agreement to split the island in half. There are oceanic claims between the United States and Canada in the Beaufort Sea . The major territorial disputes are over exclusive rights to the seabed under the central Arctic high seas. Due to climate change and melting of

2992-491: The Arctic Council as first non-Arctic Latin American observer. Seven of the eight-member states, excluding Iceland, have indigenous communities living in their Arctic areas. Organizations of Arctic Indigenous Peoples can obtain the status of Permanent Participant to the Arctic Council, but only if they represent either one indigenous group residing in more than one Arctic State, or two or more Arctic indigenous peoples groups in

3080-505: The Arctic Council remains in the hands of the eight-member states, on the basis of consensus. As of 2023, six Arctic indigenous communities have Permanent Participant status. These groups are represented by However prominent the role of indigenous peoples, the Permanent Participant status does not confer any legal recognition as peoples. The Ottawa Declaration, the Arctic Council's founding document, explicitly states (in

3168-483: The Arctic Council should cover peace-building issues. Paul Berkman suggests that solving security matters in the Arctic Council could save members the much larger amount of time required to reach a decision in United Nations . However, as of June 2014, military security matters are often avoided. The focus on science and resource protection and management is seen as a priority, which could be diluted or strained by

3256-919: The Arctic Parliamentarians, International Union for Conservation of Nature , the International Red Cross Federation , the Nordic Council , the Northern Forum, United Nations Development Programme , United Nations Environment Programme ; the Association of World Reindeer Herders , Oceana , the University of the Arctic , and the World Wide Fund for Nature -Arctic Programme. The Arctic Council convenes every six months somewhere in

3344-500: The Arctic and developing their building infrastructure. However, some say that the Arctic Council facilitates stability despite possible conflicts among member states. Norwegian Admiral Haakon Bruun-Hanssen has suggested that the Arctic is "probably the most stable area in the world". They say that laws are well established and followed. Member states think that the sharing cost of the development of Arctic shipping-lanes, research, etc., by cooperation and good relationships between states

3432-541: The Arctic sea-ice, more energy resources and waterways are now becoming accessible. Large reserves of oil, gas and minerals are located within the Arctic. This environmental factor generated territorial disputes among member states. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea allows states to extend their exclusive right to exploit resources on and in the continental shelf if they can prove that seabed more than 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi) from baselines

3520-701: The CESCR is important as it goes beyond mere consultation. The need for FPIC has also been called upon by the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) [6] which requires that no state shall make a decision concerning the rights of IP without their consent. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD) [7] encourages indigenous people's participation in decision making. However, they are not legally-binding decisions but only recommendations The World Bank [8]

3608-462: The Chair's country for a Senior Arctic Officials (SAO) meeting. SAOs are high-level representatives from the eight-member nations. Sometimes they are ambassadors, but often they are senior foreign ministry officials entrusted with staff-level coordination. Representatives of the six Permanent Participants and the official Observers also are in attendance. At the end of the two-year cycle, the Chair hosts

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3696-472: The Declaration and its FPIC provision applied to the negotiations. This reference was made in the context of a so-called safeguard for REDD+, specifically the instruction to have "respect for the knowledge and rights of Indigenous Peoples and members of local communities" when undertaking REDD+ activities. Following this, FPIC has been widely applied for demonstration projects on REDD+, particularly after

3784-657: The French Emperor Napoleon. States then became the main decision makers who preferred to maintain their sovereignty as of 1648 at the Westphalian treaty that closed the 30 Years' War in Europe. The first and oldest international organization—being established employing a treaty, and creating a permanent secretariat, with a global membership—was the International Telecommunication Union (founded in 1865). The first general international organization—addressing

3872-577: The Northwest Passage arouses substantial public concern in Canada. A poll indicated that half of Canadian respondents said Canada should try to assert its full sovereignty rights over the Beaufort Sea compared to just 10 percent of Americans. New commercial trans- Arctic shipping routes can be another factor of conflicts. A poll found that Canadians perceive the Northwest Passage as their internal Canadian waterway whereas other countries assert it

3960-745: The Passage. Russia's claims over the Northern Sea Route are significantly different. Russia only claims small segments of the Northern Sea Route around straits as internal waters. However, Russia requires all commercial vessels to request and obtain permission to navigate in a large area of the Russian Arctic exclusive economic zone under Article 234 of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, which grants coastal states greater powers over ice-covered waters. Canadian sovereignty over

4048-716: The UN such as the World Health Organization (which was made up of regional organizations such as PAHO that predated the UN). A few UN special agencies are very centralized in policy and decision-making, but some are decentralized; for example, the country-based projects or missions' directors and managers can decide what they want to do in the fields. The UN agencies have a variety of tasks based on their specialization and their interests. The UN agencies provide different kinds of assistance to low-income countries and middle-income countries, and this assistance would be

4136-428: The United Nations has Specialized Agencies , which are organizations within the United Nations System that have their member states (often nearly identical to the UN Member States ) and are governed independently by them; examples include international organizations that predate the UN, such as the International Telecommunication Union , and the Universal Postal Union , as well as organizations that were created after

4224-404: The United States declared that they will not attend meetings of the Arctic Council under Russian chairmanship because of the Russian invasion of Ukraine . The same countries issued a second statement on June 8, 2022 that declared their intent to resume cooperation on a limited number of previously approved Arctic Council projects that do not involve Russian leadership or participation. The council

4312-473: The concept of FPIC as the following: The UNPFII requires indigenous people should be consulted in a way that is appropriate for their customs. That means that not every member will have to agree, which has been criticised by some women's rights groups. The indigenous people determine who is to be consulted and must effectively communicate that with the government and developers. It is the duty of states to make sure that FPIC has been carried out. Otherwise, it

4400-413: The concerns of indigenous peoples can be admitted as indigenous permanent participants. The first step towards the formation of the Council occurred in 1991 when the eight Arctic countries signed the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS). The 1996 Ottawa Declaration established the Arctic Council as a forum for promoting cooperation, coordination, and interaction among the Arctic states, with

4488-470: The consultation will be carried out in good faith and in a form that is appropriate to the circumstances. The aim of the consultation process is to achieve an agreement or consent to the purposed development. The Convention does not allow indigenous people to veto any development since the condition is for consultation, not consent. The supervisor bodies of the ILO have stated that the consultation process cannot be mere information-sharing and that there must be

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4576-438: The country's mining companies, the second wave of protocols were so-called bio-cultural protocols developed by Indigenous Peoples i.a. in Asia and Africa in connection with the implementation of Article 8j on Access and Benefit Sharing of the Convention on Biological Diversity. The third generation are so-called autonomous FPIC protocols that have predominantly been developed by Indigenous Peoples in Latin American countries, such as

4664-415: The decision-making process. One such method is the process of FPIC. There is criticism that many international conventions and treaties require consultation , not consent , which is a much higher threshold. Without the requirement for consent, indigenous people cannot veto government projects and developments in their area that directly affect their lives and cultures. FPIC allows Indigenous Peoples to have

4752-571: The discussion of geopolitical security issues. International organization Examples for international organizations include: UN General Assembly , World Trade Organization , African Development Bank , UN Economic and Social Council , UN Security Council , Asian Development Bank , International Bank for Reconstruction and Development , International Monetary Fund , International Finance Corporation , Inter-American Development Bank , United Nations Environment Programme. Scottish law professor James Lorimer has been credited with coining

4840-451: The distinction from international non-governmental organizations (INGOs), which are non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that operate internationally. These include international nonprofit organizations such as the World Organization of the Scout Movement , International Committee of the Red Cross and Médecins Sans Frontières , as well as lobby groups that represent the interests of multinational corporations. IGOs are established by

4928-421: The eight Arctic states must adapt to this new future". The council is often in the middle of security and geopolitical issues since the Arctic has peculiar interests to Member States and Observers. Changes in the Arctic environment and participants of the Arctic Council have led to a reconsideration of the relationship between geopolitical matters and the role of the Arctic Council. Disputes over land and ocean in

5016-623: The executive secretary for the Indigenous Peoples´ Secretariat. Arctic Council working groups document Arctic problems and challenges such as sea ice loss, glacier melting , tundra thawing, increase of mercury in food chains , and ocean acidification affecting the entire marine ecosystem . Before signing the Ottawa Declaration, a footnote was added stating; "The Arctic Council should not deal with matters related to military security". In 2019, United States Secretary of State Mike Pompeo stated that circumstances had changed and "the region has become an arena for power and for competition. And

5104-447: The first being the Philippines : Indigenous Peoples' Rights Act of 1997 . Bolivia ratified ILO Convention 169 and in 2007 also formally incorporated UNDRIP into its municipal law. In 2009, the nation also included the duty to consult Indigenous Peoples in its constitution but in a much less radical version of the draft, which required consent for the exploration of all resource activities. The legal requirements are very significant in

5192-423: The following steps were required: (1) preparation, (2) consultation with local officials, (3) recruitment of local facilitators, (4) training of the local facilitators, (5) awareness raising, (6) village meeting, (7) recording the decision, (8) reporting to UN-REDD Vietnam, and (9) verification and evaluation. The majority of issues with the policy was the recruitment of the local facilitators, who were able to discuss

5280-421: The free, prior and informed consent of the Indigenous Peoples concerned and after agreement on just and fair compensation and, where possible, with the option of return. Articles 11, 19, 28, and 29 of the declaration also explicitly use the term. It is further established in international conventions , notably the ILO Convention 169 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples. Countries including Peru , Australia , and

5368-479: The involvement of the Arctic Indigenous communities and other Arctic inhabitants on issues such as sustainable development and environmental protection . The Arctic Council has conducted studies on climate change , oil and gas, and Arctic shipping. In 2011, the Council member states concluded the Arctic Search and Rescue Agreement , the first binding treaty concluded under the council's auspices. On March 3, 2022, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden and

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5456-398: The jurisdiction of national courts. Certain privileges and immunities are also specified in the Vienna Convention on the Representation of States in their Relations with International Organizations of a Universal Character of 1975,. which however has so far not been signed by 35 states and is thus not yet in force (status: 2022). Rather than by national jurisdiction, legal accountability

5544-411: The laborers. United Nations Environment Program(UNEP) is one of the UN's (United Nations) agencies and is an international organization that coordinates U.N. activities on the environment. An early prominent example of an international organization is the Congress of Vienna of 1814–1815, which was an international diplomatic conference to reconstitute the European political order after the downfall of

5632-536: The law, which means that one person has no more right to another in a nation. The principle is further endorsed by Article 17, which states that every person has the right to own property and shall not be arbitrary deprived of property. The right for self-determination is further protected in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) in Article 1 of both documents and includes economic self-determination, which for many IP

5720-416: The meetings. They may raise points of order that require an immediate decision by the chairman. Agendas of Ministerial Meetings need to be consulted beforehand with them; they may propose supplementary agenda items. When calling the biannual meetings of Senior Arctic Officials, the Permanent Participants must have been consulted beforehand. Moreover, though only states have a right to vote in the Arctic Council,

5808-690: The most direct cases is the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) [3] , Article 19 states: "States shall consult and cooperate in good faith with the Indigenous Peoples concerned through their own representative institutions in order to obtain their free, prior and informed consent before adopting and implementing legislative or administrative measures that may affect them. " Article 32 requires consultation to be carried out with Indigenous Peoples before states can undertake projects that will affect their rights to land, territory and resources Those articles require consultation, but Article 10 requires also informed consent before

5896-399: The nature of the Northwest Passage and the Northeast Passage / Northern Sea Route . Canada claims the entire Northwest Passage are Canadian Internal Waters , which means Canada would have total control over which ships may enter the channel. The United States believes the Passage is an international strait , which would mean any ship could transit at any time , and Canada could not close

5984-419: The need for participation of indigenous people in the consultation process. The subsequent World Bank Policy on Indigenous Peoples was released in 2005, OP 4.10 [9] focused on the reduction of poverty. In doing so, the bank identified the intrinsic link that Indigenous People have with the land and the need for a consultation process which fully respects the human rights, human dignity, economics and culture of

6072-457: The number of IGOs in the world increased from about 60 in 1940 to about 350 in 1980, after which it has remained roughly constant. Free, prior and informed consent Free, prior and informed consent ( FPIC ) is aimed to establish bottom-up participation and consultation of an indigenous population prior to the beginning of development on ancestral land or using resources in an indigenous population's territory. Indigenous people have

6160-508: The objectives of the Arctic Council and to assist them to develop their internal capacity to participate and intervene in Council meetings, the Council provides financial support to the Indigenous Peoples' Secretariat (IPS). The IPS board decides on the allocation of the funds. The IPS was established in 1994 under the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS). It was based in Copenhagen until 2016 when it relocated to Tromsø . In September 2017, Anna Degteva replaced Elle Merete Omma as

6248-511: The parties for their administration, for example by setting up a joint committee . Other treaties have established an administrative apparatus which was not deemed to have been granted binding legal authority. The broader concept wherein relations among three or more states are organized according to certain principles they hold in common is multilateralism . Intergovernmental organizations differ in function, membership, and membership criteria. They have various goals and scopes, often outlined in

6336-434: The people involved. It stated that it will not lend money to a state or company unless there has been free prior informed consultation with the local indigenous population and that there is broad community support for the development. Critics have questioned for the term "consultation" to be used as opposed to consent and state that to mean that IP cannot decline a project if they do not agree with it. Furthermore, "community"

6424-679: The permanent participants must, according to the Ottawa Declaration be fully consulted, which is close to de facto power of veto should they all reject a particular proposal. This mandatory consultation process matches the consultation and free, prior and informed consent (FPIC) requirement mentioned in the United Nation Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples . Finally, Permanent Participants may propose cooperative activities, such as projects. All this makes

6512-423: The position of Arctic indigenous peoples within the Arctic Council quite influential compared to the (often marginal) role of such peoples in other international governmental fora. The status of "permanent participant" is indeed unique and enables circumpolar peoples to be seated at the same table as states' delegations while in any other international organization it is not the case. Nevertheless, decision-making in

6600-516: The process in a language, but Indigenous Peoples understood there was mistrust towards them and a fear that they had been bribed. The principle of FPIC within international development is most clearly stated in the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP). Article 10 states: Indigenous Peoples shall not be forcibly removed from their lands or territories. No relocation shall take place without

6688-619: The purpose of realizing a common end". He distinguished between bilateral and multilateral organizations on one end and customary or conventional organizations on the other end. In his 1922 book An Introduction to the Study of International Organization , Potter argued that international organization was distinct from " international intercourse " (all relations between states), "international law" (which lacks enforcement) and world government . International Organizations are sometimes referred to as intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), to clarify

6776-473: The relocation of Indigenous Peoples from their land. That allows indigenous people the right to decide where they live and gives them the power stop any development that they oppose. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) [4] is the most universally accepted standard of human rights. It does not directly mention FPIC but it does express the importance of self- determination of all peoples in Article 1. Also, Article 7 declares that all are equal before

6864-534: The right to self-determination and self-governance in national and local government decision-making processes over projects that concern their lives and resources. Examples include natural resource management , economic development , uses of traditional knowledge , genetic resources , health care , and education . Although there are numerous definitions and debates about FPIC, the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization has defined

6952-526: The supervisory body of the ICESCR, has even stated in General Comment No. 23 that if indigenous people's land has been taken without informed prior consent, they have the right to restitution or the return of their land or resources. That comes from its interpretation of Article 15 of the ICESCR [5] . Article 15 protects indigenous people's right to participate in their cultural life. The comment by

7040-586: The term "international organization" in a 1871 article in the Revue de Droit International et de Legislation Compare . Lorimer use the term frequently in his two-volume Institutes of the Law of Nations (1883, 1884). Other early uses of the term were by law professor Walther Schucking in works published in 1907, 1908 and 1909, and by political science professor Paul S. Reinsch in 1911. In 1935, Pitman B. Potter defined international organization as "an association or union of nations established or recognized by them for

7128-571: The three successive Scandinavian Chairs, Norway, Denmark, and Sweden. This temporary Secretariat had a staff of three. In 2012, the Council moved towards creating a permanent secretariat in Tromsø, Norway. It is costly for the Permanent participants to be represented at every Council meeting, especially since they take place across the entire circumpolar realm. To enhance the capacity of the PPs to pursue

7216-923: The treaties that give rise to the organization (such as the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations and the Agreement on the Privileges and Immunities of the International Criminal Court ), which are normally supplemented by further multinational agreements and national regulations (for example the International Organizations Immunities Act in the United States). The organizations are thereby immune from

7304-634: The treaty or charter . Some IGOs developed to fulfill a need for a neutral forum for debate or negotiation to resolve disputes. Others developed to carry out mutual interests with unified aims to preserve peace through conflict resolution and better international relations , promote international cooperation on matters such as environmental protection , to promote human rights , to promote social development (education, health care ), to render humanitarian aid , and to economic development . Some are more general in scope (the United Nations ) while others may have subject-specific missions (such as INTERPOL or

7392-562: The ultimate responsibility rests on the government. The need for consultation of IPs is written throughout the Convention a number of times and is referred to in Articles 6, 7, 16 and 22. Article 6(1) states that governments should: “Consult the peoples concerned, through appropriate procedures and in particular through their representative institutions, whenever consideration is being given to legislative or administrative measures which may affect them directly" ' Article 6 (2) states that

7480-471: The work of the council's five Working Groups. Arctic Council members agreed to action points on protecting the Arctic but most have never materialized. Chairmanship of the Council rotates every two years. The current chair is Norway, which serves until the Ministerial meeting in 2025. Norway, Denmark, and Sweden have agreed on a set of common priorities for the three chairmanships. They also agreed to

7568-455: The working groups is not always possible, but this poses few problems as few observer states want to participate at such a detailed level. As of 2021, observer states included: In 2011, the Council clarified its criteria for admission of observers, most notably including a requirement of applicants to "recognize Arctic States' sovereignty, sovereign rights and jurisdiction in the Arctic" and "recognize that an extensive legal framework applies to

7656-550: Was not granted, mostly because the members do not agree with the EU ban on hunting seals. Although the European Union has a specific Arctic policy and is active in the region, the ongoing Russian invasion of Ukraine prevents it from reconsidering its status within the Arctic Council. The role of observers was re-evaluated, as were the criteria for admission. As a result, the distinction between permanent and ad hoc observers were dropped. In 2023, Brazil expressed their interest for joining

7744-439: Was one of the first multilateral financial institutions to create guidelines to protect the rights of Indigenous Peoples in the 1980s, when it recognized that development negatively impacted their lives and cultures. Its first policy was in 1987 and was designed by staff without consultation of Indigenous People and was a statement on the need to protect Indigenous Peoples. In 1991, its Operational Directive 4.20 document acknowledged

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