Indology , also known as South Asian studies , is the academic study of the history and cultures , languages , and literature of the Indian subcontinent , and as such is a subset of Asian studies .
51-583: Arikamedu is an archaeological site in Southern India , in Kakkayanthope , Ariyankuppam Commune , Puducherry . It is 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) from the capital, Pondicherry of the Indian territory of Puducherry. Sir Mortimer Wheeler 1945, and Jean-Marie Casal conducted archaeological excavations there in 1947–1950. The site was identified as the port of Podouke, known as an "emporium" in
102-494: A Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and that will contain both locational information and a combination of various information. This tool is very helpful to archaeologists who want to explore in a different area and want to see if anyone else has done research. They can use this tool to see what has already been discovered. With this information available, archaeologists can expand their research and add more to what has already been found. Traditionally, sites are distinguished by
153-515: A Roman lamp shade, an engraved emblem of emperor Augustus, an ivory handle, and a wooden toy boat. Based on these antiquities Wheeler concluded that the Arikamedu was a Greek (Yavana) trading station. However, recent excavations by Begley have altered this assessment. The buildings in the northern part of the mound indicative urbanization, with people of different ethnic groups—Indian and non-Indian—but it has not been possible to date them in view of
204-693: A few potsherds of Arikamedu site displayed in the Madras Museum , which he identified as "terra sigillata" , or Arretine ware, an expensive ceramic made until 50 CE in Arezzo , Italy . Thereafter, when he visited the Pondicherry Museum and saw more of the findings from the Arikamedu site, he was impressed and thought that he had found the links between the Classical Mediterranean and Ancient India . Soon thereafter in 1945,
255-534: A period of about 200 years, till 200 CE. Wheeler also found the Chinese celadon , identified to belong to the Song-Yuan dynasty, and Chola coins from about the eleventh century, but these were rejected as despoiling items or remnants left by brick-robbers. Items Chinese blue-and-white ware were also recovered from the site. Wheeler noted that "rouletted Ware" found at the site (designated as "Arikamedu Type 1" in
306-563: A preliminary version of the chronology of the occupation of the site. At the same time she started researching on the beads, organized a proper sequential display of the artifacts of the site at the Pondicherry Museum, and brought out an information brochure. Begley obtained approvals to carry out excavations at the site in collaboration with the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Madras ; she and K.V. Raman were
357-683: A sequence of natural geological or organic deposition, in the absence of human activity, to constitute a site worthy of study. Archaeological sites usually form through human-related processes but can be subject to natural, post-depositional factors. Cultural remnants which have been buried by sediments are, in many environments, more likely to be preserved than exposed cultural remnants. Natural actions resulting in sediment being deposited include alluvial (water-related) or aeolian (wind-related) natural processes. In jungles and other areas of lush plant growth, decomposed vegetative sediment can result in layers of soil deposited over remains. Colluviation ,
408-412: A site as well. Development-led archaeology undertaken as cultural resources management has the disadvantage (or the benefit) of having its sites defined by the limits of the intended development. Even in this case, however, in describing and interpreting the site, the archaeologist will have to look outside the boundaries of the building site. According to Jess Beck in "How Do Archaeologists Find Sites?"
459-453: A site worthy of study. Different archaeologists may see an ancient town, and its nearby cemetery as being two different sites, or as being part of the same wider site. The precepts of landscape archaeology attempt to see each discrete unit of human activity in the context of the wider environment, further distorting the concept of the site as a demarcated area. Furthermore, geoarchaeologists or environmental archaeologists would also consider
510-500: Is a branch of survey becoming more and more popular in archaeology, because it uses different types of instruments to investigate features below the ground surface. It is not as reliable because although they can see what is under the surface of the ground, it does not produce the best picture. Archaeologists still have to dig up the area in order to uncover the truth. There are also two most common types of geophysical survey, which is, magnetometer and ground penetrating radar. Magnetometry
561-412: Is a place (or group of physical sites) in which evidence of past activity is preserved (either prehistoric or historic or contemporary), and which has been, or may be, investigated using the discipline of archaeology and represents a part of the archaeological record . Sites may range from those with few or no remains visible above ground, to buildings and other structures still in use. Beyond this,
SECTION 10
#1732775804736612-527: Is considered a lagoon), also known as Virampattinam River, which forms the northern outlet of the Gingee River as it joins the Bay of Bengal . As the site is located at the bend of the river it provides protection to sea-going vessels that dock there. The site has been subject to extensive archaeological excavations. The archaeological site is spread over an area of 34.57 acres (13.99 ha) and has been under
663-629: Is the technique of measuring and mapping patterns of magnetism in the soil. It uses an instrument called a magnetometer, which is required to measure and map traces of soil magnetism. The ground penetrating radar is a method that uses radar pulses to image the subsurface. It uses electromagnetic radiation in the microwave band of the radio spectrum and detects the reflected signals from subsurface structures. There are many other tools that can be used to find artifacts, but along with finding artifacts, archaeologists have to make maps. They do so by taking data from surveys, or archival research and plugging it into
714-522: The Dutch East Indies . Classical Indology majorly includes the linguistic studies of Sanskrit literature , Pāli and Tamil literature , as well as study of Dharmic religions (like Hinduism , Buddhism , Sikhism , etc.). Some of the regional specializations under South Asian studies include: Some scholars distinguish Classical Indology from Modern Indology , the former more focussed on Sanskrit, Tamil and other ancient language sources,
765-528: The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and Ptolemy . Digs have found Amphorae , Arretine ware , Roman lamps, glassware, glass and stone beads, and gems at the site. Based on these excavations, Wheeler concluded that the Arikamedu was a Greek ( Yavana ) trading post that traded with Rome , starting during the reign of Augustus Caesar , and lasted about two hundred years—from the late first century BCE to
816-729: The Rigveda appeared in 1849–1875. Albrecht Weber commenced publishing his pathbreaking journal Indologische Studien in 1849, and in 1897 Sergey Oldenburg launched a systematic edition of key Sanskrit texts, "Bibliotheca Buddhica". Indologists typically attend conferences such as the American Association of Asian Studies, the American Oriental Society annual conference, the World Sanskrit Conference , and national-level meetings in
867-621: The Arikamedu site jointly for conservation, as its ancient commercial link with the Romans has been established. During this conference, the Government of Pondicherry also decided to propose the site for status as a World Heritage Site of UNESCO . The Archaeological Survey of India also proposed the site for UNESCO Cultural Heritage Site status, under the title Silk Road Sites in India . Archaeological site An archaeological site
918-931: The Asiatic Society of Bengal, and the creation of learned journals like the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society and Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute . One of the defining features of Indology is the application of scholarly methodologies developed in European Classical Studies or "Classics" to the languages, literatures and cultures of South Asia. In the wake of eighteenth century pioneers like William Jones , Henry Thomas Colebrooke , Gerasim Lebedev or August Wilhelm Schlegel , Indology as an academic subject emerged in
969-862: The Japanese Association of Indian and Buddhist Studies in 1949. Sanskrit literature included many pre-modern dictionaries, especially the Nāmaliṅgānuśāsana of Amarasiṃha , but a milestone in the Indological study of Sanskrit literature was publication of the St. Petersburg Sanskrit-Wörterbuch during the 1850s to 1870s. Translations of major Hindu texts in the Sacred Books of the East began in 1879. Otto von Böhtlingk 's edition of Pāṇini's grammar appeared in 1887. Max Müller 's edition of
1020-801: The UK, Germany, India, Japan, France and elsewhere. They may routinely read and write in journals such as Indo-Iranian Journal , Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society , Journal of the American Oriental Society , Journal asiatique , the Journal of the German Oriental Society (ZDMG), Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde Südasiens , Journal of Indian Philosophy , Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute , Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies (Indogaku Bukkyogaku Kenkyu), Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême Orient , and others. They may be members of such professional bodies as
1071-583: The area, and if they have the money and time for the site, they can start digging. There are many ways to find sites, one example can be through surveys. Surveys involve walking around analyzing the land and looking for artifacts. It can also involve digging, according to the Archaeological Institute of America, "archaeologists actively search areas that were likely to support human populations, or in places where old documents and records indicate people once lived." This helps archaeologists in
SECTION 20
#17327758047361122-573: The areas with numerous artifacts are good targets for future excavation, while areas with a small number of artifacts are thought to reflect a lack of past human activity. Many areas have been discovered by accident. The most common people who have found artifacts are farmers who are plowing their fields or just cleaning them up, and they often find archaeological artifacts. Many people who are out hiking and even pilots find artifacts, and they usually end up reporting them to archaeologists for further investigation. When they find sites, they have to first record
1173-428: The burial of a site by sediments moved by gravity (called hillwash ) can also happen at sites on slopes. Human activities (both deliberate and incidental) also often bury sites. It is common in many cultures for newer structures to be built atop the remains of older ones. Urban archaeology has developed especially to deal with these sorts of site. Many sites are the subject of ongoing excavation or investigation. Note
1224-726: The classical geographers Arrian , Diodor and Strabo . Islamic Golden Age scholar Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Al-Biruni (973–1048) in Tarikh Al-Hind ( Researches on India ) recorded the political and military history of India and covered India's cultural , scientific , social and religious history in detail. He studied the anthropology of India, engaging in extensive participant observation with various Indian groups, learning their languages and studying their primary texts, and presenting his findings with objectivity and neutrality using cross-cultural comparisons . Indology as generally understood by its practitioners began in
1275-605: The control of the Archaeological Survey of India since 1982. The name Arikamedu, an archaeological usage for the excavated site, originates from a Tamil word that means Mound of Arakan , based on the figurine of an avatar (incarnation) of the Jain Tirthankara Mahavira found at the site. It is also linked with Viraiyapattinam or Virampattinam, meaning Port of Virai , a village next to Arikamedu. Virai, according to Sangam literature ,
1326-428: The definition and geographical extent of a "site" can vary widely, depending on the period studied and the theoretical approach of the archaeologist. It is almost invariably difficult to delimit a site. It is sometimes taken to indicate a settlement of some sort, although the archaeologist must also define the limits of human activity around the settlement. Any episode of deposition, such as a hoard or burial, can form
1377-572: The difference between archaeological sites and archaeological discoveries. Indologist The term Indology (in German, Indologie ) is often associated with German scholarship, and is used more commonly in departmental titles in German and continental European universities than in the anglophone academy. In the Netherlands , the term Indologie was used to designate the study of Indian history and culture in preparation for colonial service in
1428-442: The directors of operation from 1989 to 1992. Steven Sidebothom of the University of Delaware , who had background knowledge of Roman Egypt, was in charge of the trenching at the site. Further excavations were done during six working seasons from 1989 to 1992, which led to a contradictory view that the brick structures and the wells investigated by Wheeler were of poor quality as they were founded on poor sandy foundations. The wood work
1479-522: The early 1940s, Service des Travaux Publics carried out random excavations. Father Fancheux and Raymand Surleau, who were not qualified archaeologists, carried out the excavations at Arikamedu and sent a few antiquities to Indian museums, and also to the École française d'Extrême-Orient in Hanoi . Sir R.E.M.Wheeler , the Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India , in the 1940s saw
1530-518: The first and second centuries CE. Subsequent investigation by Vimala Begley from 1989 to 1992 modified this assessment, and now place the period of settlement from the 2nd century BCE to the 8th century CE. Significant findings at Arikamedu include numerous Indo-Pacific beads, which facilitated fixing the period of its origin. Red and black ceramics—known as megalithic stones or Pandukal in Tamil meaning "old stones" and used to mark graves—have existed at
1581-420: The future. In case there is no time or money during the site's discovery, archaeologists can come back and visit the site for further digging to find out the extent of the site. Archaeologist can also sample randomly within a given area of land as another form of conducting surveys. Surveys are very useful, according to Jess Beck, "it can tell you where people were living at different points in the past." Geophysics
Arikamedu - Misplaced Pages Continue
1632-416: The later Early Modern period and incorporates essential features of modernity , including critical self-reflexivity, disembedding mechanisms and globalization, and the reflexive appropriation of knowledge. An important feature of Indology since its beginnings in the late eighteenth century has been the development of networks of academic communication and trust through the creation of learned societies like
1683-650: The latter on contemporary India, its politics and sociology . The beginnings of the study of India by travellers from outside the subcontinent date back at least to Megasthenes ( c. 350 –290 BC), a Greek ambassador of the Seleucids to the court of Chandragupta (ruled 322-298 BC), founder of the Mauryan Empire . Based on his life in India Megasthenes composed a four-volume Indica , fragments of which still exist, and which influenced
1734-400: The limited depth of excavations. The excavation site also found few idols denoting ancient Tamils as the followers of Hinduism . H D Sankalia States that even though religious idols were rare in south India and Arimekadu was one of the rare sites where they excavated a statue of Brahma which was not found even in the northern part of India. Several other idols of Hindu gods were found in
1785-737: The local Poduvar clan. The first mention about Arikamedu was in 1734, in a communication from the Consul of the Indo-French colony of Pondicherry. It informed the French East India Company that villagers were extracting old bricks from the Virampattinam. The earliest mention of the Arikamedu archaeological site was by Le Gentil of France , who the King of France had assigned to observe notable astronomical occurrences in
1836-472: The local fishermen of the village, the antiquities were strange—as they consisted of lamps, glass items, gemstones, cutlery and crockery, wine containers, etc. He also observed that traders traveled from west coast and from Ceylon , Kolchoi (Colchi) and the Ganges area to trade goods such as gems, pearls and spices, and silk. He carried out excavations carefully, so that none of the antiquities were damaged. This
1887-610: The nineteenth century, in the context of British India , together with Asian studies in general affected by the romantic Orientalism of the time. The Asiatic Society was founded in Calcutta in 1784, Société Asiatique founded in 1822, the Royal Asiatic Society in 1824, the American Oriental Society in 1842, and the German Oriental Society ( Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft ) in 1845,
1938-490: The penultimate year of World War II , he mounted excavations in a scientific manner. He was looking for an archaeological site in India that could establish its cultural link, a datum of the Indian antiquities to the Greco-Roman period, and this quest led him to the Arikamedu site. These excavations also involved Indian archaeologists, who were trained on the site. Wheeler published his findings in 1946. He noted that, for
1989-471: The presence of both artifacts and features . Common features include the remains of hearths and houses. Ecofacts , biological materials (such as bones, scales, and even feces) that are the result of human activity but are not deliberately modified, are also common at many archaeological sites. In the cases of the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic eras, a mere scatter of flint flakes will also constitute
2040-532: The scientific study under the "Arikamedu Type 10 Project: Mapping Early Historic Networks in South Asia and Beyond") was not of an Indian origin, but was from the Mediterranean region. A ceramic sherd, ("Arikamedu Type 10) has also been investigated for its style and spatial distribution. After a gap of several decades, in the early 1980s, Vimala Begley studied the ceramics find of the site and proposed
2091-614: The site even prior to dates of the trading post, and also in later periods. Arikamedu is a coastal fishing village, under the Ariankuppam Panchayat, on the southeastern coast of India, 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) from Pondicherry, on the Pondicherry-Cuddalore road; it was originally a French colonial town. It is located on the bank of the Ariyankuppam River (for most part of the year the river
Arikamedu - Misplaced Pages Continue
2142-502: The site has been in continuous occupation since at least 2nd or 3rd century BCE to much more recent times. The excavated area of the mound was demarcated into two zones on the basis of occupation and elevation. Northern sector of the mound is nearer to the sea coast while the southern sector is farther away from the coast. The ceramic find of crockery and cooking vessels found in the northern sector were indicative of mass feeding of sailors and traders who camped there. Wine stored in amphorae
2193-421: The site provided Begley the link to Arikamedu's history. She identified the beads as Indo-Pacific beads crafted at Arikamedu. Based on the antiquities and structural features from the excavations, Begley and Raman established a revised sequence of six major periods of occupation of the site. Finds of new variety of Roman Amphorae ware also facilitated revision of the dates of occupancy. They have also inferred that
2244-481: The site's surface. In particular, he found an intaglio carved with the picture of a man. As a numismatist, he identified the intaglio as Augustus Caesar. He also found fine beads and gems. He concluded that these antiquities belonged to the Roman Empire . Dubreuil informed the local Governor of Pondicherry about his find, and called Arikamedu "a true Roman city." He published a short note about his findings. In
2295-429: The site. The excavations led to antiquities of Roman origin such as beads and gems, amphorae (wine making vats) with remnants of wine, a Roman stamp, big bricks recovered from an old wall, Arretine ware and so forth. From these antiquities Wheeler concluded that the site was related to a period of trading with Rome , and that it was first established by emperor Augustus. He also noted that this Indo-Roman trade lasted for
2346-713: The site. H D Sankalia also states that the representation of Brahma was seated in a lotus similar to the brahma emerging from Vishnu's Navel. He further states that the Brahma Statue had a hole in the centre of the lotus so that the figure could be fixed on the peg of the stalk coming out from Vishnu's navel. An international conference that the Government of Pondicherry and the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs held in October 2004 decided to investigate
2397-572: The world. Gentil, after visiting Arikamedu, confirmed the earlier report of the Consul of the Indo-French colony. In 1765, when he visited the ruins at the site, he found the people of the village collecting large ancient bricks exposed at the river bank. The villagers told him that they had retrieved the bricks from an old fort of the king the Vira-Raguen. In 1937, Jouveau Dubreuil, an Indologist , also from France, purchased gem stone antiquities from local children, and also gathered some exposed on
2448-430: Was also noted to be of poor quality and the houses had no waterproofing. The excavations also lead to a view that Arikamedu's Roman trading link was more of an inference. The excavations have now established that the trading with Rome extended to a period beyond that assessed by Wheeler; that trading continued from the second century BCE to the seventh or eighth century CE. The extensive findings of glass and stone beads at
2499-528: Was followed by investigations after the war, from 1947 to 1950 by Jean-Marie Casal. His report of excavations was not as fully published as Wheeler's. His report was not well known in India, as it was not written in English . However, his important conclusion was that the site belonged to an early megalithic period , as he had located megalithic burials marked by stones, locally known in Tamil as Pandukal close to
2550-493: Was the principal item imported from the western countries during the later part of the 2nd century BCE. According to Wheeler the finds from the northern and southern part of the mound belong to the period from the later part of the 1st century BCE to the 1st and 2nd centuries CE. Identified structures include: Smaller objects include a wheel-turned blackware ceramic, a few terracotta figurines, shell beads, gems, gold, terracotta, iron nails, copper percussion beater, red fragment of
2601-583: Was well known as a port and also for its salt pans during the Velir dynasty . Arikamedu-Virampatnam together find mention as Poduke, a major port in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea in the first century CE and as Poduke emporion in Ptolemy's Geographia of mid first century CE. Poduke is a Roman name and is also said to be a corrupted version of the Tamil name Potikai , meaning a "meeting place", also known for
SECTION 50
#1732775804736#735264