Misplaced Pages

#700299

119-889: The Bagan Archaeological Zone is a main attraction for the country's nascent tourism industry . Bagan is the present-day standard Burmese pronunciation of the Burmese word Pugan ( ပုဂံ ), derived from Old Burmese Pukam ( ပုကမ် ). Its classical Pali name is Arimaddanapura ( အရိမဒ္ဒနာပူရ , lit. "the City that Tramples on Enemies"). Its other names in Pali are in reference to its extreme dry zone climate: Tattadesa ( တတ္တဒေသ , "parched land"), and Tampadīpa ( တမ္ပဒီပ , "bronzed country"). The Burmese chronicles also report other classical names of Thiri Pyissaya ( သီရိပစ္စယာ ; Pali : Siripaccaya ) and Tampawaddy ( တမ္ပဝတီ ; Pali : Tampavatī ). According to

238-696: A 38% decrease compared to the previous year (4.7 million visitors in 2015). According to Rogers, the rosy projections about tourism potential led to significant investments in hotel construction. Data from the Ministry of Hotels and Tourism indicates that within a span of five years (up until 2015), 1,300 hotels were built in Myanmar , with foreign businesses collectively investing $ 2.7 billion in hotel ventures. International tourist arrivals to Yangon Entry Point, Mandalay & Bagan Gateways, Nay Pyi Taw Gateway and Border Tourism. The governmental statistics body,

357-410: A Ceylonese stupa had a hemispheric body ( Pali : anda "the egg"), on which a rectangular box surrounded by a stone balustrade ( harmika ) was set. Extending up from the top of the stupa was a shaft supporting several ceremonial umbrellas. The stupa Buddhist cosmos : its shape symbolizes Mount Meru while the umbrella mounted on the brickwork represents the world's axis. The brickwork pediment

476-654: A World Heritage Site by the UNESCO, 24 years after its first nomination, during the 43rd session of the World Heritage Committee. Bagan became the second World Heritage Site in Myanmar, after the Ancient Cities of Pyu . As part of the criteria for the inscription of Bagan, the government had pledged to relocate existing hotels in the archaeological zone to a dedicated hotel zone by 2020. Bagan today

595-472: A ceasefire but insisted on a full submission. They repeated their 1281 demand that the Burmese king send a formal delegation to the emperor. The two sides had reached a tentative agreement by 3 March 1286, which calls for a full submission of the Pagan Empire, and central Burma to be organized as the province of Mianzhong ( Chinese : 緬中 ; Wade–Giles : Mien-Chung ). After a long deliberation,

714-508: A few international standard hotels and many family-run guesthouses. Bagan is also the center of Burmese lacquerware industry, which to a large degree depends on tourist demand. Much of the lacquerware is destined for souvenir shops in Yangon, and to the world markets. Moreover, the lacquerware-making process itself has become a tourist draw. The population of Bagan in its heyday is estimated to be anywhere between 50,000 and 200,000 people. Until

833-597: A happy and fulfilling holiday in Burma." In their official statement they request not only the development of the people's livelihood but also the promotion of "self respect and self-reliance in the people." First Mongol invasion of Burma 1277–1278: 12,000 1283–1285: 24,000+ 1277–1278: Unknown 1283–1285: 10,000+ 1277–1278: Unknown 1283–1285: Unknown 1277–1278: Unknown 1283–1285: 10,000+ The first Mongol invasions of Burma ( Burmese : မွန်ဂို–မြန်မာ စစ် (၁၂၇၇–၁၂၈၇); Chinese : 元緬戰爭) were

952-475: A more likely explanation is that the provincial governors tasked with defending against Mongol incursions were so successful that they became "the new power elite", and their capitals became the new political centers while Bagan itself became a backwater. In any case, something during this period caused Bagan to decline. The city, once home to some 50,000 to 200,000 people, had been reduced to a small town, never to regain its preeminence. The city formally ceased to be

1071-556: A pagoda or chedi, is a massive structure, typically with a relic chamber inside. The Bagan stupas or pagodas evolved from earlier Pyu designs, which in turn were based on the stupa designs of the Andhra region , particularly Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda in present-day south-eastern India, and to a smaller extent to Ceylon . The Bagan-era stupas in turn were the prototypes for later Burmese stupas in terms of symbolism, form and design, building techniques and even materials. Originally,

1190-584: A series of military conflicts between Kublai Khan 's Yuan dynasty , a division of the Mongol Empire , and the Pagan Empire that took place between 1277 and 1287. The invasions toppled the 250-year-old Pagan Empire, and the Mongol army seized Pagan territories in present-day Dehong, Yunnan and northern Burma to Tagaung . The invasions ushered in 250 years of political fragmentation in Burma and

1309-591: A stoneware kiln, [or] any large brick or earth structures suggesting a pottery kiln", but several "earthenware anvils" were found at the site, as well as a 10-cm-long clay tube that may have been used as a stamp for decorating pots. The anvils are common potters' tools in South and Southeast Asia: they are held inside a pot while the outside is beaten with a paddle. If Otein Taung was used as a pottery production site, then it would have had good access to natural clay resources:

SECTION 10

#1732779679701

1428-701: A subsequent meeting at the UNESCO offices in Bangkok in February 2017, the Zamani Project documented 12 monuments in Bagan using LiDAR , during three field campaigns between 2017 and 2018, including Kubyauk-gyi ( Gubyaukgyi ) (298); Kyauk-ku-umin (154); Tha-peik-hmauk-gu-hpaya (744); Sula-mani-gu-hpaya ( Sulamani ) (748) Monument 1053; Sein-nyet-ama (1085); Sein-nyet-nyima (1086); Naga-yon-hpaya (1192); Loka-ok-shaung (1467); Than-daw-kya (1592); Ananda Monastery; and

1547-468: Is a developing sector. As at 2023, new tourist visa applications resume. Although Myanmar possesses tourist potential, much of the industry remains to be developed. The number of visitors to Burma is small compared to its neighbouring countries. This is primarily due to its political situation . However, after the junta transferred power to the civilian government, the tourism sector saw an increase in tourism arrivals, and in 2012, tourist arrivals surpassed

1666-614: Is a main tourist destination in the country's nascent tourism industry. The Bagan Archaeological Zone , defined as the 13 km × 8 km (8.1 mi × 5.0 mi) area centred around Old Bagan, consisting of Nyaung U in the north and New Bagan in the south, lies in the vast expanse of plains in Upper Burma on the bend of the Irrawaddy river . It is located 290 km (180 mi) south-west of Mandalay and 700 km (430 mi) north of Yangon . Bagan lies in

1785-556: Is at Otein Taung, 2 km south of the Ananda temple in the walled city of Old Bagan. The name "Otein Taung" is a descriptive name meaning "pottery hill"; there is another Otein Taung on the north side of Beikthano. The site of Otein Taung at Bagan actually consists of two different mounds separated by 500 meters. Both are "covered with dense layers of fragmented pottery, and with scatters of potsherds visible around and between them". Local farm fields for crops like maize come right up to

1904-880: Is located on the outskirts of Nyaung U and it takes about 20 minutes by taxi to reach Bagan. The city is on a spur from the Yangon–Mandalay Railway . Myanmar Railways operates a daily overnight train service each way between Yangon and Bagan (Train Nos 61 & 62), which takes at least 18 hours. The trains have a sleeper car and also 1st Class and Ordinary Class seating. Between Mandalay and Bagan there are two daily services each way (Train Nos 117,118,119 & 120) that take at least 8 hours. The trains have 1st Class and Ordinary Class seating. Overnight buses and cars also operate to and from Yangon and Mandalay taking approximately 9 and 6 hours respectively. An 'express' ferry service runs between Bagan and Mandalay . Following

2023-550: The Bupaya , severely and irreparably. Today, 2229 temples and pagodas remain. Many of these damaged pagodas underwent restorations in the 1990s by the military government , which sought to make Bagan an international tourist destination. However, the restoration efforts instead drew widespread condemnation from art historians and preservationists worldwide. Critics were aghast that the restorations paid little attention to original architectural styles, and used modern materials, and that

2142-511: The Khmer Empire . The culture of Bagan was dominated by religion. The religion of Bagan was fluid, syncretic and by later standards, unorthodox. It was largely a continuation of religious trends in the Pyu era where Theravada Buddhism co-existed with Mahayana Buddhism , Tantric Buddhism , various Hindu ( Saivite , and Vaishana ) schools as well as native animist ( nat ) traditions. While

2261-673: The Khwarazmid empire , the Kipchaks , and even Bulgars from the lower Volga . What followed was a border war in 1277–1278. It was reported mainly in the Yuan dynasty chronicle and the travelogue of Marco Polo . Although the Burmese chronicles have no record of the border war, a 1278 Burmese inscription mentions the army's defeat at Ngasaunggyan. The Mongol accounts of the border war contain certain errors of location and numbers although

2380-597: The royal chronicles , Bagan was founded in the second century CE, and fortified in 849 by King Pyinbya , 34th successor of the founder of early Bagan. Western scholarship however holds that Bagan was founded in the mid-to-late 9th century by the Mranma (Burmans), who had recently entered the Irrawaddy valley from the Nanzhao Kingdom . It was among several competing Pyu city-states until the late 10th century when

2499-402: The 13th century, the area around Old Bagan was already densely packed with monuments, and new major clusters began to emerge to the east. These new clusters, like the monastic area of Minnanthu, were roughly equally distant – and equally accessible – from any part of the original strip that had been defined in the 11th century. Construction during the 13th century featured a significant increase in

SECTION 20

#1732779679701

2618-698: The 15th and 20th centuries. The old capital remained a pilgrimage destination but pilgrimage was focused only on "a score or so" most prominent temples out of the thousands such as the Ananda , the Shwezigon , the Sulamani , the Htilominlo , the Dhammayazika , and a few other temples along an ancient road. The rest—thousands of less famous, out-of-the-way temples—fell into disrepair, and most did not survive

2737-559: The 2010–2011 fiscal year, tourists comprised 73.84% (313,127 arrivals) of overseas visitors, primarily entering the country by air, representing 69.26% of arrivals, followed by land and sea, which represented 29.97% and 0.77% of arrivals respectively. An additional 110,914 visitors arrived through other visa types and represented an additional 26.16% of the total. In 2012, revenues from tourism jumped to over $ 534 million in 2012, up from $ 315 million in 2011. Recent data reveals that in 2016, Myanmar welcomed only 2.9 million tourists, marking

2856-551: The Bagan area has clayey subsoil that is "still mined today for brickmaking". There are four tanks within 500 m of Otein Taung that may have originated as clay pits. The Zamani Project from the University of Cape Town , South Africa, offered its services towards the spatial documentation of monuments in Bagan in response to the destruction of monuments by an earthquake in August 2016 . After reconnaissance visit to Bagan and

2975-443: The Bagan plains. The prosperous city grew in size and grandeur, and became a cosmopolitan center for religious and secular studies, specializing in Pali scholarship in grammar and philosophical-psychological ( abhidhamma ) studies as well as works in a variety of languages on prosody , phonology , grammar, astrology , alchemy , medicine, and legal studies. The city attracted monks and students from as far as India , Sri Lanka and

3094-530: The Burman settlement grew in authority and grandeur. From 1044 to 1287, Bagan was the capital as well as the political, economic and cultural nerve center of the Bagan Empire . Over the course of 250 years, Bagan's rulers and their wealthy subjects constructed over 10,000 religious monuments (approximately 1000 stupas, 10,000 small temples and 3000 monasteries) in an area of 104 km (40 sq mi) in

3213-401: The Burmese called Ngasaunggyan . The Yuan Chronicle reports that only 700 men defeated a Burmese army of 40,000 to 50,000 with 10,000 horses and 800 elephants. It also reports only one Mongol was killed, in trying to catch an elephant. According to Marco Polo, the Mongol army consisted of 12,000 mounted archers, and the Burmese army numbered 60,000 men with 2,000 elephants, "on each of which

3332-508: The Burmese defenses led by commanders Athinkhaya , Yazathingyan and Thihathu , and probably never got closer than 160 km north of Pagan. (An inscription dated 16 February 1293 by the three brothers claimed that they defeated the Mongol army. ) Even if the Mongols did reach Pagan, the damage they inflicted was probably minimal. At any rate, the Mongol army suffered heavy casualties, and retreated north to Tagaung. They remained there as

3451-437: The Burmese fort at Ngasaunggyan. The Burmese chronicles report an overwhelming number of Mongol forces laying siege to the fort although their numbers are greatly exaggerated. (The chronicles say that the Burmese army numbered 400,000 men while the Mongol army numbered 20 million men and 6 million horses.) The Burmese withstood the siege for over two months but the fort fell on 3 December 1283. The defeat at Ngasaunggyan broke

3570-1242: The Central Statistical Organization, reported more than 3,000,000 travellers flocked to Myanmar in 2014, compared with approximately 816,000 visitors in 2011. Among these, 1,022,081 tourist arrivals (excluding visitors under special entry visas such as social or business visas) were via Yangon International Airport. Most visitors arriving to Myanmar on short-term basis were from the following countries of nationality: The most popular available tourist destinations in Myanmar include big cities such as Yangon and Mandalay ; religious sites in Mon State , Pindaya , Bago and Hpa-An ; nature trails in Inle Lake , Kalaw , Kengtung , Putao , Pyin Oo Lwin , also known as Maymyo ; ancient cities such as Bagan and Mrauk-U ; as well as beaches in Nabule Ngapali , Maungmagan Ngwe-Saung , Mergui . In May 2011, Aung San Suu Kyi and her party National League for Democracy expressed

3689-485: The Chola Empire. As a result, immigrants from those places likely also ended up moving to Bagan, in addition to people moving there from within Myanmar. The Pagan Empire collapsed in 1287 due to repeated Mongol invasions (1277–1301). Recent research shows that Mongol armies may not have reached Bagan itself, and that even if they did, the damage they inflicted was probably minimal. According to Michael Aung-Thwin ,

Bagan - Misplaced Pages Continue

3808-482: The City Gate of old Bagan ( Tharabha Gate ). Bagan is accessible by air, rail, bus, car and river boat. Most international tourists fly to the city. The Nyaung U Airport is the gateway to the Bagan region. Several domestic airlines have regular flights to Yangon , which take about 80 minutes to cover the 600 kilometres. Flights to Mandalay take approximately 30 minutes and to Heho about 40 minutes. The airport

3927-407: The Irrawaddy river the fastest ferry takes around 9 hours to travel the 170 kilometres. The service runs daily during peak periods and slower sailings with overnight stops are also available. Bagan's economy is based mainly on tourism . Because of boycotts against the previous military government, the Bagan region's tourism infrastructure is still quite modest by international standards. The city has

4046-471: The Mongol Empire in the late 13th century. Though it was never more than a minor frontier war to the Mongols, the war set off a series of enduring developments in Burma. The invasions ushered in a period of political fragmentation, and the rise of Tai-Shan states throughout mainland Southeast Asia. The immediate result of the war was the collapse of the Pagan Empire. However, the war merely accelerated

4165-501: The Mongol military success, the control of the borderlands remained contested. Pagan did not relinquish its claim to the frontier regions, and the Burmese, apparently taking advantage of Mongol preoccupations elsewhere, rebuilt their forts at Kaungsin and Ngasaunggyan later in 1278, posting permanent garrisons commanded by Einda Pyissi. But their control was short-lived. The Great Khan's attention turned to Southeast Asia once more in 1281. He had mixed success: his vaunted forces finished off

4284-442: The Mongols, who viewed the states as a useful buffer between Yunnan and the rest of Southeast Asia. The Mongols, who were still trying to incorporate Yunnan into the central administration, were unwilling or unable to make necessary sustained investments to bring the vast regions south of Yunnan into the fold. (The integration of Yunnan itself into “China proper” was to take several more centuries, and continues to today. ) As such, from

4403-474: The Mongols. When the Mongol envoys led by Qidai Tuoyin showed up, the Pagan court led by Chief Minister Ananda Pyissi was well aware of the military power of the Mongols and advised King Narathihapate to use diplomacy. The king was furious at the demand and kept the Mongol envoys waiting for weeks. The court finally devised a compromise: the envoys were sent back without ever seeing the king. Accompanying them

4522-447: The Mongols. Like in 1272, the Burmese government responded by sending an army to reclaim the rebellious state; but unlike in 1272, the Mongols had posted a sizable garrison there. Though it was ultimately under Mongol command, many of the officers and most of the soldiers of the garrison were Turkic-speaking peoples or people from the further west: Turks from Samarkand , Bukhara , Merv and Nishapur , but also captive soldiers from

4641-614: The Pagan dynasty itself. Between the newly conquered Mongol territory and Pagan were a wide swath of borderlands stretching from present-day Dehong , Baoshan and Lincang prefectures in Yunnan as well as the Wa and Palaung regions (presumably in present-day northern Shan State ), which Pagan and Dali had both claimed and exercised overlapping spheres of influence. Then as now, the borderlands mostly consist of forbidding terrains of high mountain ranges. The Mongol Empire first arrived at

4760-511: The Pyu style at Sri Ksetra . By the 11th century, the stupa had developed into a more bell-shaped form in which the parasols morphed into a series of increasingly smaller rings placed on one top of the other, rising to a point. On top the rings, the new design replaced the harmika with a lotus bud. The lotus bud design then evolved into the "banana bud", which forms the extended apex of most Burmese pagodas. Three or four rectangular terraces served as

4879-833: The Taruk [Chinese]). ) From a geopolitical standpoint, the Mongol–Chinese presence in Yunnan pushed the Shan migrations in the direction of Burma (and parts of the Khmer Empire). The raids by various Shan states into Upper Burma would continue until the mid-16th century. During the official visit by the Mongolian President Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj to Myanmar in November 2013, Aung San Suu Kyi ,

Bagan - Misplaced Pages Continue

4998-651: The advent of tourism industry in the 1990s, only a few villagers lived in Old Bagan. The rise of tourism has attracted a sizable population to the area. Because Old Bagan is now off limits to permanent dwellings, much of the population reside in either New Bagan, south of Old Bagan, or Nyaung-U, north of Old Bagan. The majority of native residents are Bamar . The Bagan archaeological zone is part of Nyaung-U District , Mandalay Region . Tourism in Myanmar Tourism in Myanmar (also known as Burma )

5117-483: The animals into such pain that they fled. The Mongol army pressed on after the monsoon season. In the following dry season of 1277–1278, c. December 1277, a Mongol army of 3,800 men led by Nasr al-Din , son of Gov. Sayyid Ajjal, advanced to Kaungsin, which defended the Bhamo Pass . They occupied the fort and destroyed a large number of abandoned stockades. But they found the heat excessive and returned. Despite

5236-430: The back of Burmese defenses. The Burmese army lost several thousand men as well as senior commanders. Kaungsin, the next fort in line, fell just six days later on 9 December 1283. The Mongol sources say that the Burmese lost 10,000 men at Kaungsin. The Mongol armies pushed farther south into the Irrawaddy valley. They took the ancient Burmese capital of Tagaung , about 380 km north of Pagan on 5 February 1284. There,

5355-617: The base for a pagoda, often with a gallery of terra-cotta tiles depicting Buddhist jataka stories. The Shwezigon Pagoda and the Shwesandaw Pagoda are the earliest examples of this type. Examples of the trend toward a more bell-shaped design gradually gained primacy as seen in the Dhammayazika Pagoda (late 12th century) and the Mingalazedi Pagoda (late 13th century). In contrast to the stupas ,

5474-477: The battle, the Turkish and Mongol horsemen "took such fright at the sight of the elephants that they would not be got to face the foe, but always swerved and turned back," while the Burmese forces pressed on. But the Mongol commander Huthukh did not panic; he ordered his troops to dismount, and from the cover of the nearby treelines, aim their bows directly at the advancing elephants. The Mongol archers' arrows threw

5593-445: The bent spouts found at Beikthano. Also found at Otein Taung are earthenware tubes, about 60 cm long and 40 cm in diameter. Similar pipes have been found at Old Bagan, and they are thought to have been part of toilets. It is not clear whether Otein Taung represents a large-scale pottery production site or "a huge, and for Bagan unique, residential midden". Archaeologists did not find any "slumps characteristic of overfiring in

5712-516: The borderlands in order to block an escape path for the Song, and permitted a limited border war if Pagan contested. Pagan did contest but its army was driven back at the frontier by the Mongol Army in 1277–1278. After a brief lull, Kublai Khan in 1281 turned his attention to Southeast Asia, demanding tribute from Pagan, the Khmer Empire , Đại Việt and Champa . When the Burmese king again refused,

5831-532: The building of monasteries and associated smaller monuments. Michael Aung-Thwin has suggested that the smaller sizes may indicate "dwindling economic resources" and that the clustering around monasteries may reflect growing monastic influence. Bob Hudson, Nyein Lwin, and Win Maung also suggest that there was a broadening of donor activity during this period: "the religious merit that accrued from endowing an individual merit

5950-535: The buildings shows "an astonishing degree of perfection", where many of the immense structures survived the 1975 earthquake more or less intact. (Unfortunately, the vaulting techniques of the Bagan era were lost in the later periods. Only much smaller gu style temples were built after Bagan. In the 18th century, for example, King Bodawpaya attempted to build the Mingun Pagoda , in the form of spacious vaulted chambered temple but failed as craftsmen and masons of

6069-463: The capital city of Pagan (Bagan). But Kyawswa was overthrown nine months later, and the Mongols were forced to intervene, leading to their second invasion in 1300–1301. Marco Polo reported the first invasions (1277–1287) in his travelogue, Il Milione . The Burmese referred to the invaders as the Taruk (after the central Asian Turkic troops that largely made up the Mongol invasion army); today,

SECTION 50

#1732779679701

6188-553: The capital of Burma in December 1297 when the Myinsaing Kingdom became the new power in Upper Burma. Bagan survived into the 15th century as a human settlement, and as a pilgrimage destination throughout the imperial period. A smaller number of "new and impressive" religious monuments still went up to the mid-15th century but afterward, new temple constructions slowed to a trickle with fewer than 200 temples built between

6307-432: The collapse but did not cause it. Pagan's disintegration was "in fact more prolonged and agonized." The kingdom had been in long gradual decline since the early 13th century. Had Pagan possessed a stronger central government, the collapse could have been temporary, and the country “could have risen again”. But the dynasty could not recover, and because the Mongols refused to fill the power vacuum, no viable center emerged in

6426-495: The contrary. At any rate, the imperial envoys did not return to Yunnan in due time. The newly formed Yunnan government sent another delegation to investigate the whereabouts of the delegation, but the delegation could not reach Pagan because of an ongoing rebellion en route. Meanwhile, in 1274, the former Dali Kingdom was officially reorganized as the province of Yunnan, with Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar as governor. In May 1275,

6545-448: The country. (Indeed, the tribute was no longer nominal.) In exchange, the emperor agreed to withdraw his troops. For the emperor, the Burma campaign was the only bright spot; his other Southeast Asian expeditions had gone badly. He did not want to invest more troops pacify the rest of the kingdom. He preferred a vassal ruler. The Burmese embassy arrived back at Hlegya in May 1287, and reported

6664-467: The decline continued. On the eve of the Mongol invasions, between one and two-thirds of Upper Burma's cultivable land had been donated to religion. The crown's ability to mobilize defenses was in serious jeopardy. The period of calm for Pagan ended in the early 1270s. By then, the Song were on the ropes, and Emperor Kublai Khan , who officially founded the Yuan dynasty on 18 December 1271, sought to cut off

6783-402: The defeat, the king panicked, and fled to Lower Burma. The evacuation proved premature. The Mongol forces did not advance on Pagan as it was not part of their invasion plan. The country fell into chaos. In Lower Burma, the king found himself isolated, let alone plan a counterattack. Although the king's three sons ruled the nearby regions ( Bassein (Pathein), Prome (Pyay), and Dala-Twante ),

6902-591: The doorstep of Burma. The old Dali Kingdom, known to the Burmese as Gandalarit ( ဂန္တလရာဇ် , after Gandhara Raj ) was now a Mongol Chinese province. (The Burmese now called the new powers at Yunnan "Taruk" after the Turkic-speaking soldiers of Yunnan. Over the years, the term Taruk came to be used to refer to the Han Chinese . Today, King Narathihapate is remembered as Taruk-Pye Min, ("the King who fled from

7021-493: The doorstep of the Pagan Empire in 1252 by invading the Dali Kingdom in its attempt to outflank Song China. The Mongol armies captured the capital, Dali, on 7 January 1253, and went on to pacify much of the kingdom by 1257. The arrival of the Mongols did not initially upset the existing order at the borderlands as the Mongols were intent on finishing off the Song . For the next dozen years, they consolidated their hold over

7140-481: The early 13th century. The continuous growth of tax-free religious wealth had greatly reduced the tax base of the kingdom. The crown had lost resources needed to retain the loyalty of courtiers and military servicemen, inviting a vicious circle of internal disorders and external challenges. Although it was able to put down the first batch of serious rebellions in 1258–1260 in South Arakan and Martaban (Mottama),

7259-415: The east bank of the Irrawaddy emerged during this period, with the walled core (known as "Old Bagan") in the middle. 11th-century construction took place throughout this whole area and appears to have been relatively decentralized. The spread of monuments north and south of Old Bagan, according to Hudson, Nyein Lwin, and Win Maung, may reflect construction at the village level, which may have been encouraged by

SECTION 60

#1732779679701

7378-413: The eastern mound, and then there are also randomly scattered monuments in the area between the mounds. Finally, there is a large temple between the two mounds, which was probably built in the 12th century. This temple was restored in 1999. Otein Taung was excavated by a team led by Bob Hudson and Nyein Lwin in 1999 and 2000. Excavation revealed layers of potash with a fine texture, suggesting that most of

7497-416: The edges of the mounds, and goats and cattle commonly graze on them. Besides the mounds, there are also about 40 small monuments at Otein Taung, mostly dated to the 13th century. Several of these are clustered around a monastery on the south side of the western mound. There is also a group of monuments arranged in a straight line, which may represent a property boundary or road. Another cluster exists south of

7616-599: The emperor in Beijing in January 1287, agreed to a treaty that acknowledged the suzerainty of the Mongol Empire over the Pagan Empire and annual payments in taxes to the Yunnan government in exchange for the evacuation of Mongol troops from northern Burma. But the treaty never really took effect as Narathihapate was assassinated in July 1287, and no authority who could honor the treaty emerged. The Mongol command at Yunnan now deemed

7735-432: The emperor now ordered an invasion of northern Burma. He also ordered an invasion of Champa, whose king too had refused to submit. Throughout 1282, the Mongol command made preparations for the upcoming invasions of Champa and northern Burma. The objective of the Burma campaign was to take over northern Burma but no further; the emperor did not sanction an attack on Pagan itself. At least one army consisted of 14,000 men of

7854-459: The emperor ordered an invasion of northern Burma. Two dry season campaigns (1283–1285) later, the Mongols had occupied down to Tagaung and Hanlin , forcing the Burmese king to flee to Lower Burma. The Mongols organized northern Burma as the province of Zhengmian. Ceasefire negotiations began in 1285, and ended with Narathihapate finally agreeing to submit in June 1286. The Burmese embassy, received by

7973-477: The entire eastern half of Lower Burma (Pegu and Martaban) was in open revolt. Given his precarious position, Narathihapate decided to buy time, and sue for peace with the Mongols. In November/December 1285, the king ordered his generals Ananda Pyissi and Maha Bo to enter into ceasefire negotiations. The Mongol commanders at Hanlin, who had organized northern Burma as a protectorate named Zhengmian ( Chinese : 征緬 ; Wade–Giles : Cheng-Mien ), agreed to

8092-408: The erstwhile Khwarezmid Empire under the command of Yalu Beg was sent to Yunnan to reinforce the Burma invasion force, which again was made up of Turks and other central Asians. On the Burmese side, the king managed to raise an army although given his low standing with his vassals, he probably could not have raised a large one. By mid-1283, a Burmese army led by generals Ananda Pyissi and Yanda Pyissi

8211-504: The final blow against the Song; the emperor ordered the Yunnan provincial army to secure the borderlands in order to block the escape path of the Song refugees. He also sanctioned a limited border war if Pagan contested the takeover. As planned, the Yunnan army proceeded to consolidate the borderlands in 1275–1276. Elsewhere, the main Mongol armies had captured most of the Song territory by 1276. By 1277, at least one Burmese vassal state named "Gold Teeth" (modern Yingjiang ) had submitted to

8330-479: The four who had already appeared. The Dhammayazika and the Ngamyethna Pagoda are examples of the pentagonal design. The 140- hectare core on the riverbank is surrounded by three walls. A fourth wall, on the western side, may have once existed before being washed away by the river at some point. The Irrawaddy has certainly eroded at least some parts of the city, since there are "buildings collapsing into

8449-522: The fuel was provided by bamboo and other grasses. Also found were small charcoal fragments, preserved burnt bamboo filaments, and some animal bones and pigs' teeth. Based on radiocarbon dating, Otein Taung dates from at least the 9th century, which is well before recorded history at Bagan. The sprinkler pot, or kendi , is a very characteristic type of pottery from medieval Myanmar, and over 50 spouts and necks belonging to them were found by archaeologists at Otein Taung. These were all straight, in contrast to

8568-403: The government has also established a golf course , a paved highway, and built a 61 m (200 ft) watchtower. Although the government believed that the ancient capital's hundreds of (unrestored) temples and large corpus of stone inscriptions were more than sufficient to win the designation of UNESCO World Heritage Site, the city was not so designated until 2019, allegedly mainly on account of

8687-426: The governor sent a report to the emperor stating that the embassy had not returned; that the Burmese evidently had no intention of submitting; and that war was the only way forward. But the emperor rejected an outright invasion. Just coming off a disastrous Japanese campaign, the emperor was unwilling to commit the central government troops to what he considered a low priority affair. He was now focused on delivering

8806-515: The hollow gu -style temple is a structure used for meditation, devotional worship of the Buddha and other Buddhist rituals. The gu temples come in two basic styles: "one-face" design and "four-face" design—essentially one main entrance and four main entrances. Other styles such as five-face and hybrids also exist. The one-face style grew out of 2nd century Beikthano , and the four-face out of 7th century Sri Ksetra. The temples, whose main features were

8925-420: The immediate aftermath. As a result, several minor states fought it out for supremacy for the better part of the 14th century. It was only in the late 14th century that two relatively strong powers emerged in the Irrawaddy basin, restoring some semblance of normalcy. The vast region surrounding the Irrawaddy valley would continue to be made up of several small Tai-Shan states well into the 16th century. Perhaps

9044-473: The imperial order to withdraw void, and ordered an invasion of central Burma. They may not have reached Pagan, and even if they did, after having suffered heavy casualties, they returned to Tagaung. The Pagan Empire disintegrated and anarchy ensued. The Mongols, who probably preferred the situation, did nothing to restore order in the next ten years. In March 1297, they accepted the voluntary submission of King Kyawswa of Pagan although he controlled little beyond

9163-494: The independent Dali Kingdom and its predecessor Nanzhao , both with Dali as their capital city . Dali-based kingdoms were a power in their own right, at times allying themselves with the Tibetan Empire to their west and at other times with China's Tang and Song dynasties. Indeed, Nanzhao's mounted armies ventured deep into what is today Burma and may have been behind the founding of the medieval city of Pagan and

9282-431: The invaders paused their advance. They "found the heat of the searing Irrawaddy valley excessive", and evacuated Tagaung, allowing the Burmese to return to Tagaung on 10 May 1284. But the Mongol army renewed their offensive in the following dry season. They retook Tagaung, and defeated another Burmese stand south of Tagaung, probably near Hanlin , on 26 January 1285, opening the way to Pagan, about 270 km south. After

9401-468: The king agreed to submit but wanted the Mongol troops to withdraw. In June 1286, he sent an embassy led by Shin Ditha Pamauk , a learned monk, to the emperor's court. In January 1287, the embassy arrived at Beijing, and was received by the Yuan emperor. The Burmese delegation formally acknowledged Mongol suzerainty of their kingdom, and agreed to pay annual tribute tied to the agricultural output of

9520-436: The king did not trust any of them, and he and his court settled at Hlegya, west of Prome. Without the full support of his sons, the presence of the king and his small army impressed no one. A usurper named Wareru seized the southern port city of Martaban (Mottama) by killing its Pagan-appointed governor. Gov. Akhamaman of Pegu also revolted; the king managed to send two small expeditions to Pegu but they both failed. Now,

9639-552: The last of the Song in 1279 but had again failed to take Japan in 1281. That year, the Mongol emperor sent another mission to Pagan, demanding tribute yet again. The Burmese king was to send his ten senior ministers accompanied by one thousand cavalry officers to the emperor's court. (With Champa, the emperor summoned the king of Champa himself to Beijing. ) At Pagan, Narathihapate deliberated with his court for an appropriate response but ultimately refused to submit. The Burmese court may have been counting on another limited border war but

9758-570: The later era had lost the knowledge of vaulting and keystone arching to reproduce the spacious interior space of the Bagan hollow temples.) Another architectural innovation originated in Bagan is the Buddhist temple with a pentagonal floor plan. This design grew out of hybrid (between one-face and four-face designs) designs. The idea was to include the veneration of the Maitreya Buddha , the future and fifth Buddha of this era, in addition to

9877-439: The loss of 7000 men; occupied the city; and sent out detachments to receive homage, one of which reached south of Prome. But not all colonial period scholars agreed with the assessment as none of the contemporary Mongol/Chinese records specifically mentioned the conquest of Pagan or the temporary completeness of the conquest. Recent research shows that the Mongol forces most probably never reached Pagan. They were held at bay by

9996-407: The main elite at Old Bagan. The peak of monument building took place between about 1150 and 1200. Most of Bagan's largest buildings were built during this period. The overall amount of building material used also peaked during this phase. Construction clustered around Old Bagan, but also took place up and down the main strip, and there was also some expansion to the east, away from the Irrawaddy. By

10115-567: The middle of the Dry Zone , the region roughly between Shwebo in the north and Pyay in the south. Unlike the coastal regions of the country, which receive annual monsoon rainfalls exceeding 2,500 mm (98 in), the dry zone gets little precipitation as it is sheltered from the rain by the Rakhine Yoma mountain range in the west. Available online climate sources report Bagan climate quite differently. Bagan stands out for not only

10234-408: The most enduring legacy of the Mongol invasions was the emergence of Tai-Shan states in mainland Southeast Asia. The Tai-Shan people who came down with the Mongol invasions stayed. By the early 14th century, several Tai-Shan states had come to dominate a vast region from present-day Assam to present-day northern and eastern Myanmar to northern and central Thailand and Laos. Their rise was encouraged by

10353-406: The new "king" controlled just a small area around the capital, and had no real army. The real power in central Burma now rested with the three commander brothers. The uneasy arrangement would persist until 1297. The Mongols continued to occupy northern Burma to Tagaung as the province of Zhengmian (Cheng-Mien) but ended the fictional central Burma province of Mianzhong on 18 August 1290. Meanwhile,

10472-453: The newly conquered land, which not only provided them with a base from which to attack the Song from the rear but also was strategically located on the trade routes from China to Burma and India. The Mongols set up military garrisons, manned mostly by Turkic -speaking Muslims from Central Asia, in 37 circuits of the former Dali Kingdom. By then, the Pagan Empire, despite outward appearances of calmness, had been in long and slow decline since

10591-407: The newly formed Tai-Shan states in western and central Southeast Asia to Dai Viet and Champa in eastern Southeast Asia, the Mongols elected to receive nominal tribute. Though the rulers of these states were technically governors of the Yuan government, they were the native chieftains, “who would have ruled there in any case, and they did as they pleased.” The war also marked the arrival of China at

10710-463: The number of foreign arrivals reached more than 2.04 million, counting both air and overland arrivals. Tourism has been promoted by advocacy groups as a method of providing economic benefit to Burmese civilians, and to avoid isolating the country from the rest of the world. Voices for Burma, a pro-democracy advocate group, states, "We believe that small-scale, responsible tourism can create more benefits than harm. So long as tourists are fully aware of

10829-585: The one million mark for the first time. In 2013, the Tourism Master Plan was created, targeting 7.5 million arrivals by 2020. Tourism has been developed mainly by Myanmar's government, which has encouraged tourism since 1992. Private enterprises also exist, catering to a wide range of tourists. In 2010, 791,505 foreign tourists visited Myanmar, with 295,174 foreign tourists entering the country via Yangon International Airport . By 2012, more than 1 million foreign tourists visited Myanmar . In 2013,

10948-412: The opinion that responsible tourism to Burma should be encouraged. Other pro-democracy activists, such as Ma Thanegi , advocated small scale tourism, and careful spending. Tourists are welcome to Burma provided they are "keen to promote the welfare of the common people and the conservation of the environment and to acquire an insight into the cultural, political and social life of the country while enjoying

11067-706: The original designs—some finished with "a rude plastered surface, scratched without taste, art or result". The interiors of some temples were also whitewashed, such as the Thatbyinnyu and the Ananda. Many painted inscriptions and even murals were added in this period. Bagan, located in an active earthquake zone, had suffered from many earthquakes over the ages, with over 400 recorded earthquakes between 1904 and 1975. A major earthquake occurred on 8 July 1975, reaching 8 MM in Bagan and Myinkaba , and 7 MM in Nyaung-U . The quake damaged many temples, in many cases, such as

11186-511: The overall narrative is probably accurate. According to the Yuan dynasty chronicle and Marco Polo's accounts, a Burmese army "invaded" the Mongol territory of Gold Teeth, and was defeated by the Mongol army in April 1277. The battle took place either at the Vochang valley (in present-day Baoshan Prefecture ) or 110 km southwest at Kanngai (present-day Yingjiang , Dehong Prefecture ), which

11305-460: The pointed arches and the vaulted chamber, became larger and grander in the Bagan period. Although the Burmese temple designs evolved from Indic, Pyu (and possibly Mon) styles, the techniques of vaulting seem to have developed in Bagan itself. The earliest vaulted temples in Bagan date to the 11th century, while the vaulting did not become widespread in India until the late 12th century. The masonry of

11424-448: The power struggle in central Burma continued with the three brothers blatantly consolidating support. To check their rising power, Kyawswa submitted to the Mongols in January 1297, and was recognized by the Yuan emperor Temür Khan as King of Pagan on 20 March 1297. The emperor also gave Chinese titles to the brothers as subordinates of Kyawswa. The brothers resented the new arrangement as it directly reduced their power. On 17 December 1297,

11543-401: The restorations. On 24 August 2016, a major earthquake hit Bagan, and caused major damages in nearly 400 temples. The Sulamani and Myauk Guni temples were severely damaged. The Bagan Archaeological Department began a survey and reconstruction effort with the help of the UNESCO. Visitors were prohibited from entering 33 much-damaged temples. On 6 July 2019, Bagan was officially inscribed as

11662-481: The retreat of Song refugees in all directions. In Pagan's case, he had ordered the Mongol governor of Dali to tighten control of the borderlands, and in January 1271 to send a mission to Pagan to demand tribute. The tribute he demanded was nominal. Given his higher priority preoccupations elsewhere, the emperor was not looking to replace the regime at Pagan. At the border, the ruler of the Wa and Palaung regions submitted to

11781-452: The rise of ethnic Tai-Shan states throughout mainland Southeast Asia . The Mongols first demanded tribute from Pagan in 1271–1272, as part of their drive to encircle the Song dynasty of China. When King Narathihapate refused, Emperor Kublai Khan himself sent another mission in 1273, again demanding tribute. It too was rejected. In 1275, the emperor ordered the Yunnan government to secure

11900-450: The river both upstream and downstream from the walled core". The walled core called "Old Bagan" takes up only a tiny fraction of the 8,000-hectare area where monuments are found. It is also much smaller than the walled areas of major Pyu cities (the largest, Śrī Kṣetra or Thayekittaya, has a walled area of 1,400 hectares). Altogether, this suggests that "'Old Bagan' represents an elite core, not an urban boundary". An important outlying site

12019-403: The royal patronage of Theravada Buddhism since the mid-11th century had enabled the Buddhist school to gradually gain primacy, other traditions continued to thrive throughout the Pagan period to degrees later unseen. Bagan's basic physical layout had already taken shape by the late 11th century, which was the first major period of monument building. A main strip extending for about 9 km along

12138-421: The sheer number of religious edifices of Myanmar but also the magnificent architecture of the buildings, and their contribution to Burmese temple design. The artistry of the architecture of pagodas in Bagan proves the achievement of Myanmar craftsmen in handicrafts. The Bagan temple falls into one of two broad categories: the stupa -style solid temple and the gu -style (ဂူ) hollow temple. A stupa , also called

12257-412: The situation and take steps to maximise their positive impact and minimise the negatives, we feel their visit can be beneficial overall. Responsible tourists can help Burma primarily by bringing money to local communities and small businesses, and by raising awareness of the situation worldwide." A former Burmese tourism minister estimated that 12% of the government revenues are derived from tourism, with

12376-418: The temple properties. These workers, especially the artisans, were paid well, which attracted many people to move to Bagan. Contemporary inscriptions indicate that "people of many linguistic and cultural backgrounds lived and worked" in Bagan during this time period. Bagan's ascendancy also coincided with a period of political and economic decline in several other nearby regions, like Dvaravati, Srivijaya, and

12495-400: The term Taruk ( တရုတ် ) refers to the Han Chinese instead. King Narathihapate is unkindly remembered in Burmese history as Taruk-Pye Min, ("the King who Fled from the Taruk "). In the 13th century, the Pagan Empire , along with the Khmer Empire , was one of the two main empires in mainland Southeast Asia . For much of its history, Pagan's neighbor to the northeast was not China but

12614-495: The terms of the treaty of Beijing, emerged. Indeed, a king would not emerge until May 1289. Given the chaos, the governor of Yunnan ignored the imperial orders of evacuation. The Mongol army commanded by Prince Ye-sin Timour, a grandson of the emperor, marched south toward Pagan. According to mainstream traditional ( colonial-era ) scholarship, the Mongol army ignored the imperial orders to evacuate; fought its way down to Pagan with

12733-487: The terms to the king. But the agreement broke down a month later. In late June, the defeated king and his small retinue left their temporary capital for Pagan. But on 1 July 1287, King Narathihapate was captured en route and assassinated by his second son Thihathu , the Viceroy of Prome . Anarchy ensued. Each region in the country which had not revolted broke away. No successor to Narathihapate, who could honor and enforce

12852-497: The test of time. For the few dozen temples that were regularly patronized, the continued patronage meant regular upkeep as well as architectural additions donated by the devotees. Many temples were repainted with new frescoes on top of their original Pagan era ones, or fitted with new Buddha statutes. Then came a series of state-sponsored "systematic" renovations in the Konbaung period (1752–1885), which by and large were not true to

12971-426: The three brothers overthrew Kyawswa, and founded the Myinsaing Kingdom . The dethronement forced the Mongol government to intervene again, leading to the second Mongol invasion of Burma (1300–1301). The invasion failed. Two years later, on 4 April 1303, the Mongols abolished the province of Zhengmian (Cheng-Mien), evacuated Tagaung, and returned to Yunnan. The war was one of several near simultaneous wars waged by

13090-492: The tourism industry contributing US$ 182 million (2007) to the government's annual budget. In March 2020, Myanmar has closed its borders to international tourists as a measure to prevent the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic . Furthermore, following the 2021 coup , the country became increasingly isolated. Large-scale protests and escalating acts of violence have inflicted significant damage upon Myanmar's economy , including

13209-399: The tourism sector, which has been pushed into a state of decline. The country reopened to international flights on April 17, 2022, given the decrease in infection cases and the reopening of neighboring countries. In a statement issued by the committee, the decision to reopen aims to boost the tourism sector and provide favorable conditions for visitors to come and explore Myanmar . In

13328-558: The treaty was now void. The disintegration of the Pagan Empire was now complete. But the Mongols refused to fill in the power vacuum they had created. They would send no more expeditions to restore order. The emperor apparently had no interest in committing troops that would be required to pacify the fragmented country. Indeed, his real aim all along may have been "to keep the entire region of Southeast Asia broken and fragmented." It would be another two years until one of Narathihapate's sons, Kyawswa , emerged as king of Pagan in May 1289. But

13447-465: The world is linked with Us, and enter into a perpetual alliance. This will add to your reputation, and be in your own interests; for if it comes to war, who will be the victor? Ponder well, O king, Our words." This time, the Burmese king received the imperial envoys but still refused to submit. The Burmese chronicles say that the king was so insulted that he had the envoys executed, although both Burmese inscriptional evidence and Yuan records indicate to

13566-421: Was a Burmese envoy who carried a letter expressing friendly sentiments and the Burmese king's wish to one day worship a Buddha tooth at Beijing. The king then promptly ordered an expedition, which retook the rebellious borderland regions in April 1272. The rebel leader A-Pi (အပိ) was brought back to Pagan. Dali relayed the news to Beijing but did not carry out any military action. At Beijing, Kublai Khan, who

13685-459: Was deployed at a fort at Ngasaunggyan. The invasion began on 22 September 1283. Prince Sangqudar was the commander-in-chief of the invasion force; his deputies were Vice Governor Taipn, and commander Yagan Tegin. The Mongol armies marched to the border in two columns. One column advanced along the Taping River using over 200 boats; the other proceeded by land and joined the first column at

13804-728: Was more widely accessible", and more private individuals were endowing small monuments. As with before, this may have taken place at the village level. Both Bagan itself and the surrounding countryside offered plenty of opportunities for employment in various sectors. The prolific temple building alone would have been a huge stimulus for professions involved in their construction, such as brickmaking and masonry; gold, silver, and bronze working; carpentry and woodcarving; and ceramics. Finished temples would still need maintenance work done, so they continued to boost demand for both artisans' services and unskilled labor well after their construction. Accountants, bankers, and scribes were also necessary to manage

13923-464: Was often covered in stucco and decorated in relief. Pairs or series of ogres as guardian figures ('bilu') were a favourite theme in the Bagan period. The original Indic design was gradually modified first by the Pyu , and then by Burmans at Bagan where the stupa gradually developed a longer, cylindrical form. The earliest Bagan stupas such as the Bupaya (c. 9th century) were the direct descendants of

14042-620: Was preparing an invasion of Japan , decided against a war with Pagan—for the time being. On 3 March 1273, he sent a 4-member delegation led by an imperial ambassador, the First Secretary to the Board Rites, to Pagan. The delegation carried a letter from the emperor. The letter says: "If you have finally decided to fulfill your duties towards the All-Highest, send one of your brothers or senior ministers, to show men that all

14161-404: Was set a tower of timber, well-framed and strong, and carrying from 12 to 16 well-armed fighting men." Even then, the 40,000 to 60,000 figures of the Burmese army strength were likely eye estimates and may still be too high; the Mongols may have erred "on the side of generosity" not to "diminish their glory in defeating superior numbers." According to Marco Polo's account, in the early stages of

#700299