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93-493: King Gustav III had been assassinated in 1792 and his son, Gustav IV Adolf (born 1778) was too young to rule himself when he was made king. Gustav III's younger brother Duke Charles (who would become Charles XIII when he succeeded Gustav IV in 1809) was named regent, with the Privy Council to advise him. On his deathbed, King Gustav III had also committed the care of his son to Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt and appointed him

186-407: A coup de main . Once Finland was secured, he intended to embark for Sweden, join up with the king and his friends near Stockholm , and force the estates to accept a new constitution dictated by the king. At this juncture, the plotters were reinforced by Johan Christopher Toll , another victim of Cap oppression. Toll proposed to raise a second revolt in the province of Scania , and to secure

279-465: A "Great Power" scale, and the navy was so enlarged as to become one of the most formidable in Europe. The dilapidated finances were set in good order by the " currency realization ordinance " of 1776. Gustav also introduced new national economic policies. In 1775, free trade in grain was promoted and several oppressive export tolls were abolished. The poor law was amended, and limited religious liberty

372-468: A great power, Sweden still took on many of the responsibilities of a great power, and, despite losing value, the prospect of a Swedish alliance still held weight. Sweden's particular geographical position made it virtually invulnerable for six months out of the twelve, and its Pomeranian possessions provided easy access to the Holy Roman Empire. Additionally, to the east, its Finnish frontier

465-513: A great power. France supported the efforts of their ally to become a stronger military power and thus provided financial support to the Hats. The Hats initiated war with Russia . The unstable European political situation due to the almost simultaneous deaths of Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor and Empress Anne of Russia seemed to favor the Hats' schemes. Despite the protests of the Caps, a project for

558-540: A guarantee by the Swedish Riksdag for the observance of peace in the future ("as it would be imprudent to confide in his good faith alone"). The Treaty of Värälä spared Sweden from any such humiliating concession, and in October 1791, Gustav concluded an eight years' defensive alliance with the empress, who thereby bound herself to pay her new ally an annual subsidy of 300,000 rubles. Gustav next aimed at forming

651-530: A league of princes against the revolutionary government in France, and subordinated every other consideration to this goal. His profound knowledge of popular assemblies enabled him, alone among contemporary sovereigns, to gauge the scope of the French Revolution accurately from the first. He was hampered, however, by financial restrictions and lack of support from the other European powers. Then, after

744-584: A lifelong correspondence. His visit to the French capital was, however, no mere pleasure trip; it was also a political mission. Confidential agents from the Swedish court had already prepared the way for him, and the Duke of Choiseul , the retired Chief Minister, resolved to discuss with him the best method of bringing about a revolution in France's ally, Sweden. Before he departed, the French government undertook to pay

837-597: A member of the Privy Council and Governor of Stockholm . Soon after the murder of Gustav III, Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm was recalled from his exile by Duke Charles and made president of the Kammarrevisionen (a forerunner of the Administrative court of appeal ). Reuterholm had been implicated in the failed 1789 Conspiracy to depose Gustav III and replace him with Charles, and in 1792 he became

930-766: A series of attempts to re-capture the Swedish Baltic dominions lost during the Great Northern War through the failed war with Russia . Nonetheless, his successful leadership in the Battle of Svensksund averted a complete military defeat and signified that Swedish military might was to be countenanced after its major defeats earlier in the century. An admirer of Voltaire , Gustav legalised Catholic and Jewish presence in Sweden, and enacted wide-ranging reforms aimed at economic liberalism , social reform and

1023-431: A speech that aroused powerful emotions. It was the first time in more than a century that a Swedish king had addressed a Swedish Riksdag in its native tongue. He stressed the need for all parties to sacrifice their animosities for the common good, and volunteered, as "the first citizen of a free people," to be the mediator between the contending factions. A composition committee was actually formed, but it proved illusory from

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1116-466: A state of economic and demographic ruin at the start of the Age of Liberty. This period brought economic and social upheaval as well as industrial development. However, by the time the Age of Liberty ended in 1772, Sweden was by all objective measures a weaker nation than it was during its "Era of Great Power." Its land was diminished, its monopoly over the bar iron trade was gone, and it was lagging behind in

1209-664: A turning-point in Gustav's history. Henceforth he showed a growing determination to rule without a parliament, a cautious and gradual passage from semi-constitutionalism to semi-absolutism . At the same time, his foreign policy became more adventurous. At first he sought to gain Russian support to acquire Norway from Denmark . When Catherine the Great refused to abandon her ally Denmark, Gustav declared war on Russia in June 1788, while it

1302-402: A way that would increase the power of the crown. But the victorious Hat party , which mainly represented the interests of the aristocracy and military establishment, refused to redeem the pledges that they had given before the previous elections. "That we should have lost the constitutional battle does not distress us so much", wrote Gustav, in the bitterness of his heart; "but what does dismay me

1395-768: A young child caused significant political disruptions within the royal family. Gustav's parents taught him to despise the governors imposed upon him by the Riksdag, and the atmosphere of intrigue and duplicity in which he grew up made him precociously experienced in the art of dissimulation. Even his most hostile teachers were amazed by his combination of natural gifts. Gustav married Princess Sophia Magdalena , daughter of King Frederick V of Denmark , by proxy in Christiansborg Palace , Copenhagen, on 1 October 1766 and in person in Stockholm on 4 November 1766. Gustav

1488-467: Is no factual basis for the assumption that Gustav III was homosexual. When his second son was born, there was no doubt as to his legitimacy, and the boy was strong and healthy. King Gustav was especially fond of him and suffered obvious and severe mental and physical reactions to the baby's illness and death. The spring of 1783 has been considered a turning point in the king's personality. After his controversial mother's death in 1782, he found consolation in

1581-456: Is to see my poor nation so sunk in corruption as to place its own felicity in absolute anarchy ." Gustav found greater success abroad. From 4 February to 25 March 1771, Gustav was in Paris , where he carried both the court and the city by storm. The poets and the philosophers paid him enthusiastic homage, and distinguished women testified to his superlative merits. With many of them he maintained

1674-607: The Age of Liberty ( Swedish : frihetstiden ; Finnish : vapauden aika ) was a period that saw parliamentary governance, increasing civil rights , and the decline of the Swedish Empire that began with the adoption of the Instrument of Government in 1719 and ended with Gustav III 's self-coup in 1772. This shift of power from the monarch to parliament was a direct effect of the Great Northern War . Suffrage under

1767-710: The Age of Liberty , he initiated a campaign to restore a measure of royal autocracy . This was completed by the Union and Security Act of 1789, which swept away most of the powers exercised by the Swedish Riksdag of the estates during the Age of Liberty, but at the same time it opened up the government for all citizens, thereby breaking the privileges of the nobility. A believer in enlightened absolutism , Gustav spent considerable public funds on cultural ventures, which were controversial among his critics, as well as military attempts to seize Norway with Russian aid, then

1860-501: The Kymi River was retained by Russia. Since 1719, when the influence of the few great territorial families had been merged in a multitude of needy gentlemen, the first estate had become the nursery and afterwards the stronghold of an opposition at once noble and democratic which found its natural leaders in such men as Count Carl Gyllenborg and Count Carl Gustaf Tessin . These men and their followers were never weary of ridiculing

1953-519: The Northern Accord sought by the Russian vice-chancellor, Count Nikita Panin . It seemed to many that only a swift and sudden coup d'état could preserve Sweden's independence. Gustav III was approached by Jacob Magnus Sprengtporten , a Finnish nobleman, who had incurred the enmity of the Caps, with the prospect of a revolution. He undertook to seize the fortress of Sveaborg in Finland by

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2046-411: The Privy Council and its president, Rudbeck, had been arrested and the fleet secured. Then Gustav made a tour of the city and was everywhere received by enthusiastic crowds, who hailed him as a deliverer. A song was composed by Carl Michael Bellman called the " Toast to King Gustav! " On the evening of 20 August, heralds roamed the streets proclaiming that the estates were to meet at the palace on

2139-569: The Riksdag met in 1760, Hat leaders managed to avoid impeachment after a session lasting twenty months, and the Hat government was bolstered for an additional four years. However, the Caps soon seized power in a meeting of the estates in 1765. The Cap leader, Ture Rudbeck, was elected marshal of the Diet over Frederick Axel von Fersen , the Hat candidate, by a large majority; and, out of the hundred seats in

2232-572: The Swedish Navy . The Russians lost one-third of their fleet and 7,000 men. A month later, on 14 August 1790, a peace treaty was signed between Russia and Sweden: the Treaty of Värälä . Only eight months before, Catherine had declared that "the odious and revolting aggression" of the king of Sweden would be "forgiven" only if he "testified his repentance" by agreeing to a peace granting a general and unlimited amnesty to all his rebels and consenting to

2325-525: The Treaty of Nystad , Sweden ceded Livonia , the Finnish province of Kexholm , and Viborg Castle to Russia, Ingria , and Estonia . Finland west of Viborg and north of Käkisalmi was restored to Sweden. Sweden also received an indemnity of two million Riksdaler and a solemn undertaking of non-interference in her domestic affairs. Early in 1720, Charles XII's sister, Ulrika Eleonora , who had been elected queen of Sweden immediately after his death,

2418-458: The parliamentary government was not universal . Although the taxed peasantry was represented in the Parliament, its influence was disproportionately small, and commoners without taxed property had no suffrage at all. Following the death of Charles XI of Sweden , his young son Charles XII became king, and in 1697, when he was only 15 years old, he was proclaimed to be of age and took over

2511-553: The power of the purse . In return, Gustav abolished most of the old privileges of the nobility. Throughout 1789 and 1790, Gustav conducted a war with Russia known as the Russo-Swedish War of 1788–90 . At first, the venture seemed headed for disaster before the Swedes successfully broke a blockade by the Russian fleet at the Battle of Svensksund on 9 July 1790. This is regarded as the greatest naval victory ever achieved by

2604-492: The "Reaction Riksdag", as it was generally called, withdrew to the capital; and the French ambassador and the crown prince Gustav called upon the new Privy Councillors to redeem their promise to reform the constitution. When, at the end of the session, they half-heartedly brought the matter forward, but it did not proceed, with the Reaction Riksdag disbanding on 30 January 1770. The Great Northern War left Sweden in

2697-474: The Cap leader, Ture Rudbeck, arrived at Stockholm with news of the insurrection in the south, and Gustav found himself isolated in the midst of enemies. Sprengtporten lay weather-bound in Finland, Toll was 800 kilometres (500 miles) away, the Hat leaders were in hiding. Gustav thereupon resolved to strike the decisive blow without waiting for Sprengtporten's arrival. He acted promptly. On the evening of 18 August, all

2790-468: The Estates: A new constitution, the Instrument of Government , was read to the estates and unanimously accepted by them. The diet was then dissolved. Gustav worked towards reform in the same direction as other contemporary sovereigns of the Age of Enlightenment . Criminal justice became more lenient, the death penalty was restricted to a relatively short list of crimes (including murder), and torture

2883-465: The Hats and Caps engaged a considerable share of his time and he even found it necessary to put on trial the entire Göta Hovrätt , the superior court of justice, in Jönköping . Measures were also taken to reform the administration and judicial procedures. In 1774, an ordinance was proclaimed providing for the liberty of the press , though "within certain limits". The national defences were raised to

Armfelt Conspiracy - Misplaced Pages Continue

2976-536: The Hats saw a blow to their foreign policy. At the instigation of France , Sweden entered into the Seven Years' War , which proved disastrous. The French subsidies, which might have sufficed for a shorter, six weeks campaign (it was generally assumed that the king of Prussia would give little trouble to a European coalition), proved inadequate. After five unsuccessful campaigns, the Hats were forced to make peace, with Sweden having lost approximately 40,000 men. When

3069-480: The Royal Order of Vasa to acknowledge and reward those Swedes who had contributed to advances in the fields of agriculture, mining and commerce. He was also a patron of many cultural figures, including Alexander Roslin and Carl Michael Bellman , and is often considered one of the most important figures in the history of Swedish art, music and architecture. Gustav III was well liked by the Swedish population and

3162-521: The birth of the Duke of Småland, but this was followed by severe grief when the child died the following year. Gustav first intervened actively in politics during the December Crisis (1768) , when he compelled the dominant Cap faction , which mainly represented the interests of the peasantry and clergy, to summon an extraordinary diet from which he hoped for the reform of the constitution in

3255-413: The brief Diet of Gävle on 22 January – 24 February 1792, he fell victim to a widespread political conspiracy among his aristocratic enemies. Gustav III's war against Russia and his implementation of the Union and Security Act of 1789 helped increase hatred against the king which had been growing among the nobility ever since the coup d'état of 1772. A conspiracy to have the king assassinated and reform

3348-512: The change by no means liked it. If the Riksdag of 1778 had been docile, the Riksdag of 1786 was mutinous. The consequence was that nearly all the royal propositions were either rejected outright or so modified that Gustav himself withdrew them. Earlier in foreign affairs, however, and privately, Gustav had shown considerable interest in the American Revolution and had this to say about it in October 1776: The Riksdag of 1786 marks

3441-407: The constitution was created within the nobility in the winter of 1791–92. Among those involved were Jacob Johan Anckarström , Adolph Ribbing , Claes Fredrik Horn, Carl Pontus Lilliehorn and Carl Fredrik Pechlin . Anckarström was chosen to carry out the murder with pistols and knives, but there has also been evidence suggesting that Ribbing was the one who actually shot Gustav. The assassination of

3534-412: The consummation of the marriage, the king and queen requested actual physical instruction by Count Adolf Munck , reportedly because of anatomical problems of both spouses. There were also rumors that the queen was made pregnant by Munck, who would then be the true father of the heir Prince Gustav Adolf. Gustav's mother supported rumors that he was not the father of his first son and heir. It was rumored at

3627-414: The de facto ruler of Sweden through his advice to Duke Charles. The "Gustavians" of the regency and the wider government, those still loyal to Gustav III and his policies, were systematically pushed to the side by Reuterholm. Armfelt was removed from the position as Governor of Stockholm and Reuterholm had him named Swedish minister to Italian courts in 1792, which was a convenient way to remove him from

3720-413: The end of the year, the majority of Finland was held by Russia. The Swedish fleet was struck by an epidemic, and thus contributed little to the war. The Hats avoided a motion for an inquiry into the conduct of the war by shifting the focus of the Riksdag to the issue of succession. Queen Ulrike Eleonora of Sweden had lately died childless and King Frederick was old. Negotiations were thus opened with

3813-463: The establishment of a network of crown distilleries . These proved to be unprofitable, and moreover the monopoly was hugely unpopular among the common people, and so Gustav was forced to abolish it in 1786. Gustav's foreign policy, in contrast, was at first both restrained and cautious. Thus, when the king summoned the estates to assemble at Stockholm on 3 September 1778, he could give a highly positive account of his six years' stewardship. The Riksdag

Armfelt Conspiracy - Misplaced Pages Continue

3906-577: The extreme of wanting to shorten Your days, through murder. They are greatly upset to see this not happening at the last masquerade but they rejoice at the tidings of seeing that there will be a new one today. Bandits do not like lanterns; there is nothing more serviceable for an assassination than darkness and disguise. I dare, then, to appeal to You, by everything that is holy in this world, to postpone this damnable ball, to such times as are more positive for Your present as well as coming benefit... Age of Liberty In Swedish and Finnish history ,

3999-408: The first: the patriotism of neither faction was sufficient for the smallest act of self-denial. The subsequent attempts of the dominant Caps to reduce him to a roi fainéant (a powerless king), encouraged him to consider a coup d'état . Under the sway of the Cap faction, Sweden seemed in danger of falling prey to the political ambitions of Russia. It appeared on the point of being absorbed into

4092-410: The following day; every deputy absenting himself would be regarded as the enemy of his country and his king. On 21 August, the king appeared in full regalia. Taking his seat on the throne, he delivered his famous philippic , viewed as one of the masterpieces of Swedish oratory, in which he reproached the estates for their unpatriotic venality and license in the past. Part of the speech by Gustav III to

4185-654: The fortress, he was to make common cause with the rebels and march upon the capital from the south while Sprengtporten attacked it simultaneously from the east. The entire revolutionary enterprise was underwritten with loans procured from the French financier Nicolas Beaujon , arranged by the Swedish ambassador to France, Count Creutz . On 6 August 1772, Toll succeeded in winning the fortress of Kristianstad by sheer bluff, and on 16 August, Sprengtporten succeeded in surprising Sveaborg, but contrary winds prevented him from crossing to Stockholm. Events soon occurred there that made his presence unnecessary in any case. On 16 August,

4278-462: The fortress. Neither side had major offensive achievements in the following six months, during which time the Swedish generals made a "tacit truce" with the Russians through the mediation of the French ambassador at Saint Petersburg . By the time that the "tacit truce" had come to an end the Swedish forces were so demoralized that the mere rumor of a hostile attack prompted a retreat to Helsinki . By

4371-476: The guard-room in the north western wing of the palace where the Guard of Honour had its headquarters and unfolded his plans to them. He told the assembled officers, A young ensign then spoke up: Gustav then dictated a new oath of allegiance , and everyone signed it without hesitation. It absolved them from their allegiance to the estates, and bound them solely to obey "their lawful king, Gustav III". Meanwhile,

4464-449: The integrity of the existing Swedish constitution; he advised the young monarch to play the part of mediator and abstain from violence. At the time of his accession, the Swedish Riksdag held more power than the monarchy, but the Riksdag was bitterly divided between rival parties, the Hats and Caps. On his return to Sweden, Gustav III tried unsuccessfully to mediate between the two groups. On 21 June 1771, he opened his first Riksdag with

4557-400: The invasion of Russian Finland was rushed through the premature Riksdag of 1740. On 20 July 1741, war was formally declared against Russia; a month later, the Diet was dissolved, and the lantmarskalk set off to Finland to take command of the army. The first major battle occurred six months after the declaration of war when the Russians routed the Swedes in Finland at Lappeenranta and captured

4650-566: The king was enacted at a masked ball at the Royal Opera House in Stockholm at midnight on 16 March 1792. Gustav had arrived earlier that evening to enjoy a dinner in the company of friends. During dinner, he received an anonymous letter that described a threat to his life (written by the colonel of the Life Guards Carl Pontus Lilliehorn), but, as the king had received numerous threatening letters in

4743-414: The mutinous aristocratic officers. Ultimately, he quelled their rebellion and arrested its leaders. Capitalizing on the powerful anti-aristocratic passions thus aroused, Gustav summoned a Riksdag early in 1789, at which he put through an Act of Union and Security on 17 February 1789 with the backing of the three lower estates. This reinforced monarchical authority significantly, although the estates retained

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4836-399: The national debt, reducing wealth of the nobility in order to replenish the empty exchequer, and establishing an equilibrium between revenue and expenditure. The Caps also introduced additional reforms, the most remarkable of which was the liberty of the press in 1766. In foreign policy, the parliament also allied Sweden with Russia to counter the influence of France . Although no longer

4929-416: The new Russian empress, Elizabeth of Russia , who agreed to restore the greater part of Finland if her cousin, Adolph Frederick of Holstein , were elected successor to the Swedish crown. The Hats took the opportunity to recover the lost lands, as well as a bit of their own prestige. By the Treaty of Åbo on 7 May 1743 the terms of the empress were accepted and only the small part of Finland which lay beyond

5022-436: The officers whom he thought he could trust received secret instructions to assemble in the great square facing the arsenal on the following morning. At ten o'clock on 19 August, Gustav mounted his horse and rode to the arsenal. On the way, his adherents joined him in little groups, as if by accident, so that by the time he reached his destination he had about two hundred officers in his suite. After parade he reconducted them to

5115-426: The outstanding subsidies to Sweden unconditionally, at the rate of one and a half million livres annually. Count de Vergennes , one of the most prominent French diplomats, was transferred from Constantinople to Stockholm . On his way home, Gustav paid a short visit to his uncle, Frederick the Great , at Potsdam . Frederick bluntly informed his nephew that, in concert with Russia and Denmark , he had guaranteed

5208-647: The past, he chose to ignore it. The letter was written in French , and in translation it stated: To the King — with the greatest humility. Pray, allow an unknown whose pen is guided by tactfulness and the voice of conscience, dare take the liberty to inform You, with all possible sincerity, that certain individuals exist, both in the Provinces and here in the City, that only breathe hatred and revenge against You; indeed to

5301-407: The place of meeting for the Riksdag due to the city being more accessible to the Russian fleet. It quickly became evident that the Caps had misstepped, and when the Riksdag met at Norrköping on 19 April, they found themselves in a minority in all four estates. In the contest for speaker of the Riksdag ( Lantmarskalk ), the leaders of the two parties were again pitted against each other. The results of

5394-569: The political action in Stockholm . Armfelt was resentful of his de facto exile and was of the opinion that the conduct of the regency contravened the last will of Gustav III. From his residence in Naples he tried to engineer the fall of Reuterholms rule using his many acquaintances in high positions. His agents in Sweden were actively involved in his plots, notably his lover Magdalena Rudenschöld . Many of his proposed plans were fanciful. One plan

5487-527: The previous Diet were exactly reversed, with von Fersen defeating Rudbeck by 234 votes, despite Russia spending at least 90,000 Riksdaler to secure the election of the latter. A joint note presented to the estates by the Russian, Prussian and Danish ministers protested the result, in menacing terms, against any "reprisals" on the part of the triumphant faction, hastened the fall of the government. The Cap senate resigned en masse to escape impeachment, and an exclusively Hat ministry took its place. On 1 June,

5580-527: The public fancy and had already become party badges when the estates met in 1738. This Riksdag was to mark another turning-point in Swedish history. In the War of the Polish Succession between 1733–1738 Sweden supported Stanislaus Leszczyński against August III of Poland . The Hats carried everything before them, and the aged Horn, who had served thirty-three years, was finally compelled to retire from

5673-474: The race towards early industrialisation . The decline can be attributed both to fiscal , monetary and executive policy errors by the various Riksdag parties in power, as well as to technological and economic shifts which allowed Sweden's rivals and neighbours get ahead on the global stage. However, the agricultural reforms, the early industrial developments and the gradual change from mercantilism to free trade which occurred during this period and pioneered

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5766-798: The restoration, if symbolic, of Swedish overseas colonies in America, as well as great personal profits from the transatlantic slave trade . Gustav III was known in Sweden and abroad by his royal titles, or styles: Gustav, by the Grace of God, King of the Swedes , the Goths and the Vends , Grand Prince of Finland , Duke of Pomerania , Prince of Rügen and Lord of Wismar , Heir to Norway and Duke of Schleswig-Holstein , Stormarn and Dithmarschen , Count of Oldenburg and Delmenhorst , etc. Gustav

5859-559: The restriction, in many cases, of torture and capital punishment . The much-praised Freedom of the Press Act of 1766 was severely curtailed, however, by amendments in 1774 and 1792, effectively extinguishing independent media. Following the uprising against the French monarchy in 1789 , Gustav pursued an alliance of princes aimed at crushing the insurrection and re-instating his French counterpart, King Louis XVI , offering Swedish military assistance as well as his leadership. In 1792 he

5952-574: The right of superseding the ordinary courts of justice. During the parliamentary recess, however, the executive remained in the hands of the Privy Council , which was responsible to the Riksdag alone. The policy of the Hats party was a return to the traditional alliance between France and Sweden. Chancery President, and member of the rival Caps party, Count Arvid Horn acted with the recognition of Sweden's unequal status in this alliance. The Hats, however, aimed to restore Sweden to its former position as

6045-469: The rule from the provisional government. The states in which Sweden's expansion into a great power had primarily been at the expense of Denmark and Russia , formed a coalition with Saxony two years later with the aim of partitioning Sweden. After initial successes, Sweden's army was eventually reduced while the list of enemies grew. In a Swedish siege of Fredriksten Fortress in Norway in 1718, Charles XII

6138-403: The scene. Encouraged by Louisa Ulrika of Prussia , Frederick the Great 's sister, King Adolf Frederick of Sweden (reigned 1751–1771) supported a rebellion to restore the privileges of the monarchy. The attempted monarchical revolution , planned by the queen and a few devoted young nobles in 1756, was easily crushed, with Adolf Frederick nearly losing the throne in response. That same year,

6231-425: The secret committee, the Hats succeeded in getting only ten. The Caps quickly ordered a budget report to be made, finding fraud on the part of the Hat government resulting in a large increase in the national debt and a depreciation of the note circulation to one-third of its face value. This report led to an all-round retrenchment, earning the parliament the nickname "Reduction Riksdag". The Caps succeeded in reducing

6324-417: The secret committee. This famous body, which consisted of 50 nobles, 25 priests, 25 burgesses, and, very exceptionally, 25 peasants, possessed during the session of the Riksdag not only the supreme executive but also the supreme judicial and legislative functions. It prepared all bills for the Riksdag, created and deposed all ministries, controlled the foreign policy of the nation, and claimed and often exercised

6417-465: The southern fortress of Kristianstad . After some debate, it was agreed that Kristianstad should openly declare against the government a few days after the Finnish revolt had begun. Duke Charles (Karl) , the eldest of the king's brothers, would thereupon be forced to mobilize the garrisons of all the southern fortresses hastily, ostensibly to crush the revolt at Kristianstad, but on arriving in front of

6510-409: The suggestion of the crown prince , urged the senate to quickly summon a Riksdag in order to relive the national distress, but was refused, leading the king to abdicate. This resulted in the December Crisis (1768) , leaving Sweden without a regular government between December 15–21, 1768. Eventually, the Cap senate yielded and the estates were called for 19 April 1769. On the eve of the contest there

6603-537: The territorial ambitions of France. Russia, on the other hand, saw Swedish land as a potential area of expansion . The 1772 Partition of Poland included a secret clause requiring the contracting powers to uphold the existing Swedish constitution as the swiftest means of subverting Swedish independence; and an alliance with the credulous Caps, or "the Patriots" as they were known in Russia, guaranteeing their constitution,

6696-493: The time that Gustav was homosexual , a possibility asserted by some writers. The close personal relationships that he formed with two of his courtiers, Count Axel von Fersen and Baron Gustav Armfelt , were alluded to in that regard. His sister-in-law Charlotte implied as much in her famous diary. Professor Erik Lönnroth of the Swedish Academy , who described the assistance provided by Munck, asserted that there

6789-405: The timid caution of the aged statesman who sacrificed everything to perpetuate an inglorious peace and derisively nicknamed his adherents "Night-caps" (a term subsequently softened into " Caps "), themselves adopting the sobriquet " Hats " from the three-cornered hat worn by officers and gentlemen, which was a display of the manly self-assertion of this opposition. These epithets instantly caught

6882-525: The war, was retained by Sweden. By the Treaty of Frederiksborg on 3 July 1720, peace was also signed between Denmark and Sweden . Denmark returned Rügen , Further Pomerania as far as the Peene , and Wismar to Sweden in exchange for an indemnity of 600,000 Riksdaler ; in return, Sweden would pay the Sound tolls and give up her protectorate over Holstein-Gottorp . Peace with Russia was achieved in 1721. By

6975-508: The work of legislation exceptionally difficult. No measure could now become law until it had obtained the assent of at least three of the four estates. Each estate was ruled by its talman , or speaker, who was now elected at the beginning of each Diet, but the archbishop was, ex officio, the talman of the clergy. The lantmarskalk , or speaker of the House of Nobles, presided when the estates met in congress and also, by virtue of his office, in

7068-498: Was King of Sweden from 1771 until his assassination in 1792. He was the eldest son of King Adolf Frederick and Queen Louisa Ulrika of Sweden. Gustav was a vocal opponent of what he saw as the abuse of political privileges seized by the nobility since the death of King Charles XII in the Great Northern War . Seizing power from the government in a coup d'état , called the Swedish Revolution , in 1772, that ended

7161-573: Was mortally wounded by a gunshot in the lower back during a masquerade ball as part of an aristocratic-parliamentary coup attempt, but managed to assume command and quell the uprising before succumbing to sepsis 13 days later, a period during which he received apologies from many of his political enemies. Gustav's immense powers were placed in the hands of a regency under his brother Prince Carl and Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm until his son and successor Gustav IV Adolf reached adulthood in 1796. The Gustavian autocracy thus survived until 1809, when his son

7254-461: Was a corollary to this agreement. The domination of the Caps was short-lived. The general distress caused by their drastic reforms had found expression in pamphlets criticizing the Cap government, which were protected under the new press laws. The senate retaliated with an order, which the king refused to sign, declaring that all complaints against the austerity measures of the last Riksdag should be punished with fine and imprisonment. The king, at

7347-510: Was a general assembly of the Hats at the French embassy, where the Comte de Modêne furnished them with 6,000,000 livres in return for a promise to reform the Swedish constitution to increase the powers of the monarchy. On the other hand, a Russian minister became kingdom's treasurer and a counsellor for the Caps. In return, the Caps openly threatened to use Russian force to punish their detractors, and designated Norrköping , instead of Stockholm , as

7440-413: Was abolished in order to gain confessions, although the "strict death penalty", with torture-like corporal punishment preceding the execution, was maintained. Gustav took an active part in every department of business, but relied heavily on extra-official counsellors of his own choosing rather than upon the Privy Council of Sweden . The effort to remedy the widespread corruption that had flourished under

7533-438: Was born in Stockholm . He was placed under the tutelage of Hedvig Elisabet Strömfelt until the age of five, then educated under the care of two governors who were among the most eminent Swedish statesmen of the day: Carl Gustaf Tessin and Carl Fredrik Scheffer . Nonetheless, he perhaps owed most of what shaped him during his early education to the poet and historian Olof von Dalin . State interference with his education as

7626-465: Was close to the Russian capital at Saint Petersburg. Neutrality, a relative commitment to defensive alliances, and commercial treaties with the maritime powers, became the basis of the older Caps' foreign policy. However, the Hats' relationship with France in the north drove the younger Caps to seek an alliance with Russia. This policy backfired, as France's distance to Sweden had left Sweden outside

7719-641: Was convicted in his absence by Svea Court of Appeal on 22 July 1794 to forfeit his life, all honours and possessions, guilty of planning an armed coup. Rudenschöld and Ehrenström were also sentenced to death, and when the case reached the Supreme Court of Sweden , Johan Fredrik Aminoff was also sentenced to death. However, Duke Charles commuted all but Armfelt's death sentences to prison sentences. Gustav III of Sweden Gustav III (24 January [ O.S. 13 January] 1746 – 29 March 1792), also called Gustavus III ,

7812-622: Was deeply engaged in a war with the Ottoman Empire to the south. In embarking on a war of aggression without the consent of the estates, Gustav violated his own constitution of 1772, which led to a serious mutiny, the Anjala Conspiracy , among his aristocratic officers in Finland. Denmark declared war in support of its Russian ally, but was soon persuaded to sign a ceasefire through British and Prussian diplomacy. Returning to Sweden, Gustav aroused popular indignation against

7905-416: Was first impressed by Sophia Magdalena's beauty, but her silent nature made her a disappointment in court life. The match was not a happy one, owing partly to an incompatibility of temperament, but still more to the interference of Gustav's jealous mother, Queen Louisa Ulrika. The marriage produced two children: Crown Prince Gustav Adolf (1778–1837), and Prince Carl Gustav, Duke of Småland (1782–1783). For

7998-627: Was killed, after which most hostilities in the West ended. At the beginning of 1719, peace overtures were made to Britain, Hanover, Prussia, and Denmark. By the Treaties of Stockholm on 20 February 1719 and 1 February 1720, Hanover obtained the Duchies of Bremen and Verden for herself and Southern Swedish Pomerania with Stettin for the confederate Brandenburg-Prussia . Northern Swedish Pomerania with Rügen , which had come under Danish rule during

8091-463: Was mourned upon his death. In 1777, Gustav III was the first formally neutral head of state in the world to recognise the United States during its war for independence from Great Britain . Swedish military forces were engaged by the thousands on the side of the colonists, largely through the French expedition force . Through the acquisition of Saint Barthélemy in 1784, Gustav enabled

8184-491: Was ousted in another coup d'état , which definitively established parliament as the dominant political power; this has lasted until the modern day, where the Riksdag is Sweden's supreme legislature. A patron of the arts and benefactor of arts and literature, Gustav founded the Swedish Academy , created a national costume and had the Royal Swedish Opera and Royal Dramatic Theatre built. In 1772 he founded

8277-504: Was permitted to abdicate in favor of her husband Frederick, the prince of Hesse , who was elected king 1720 under the title of Frederick I of Sweden . Sweden also converted into the most limited of monarchies. All power was vested in the people as represented by the Riksdag , consisting, as before, of four distinct estates: nobles, priests, burgesses, and peasants. The conflicting interests of these four independent assemblies, who sat and deliberated apart and with their mutual jealousies, made

8370-399: Was proclaimed for both Roman Catholics and Jews . Gustav even designed and popularized a Swedish national costume , which was in general use among the upper classes from 1778 until his death (and it is still worn by the ladies of the court on state occasions). The king's one great economic blunder was his attempt in 1775 to make the sale of alcoholic spirits a government monopoly, through

8463-469: Was quite obsequious towards the king. "There was no room for a single question during the whole session." Short as the session was, it was long enough for the deputies to realize that their political supremacy was over. They had changed places with the king. He was now indeed their sovereign lord. For all his gentleness, he guarded the royal prerogative fiercely and plainly showed that he would continue to do so. Even those who were prepared to acquiesce in

8556-475: Was sent all the way to Naples with orders to the crew to arrest Armfelt and bring him to trial in Stockholm. His protectors at the court of Naples managed to save him from arrest at the last moment but in February 1794 he had to flee from Italy to Russia . Catherine II was unwilling to support Armfelt in any way, at least not in her capital, so he was sent to the distant town of Kaluga with his family. Armfelt

8649-613: Was to have Catherine II of Russia interfere by having a Russian naval force make a demonstration of force outside Stockholm and making political demands. This plan did not receive support at a sufficiently high level in Catherine's court, but Reuterholm's spies in Italy intercepted some of Armfelt's letters. The intercepted letters provided evidence of treason . Rudenschöld, the former Royal Secretary Johan Albrecht Ehrenström and some others were arrested 18 December 1793. A Swedish warship

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