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93-638: The original AstroTurf brand product was invented by James M. Faria and Robert T. Wright at Monsanto . The original, experimental installation was inside the Waughhtel-Howe Field House at the Moses Brown School in Providence, Rhode Island in 1964. It was patented in 1965 and originally sold under the name "ChemGrass." It was rebranded as AstroTurf by company employee John A. Wortmann after its first well-publicized use at

186-554: A carcinogenic threat to humans", later clarifying that while carcinogenic glyphosate-containing formulations may exist, studies that "look solely at the active substance glyphosate do not show this effect". In 2017, the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) classified glyphosate as causing serious eye damage and as toxic to aquatic life but did not find evidence implicating it as a carcinogen, a mutagen, toxic to reproduction, nor toxic to specific organs. Glyphosate

279-471: A phos phon ate . The main deactivation path for glyphosate is hydrolysis to aminomethylphosphonic acid . Two main approaches are used to synthesize glyphosate industrially, both of which proceed via the Kabachnik–Fields reaction . The first is to react iminodiacetic acid and formaldehyde with phosphorous acid (sometimes formed in situ from phosphorus trichloride using the water generated by

372-503: A 2017 risk assessment, the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) wrote: "There is very limited information on skin irritation in humans. Where skin irritation has been reported, it is unclear whether it is related to glyphosate or co-formulants in glyphosate-containing herbicide formulations." The ECHA concluded that available human data was insufficient to support classification for skin corrosion or irritation. Inhalation

465-612: A chemist at Monsanto, was asked to try to make analogs with stronger herbicidal activity. Glyphosate was the third analog he made. Franz received the National Medal of Technology of the United States in 1987 and the Perkin Medal for Applied Chemistry in 1990 for his discoveries. Monsanto developed and patented the use of glyphosate to kill weeds in the early 1970s and first brought it to market in 1974, under

558-404: A company that produced computer hardware and software designed to enable farmers to increase yield and productivity through more precise planting. Monsanto purchased San Francisco-based Climate Corp for $ 930 million in 2013. Climate Corp makes local weather forecasts for farmers based on data modelling and historical data; if the forecasts were wrong, the farmer was compensated. In May 2013,

651-400: A group of impurities of particular concern as they can be activated to genotoxic carcinogens", should not exceed 1 ppm. Glyphosate is marketed in the United States and worldwide by many agrochemical companies, in different solution strengths and with various adjuvants , under dozens of tradenames. As of 2010, more than 750 glyphosate products were on the market. In 2012, about half of

744-608: A half-life of 141.9 days. The glyphosate metabolite AMPA has been found in Swedish forest soils up to two years after a glyphosate application. In this case, the persistence of AMPA was attributed to the soil being frozen for most of the year. Glyphosate adsorption to soil, and later release from soil, varies depending on the kind of soil. Glyphosate is generally less persistent in water than in soil, with 12- to 60-day persistence observed in Canadian ponds, although persistence of over

837-532: A long-term agreement to cooperate in the research, development, and marketing of new plant biotechnology products. In 2008, Monsanto purchased Dutch seed company De Ruiter Seeds for €546 million, and sold its POSILAC bovine somatotropin brand and related business to Elanco Animal Health, a division of Eli Lilly & Co , in August for $ 300 million plus "additional contingent consideration". In 2012, Monsanto purchased for $ 210 million Precision Planting Inc. ,

930-459: A new company, the "new Monsanto", focused on four key agricultural crops—soybeans, maize, wheat and cotton. Monsanto agreed to indemnify Pharmacia against potential liabilities from judgments against Solutia . As a result, the new Monsanto continued to be a party to numerous lawsuits over the prior Monsanto. Pharmacia was bought by Pfizer in 2003. In 2005, Monsanto acquired Emergent Genetics and its Stoneville and NexGen cotton brands. Emergent

1023-582: A pioneer of optoelectronics in the 1970s. Between 1968 and 1974, the company sponsored the PGA Tour event in Pensacola, Florida, which was renamed the Monsanto Open . In 1974, Harvard University and Monsanto signed a 10-year research grant to support the cancer research of Judah Folkman , which became the largest such arrangement ever made; medical inventions arising from that research were

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1116-431: A plant enzyme involved in the synthesis of three aromatic amino acids : tyrosine , tryptophan , and phenylalanine . It is therefore effective only on actively growing plants and is not effective as a pre-emergence herbicide . Crops have been genetically engineered to be tolerant of glyphosate (e.g. Roundup Ready soybean , the first Roundup Ready crop, also created by Monsanto), which allows farmers to use glyphosate as

1209-673: A portion of the AMPA detected may actually be the result of degradation of detergents and other aminophosphonates rather than degradation of glyphosate. The proportion of AMPA from non-glyphosate sources is claimed to be higher in Europe compared to USA. Glyphosate does have the potential to contaminate surface waters due to its aquatic use patterns and through erosion, as it adsorbs to colloidal soil particles suspended in runoff . Detection in surface waters (particularly downstream from agricultural uses) has been reported as both broad and frequent by

1302-422: A post-emergence herbicide against weeds. While glyphosate and formulations such as Roundup have been approved by regulatory bodies worldwide, concerns about their effects on humans and the environment have persisted. A number of regulatory and scholarly reviews have evaluated the relative toxicity of glyphosate as an herbicide. The WHO and FAO Joint committee on pesticide residues issued a report in 2016 stating

1395-455: A relatively small effect on some clover species and morning glory . Glyphosate and related herbicides are often used in invasive species eradication and habitat restoration , especially to enhance native plant establishment in prairie ecosystems. The controlled application is usually combined with a selective herbicide and traditional methods of weed eradication such as mulching to achieve an optimal effect. In many cities, glyphosate

1488-414: A risk from home use, such as in domestic gardening. Although some small studies have suggested an association between glyphosate and non-hodgkin lymphoma , subsequent work confirmed the likelihood this work suffered from bias, and the association could not be demonstrated in more robust studies. Amongst mammals, glyphosate is considered to have "low to very low toxicity". The LD 50 of glyphosate

1581-433: A series of zwitterions . Glyphosate is soluble in water to 12 g/L at room temperature. The original synthetic approach to glyphosate involved the reaction of phosphorus trichloride with formaldehyde followed by hydrolysis to yield a phosphonate . Glycine is then reacted with this phosphonate to yield glyphosate, and its name is taken as a contraction of the compounds used in this synthesis step, namely gly cine and

1674-408: A third-generation turf product, increased competition gave way to lawsuits. In 2000, SRI was awarded $ 1.5 million in a lawsuit after FieldTurf was deemed to have lied to the public by making false statements regarding its own product and making false claims about AstroTurf and AstroPlay products. Despite their legal victory, increased competition took its toll. In 2004, SRI declared bankruptcy. Out of

1767-463: A worldwide protest against Monsanto corporation, called March Against Monsanto , was held in over 400 cities. A second protest took place in May 2014. Monsanto tried to acquire Swiss agro-biotechnology rival Syngenta for US$ 46.5 billion in 2015, but failed. In that year Monsanto was the world's biggest supplier of seeds, controlling 26% of the global seed market (Du Pont was second with 21%). Monsanto

1860-654: A year has been recorded in the sediments of American ponds. The half-life of glyphosate in water is between 12 days and 10 weeks. According to the National Pesticide Information Center fact sheet, glyphosate is not included in compounds tested for by the Food and Drug Administration's Pesticide Residue Monitoring Program, nor in the United States Department of Agriculture's Pesticide Data Program. The U.S. has determined

1953-451: Is 360 g/L, either alone or with added cationic surfactants . For 360 grams per litre (0.013 lb/cu in) formulations, European regulations allow applications of up to 12 litres per hectare (1.1 imp gal/acre) for control of perennial weeds such as couch grass . More commonly, rates of 3 litres per hectare (0.27 imp gal/acre) are practiced for control of annual weeds between crops. Glyphosate interferes with

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2046-729: Is 5,000 mg/kg for rats, 10,000 mg/kg in mice and 3,530 mg/kg in goats. The acute dermal LD 50 in rabbits is greater than 2,000 mg/kg. Indications of glyphosate toxicity in animals typically appear within 30 to 120 minutes following ingestion of a large enough dose, and include initial excitability and tachycardia , ataxia , depression, and bradycardia , although severe toxicity can develop into collapse and convulsions. A review of unpublished short-term rabbit-feeding studies reported severe toxicity effects at 150 mg/kg/day and " no observed adverse effect level " doses ranging from 50 to 200 mg/kg/day. Glyphosate can have carcinogenic effects in nonhuman mammals. These include

2139-522: Is a minor route of exposure, but spray mist may cause oral or nasal discomfort, an unpleasant taste in the mouth, or tingling and irritation in the throat. Eye exposure may lead to mild conjunctivitis. Superficial corneal injury is possible if irrigation is delayed or inadequate. The consensus among national pesticide regulatory agencies and scientific organizations is that labeled uses of glyphosate have demonstrated no evidence of human carcinogenicity. The Joint FAO/WHO Meeting on Pesticide Residues (JMPR),

2232-471: Is a one in a 100-year discovery that is as important for reliable global food production as penicillin is for battling disease." As of April 2017, the Canadian government stated that glyphosate was "the most widely used herbicide in Canada", at which date the product labels were revised to ensure a limit of 20% POEA by weight. Health Canada 's Pest Management Regulatory Agency found no risk to humans or

2325-476: Is absorbed through foliage and minimally through roots, meaning that it is only effective on actively growing plants and cannot prevent seeds from germinating. After application, glyphosate is readily transported around the plant to growing roots and leaves and this systemic activity is important for its effectiveness. Inhibiting the enzyme causes shikimate to accumulate in plant tissues and diverts energy and resources away from other processes, eventually killing

2418-426: Is important in northern regions where the growing season is short, and it enhances grain storage when the grain has a lower and more uniform moisture content. Some micro-organisms have a version of 5-enolpyruvoyl-shikimate-3-phosphate synthetase (EPSPS) resistant to glyphosate inhibition. A version of the enzyme that was both resistant to glyphosate and that was still efficient enough to drive adequate plant growth

2511-503: Is not broken down readily by water or sunlight. The half-life of glyphosate in soil ranges between 2 and 197 days; a typical field half-life of 47 days has been suggested. Soil and climate conditions affect glyphosate's persistence in soil. The median half-life of glyphosate in water varies from a few to 91 days. At a site in Texas, half-life was as little as three days. A site in Iowa had

2604-664: Is sprayed along the sidewalks and streets, as well as crevices in between pavement where weeds often grow. However, up to 24% of glyphosate applied to hard surfaces can be run off by water. Glyphosate contamination of surface water is attributed to urban and agricultural use. Glyphosate is used to clear railroad tracks and get rid of unwanted aquatic vegetation. Since 1994, glyphosate has been used in aerial spraying in Colombia in coca eradication programs; Colombia announced in May 2015 that by October, it would cease using glyphosate in these programs due to concerns about human toxicity of

2697-800: The European Commission , the Canadian Pest Management Regulatory Agency , the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority and the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment have concluded that there is no evidence that glyphosate poses a carcinogenic or genotoxic risk to humans. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has classified glyphosate as "not likely to be carcinogenic to humans." One international scientific organization,

2790-476: The Houston Astrodome stadium in  1966 . Donald L. Elbert patented two methods to improve the product in 1971. Early iterations of the short-pile turf swept many major stadiums, but the product did need improvement. Concerns over directionality and traction led Monsanto's R&D department to implement a texturized nylon system. By imparting a crimped texture to the nylon after it was extruded,

2883-562: The International Agency for Research on Cancer , classified glyphosate in Group 2A , "probably carcinogenic to humans" in 2015. As of 2020 , the evidence for long-term exposure to glyphosate increasing the risk of human cancer remains inconclusive. There is weak evidence human cancer risk might increase as a result of occupational exposure to large amounts of glyphosate, such as in agricultural work, but no good evidence of such

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2976-477: The Mannich reaction of the first two reagents). Decarboxylation of the hydrophosphonylation product gives the desired glyphosate product. Iminodiacetic acid is usually prepared on-site by various methods depending on reagent availability. [REDACTED] The second uses glycine in place of iminodiacetic acid. This avoids the need for decarboxylation but requires more careful control of stoichiometry , as

3069-828: The United States Geological Survey (USGS) researchers, although other similar research found equal frequencies of detection in urban-dominated small streams. Rain events can trigger dissolved glyphosate loss in transport-prone soils. The mechanism of glyphosate sorption to soil is similar to that of phosphate fertilizers, the presence of which can reduce glyphosate sorption. Phosphate fertilizers are subject to release from sediments into water bodies under anaerobic conditions, and similar release can also occur with glyphosate, though significant impact of glyphosate release from sediments has not been established. Limited leaching can occur after high rainfall after application. If glyphosate reaches surface water, it

3162-623: The World Health Organization 's International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified glyphosate as "probably carcinogenic in humans" ( category 2A ) based on epidemiological studies, animal studies, and in vitro studies. In contrast, the European Food Safety Authority concluded in November 2015 that "the substance is unlikely to be genotoxic (i.e. damaging to DNA ) or to pose

3255-761: The acceptable daily intake of glyphosate at 1.75 milligrams per kilogram of body weight per day (mg/kg/bw/day) while the European Union has set it at 0.5. Pesticide residue controls carried out by EU Member States in 2016 analysed 6,761 samples of food products for glyphosate residues. 3.6% of the samples contained quantifiable glyphosate residue levels with 19 samples (0.28%) exceeding the European maximum residue levels (MRLs), which included six samples of honey and other apicultural products (MRL = 0.05 mg/kg) and eleven samples of buckwheat and other pseudo‐cereals (MRL = 0.1 mg/kg). Glyphosate residues below

3348-439: The biotechnology industry business model to agriculture, using techniques developed by biotech drug companies. In this business model, companies recoup R&D expenses by exploiting biological patents . Monsanto's roles in agricultural changes, biotechnology products, lobbying of government agencies, and roots as a chemical company have resulted in controversies. The company once manufactured controversial products such as

3441-462: The counterion . The active ingredient of the Monsanto herbicides is the isopropylamine salt of glyphosate. Another important ingredient in some formulations is the surfactant polyethoxylated tallow amine (POEA) . Some brands include more than one salt. Some companies report their product as acid equivalent (ae) of glyphosate acid, or some report it as active ingredient (ai) of glyphosate plus

3534-557: The insecticide DDT , PCBs , Agent Orange , and recombinant bovine growth hormone . In September 2016, German chemical company Bayer announced its intent to acquire Monsanto for US$ 66 billion in an all-cash deal. After gaining U.S. and EU regulatory approval, the sale was completed on June 7, 2018. The name Monsanto was no longer used, but Monsanto's previous product brand names were maintained. In June 2020, Bayer agreed to pay numerous settlements in lawsuits involving ex-Monsanto products Roundup , PCBs and Dicamba . Owing to

3627-565: The maize seed business when it purchased 40% of Dekalb in 1996; it purchased the remainder of the corporation in 1998. In 1997, the company first published an annual report citing Monsanto's Law, a biotechnological take on Moore's Law , indicating its future directions and exponential growth in the use of biotechnology. In the same year, Californian GMO company Calgene was acquired. In 1998, Monsanto purchased Cargill 's international seed business, which gave it access to sales and distribution facilities in 51 countries. In 2005, it finalized

3720-493: The primary amine can react with any excess formaldehyde to form bishydroxymethylglycine, which must be hydrolysed during the work-up to give the desired product. [REDACTED] This synthetic approach is responsible for a substantial portion of the production of glyphosate in China, with considerable work having gone into recycling the triethylamine and methanol solvents. Progress has also been made in attempting to eliminate

3813-465: The shikimate pathway , which produces the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine , tyrosine and tryptophan in plants and microorganisms – but does not exist in the genome of animals, including humans. It blocks this pathway by inhibiting the enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS), which catalyzes the reaction of shikimate -3-phosphate (S3P) and phosphoenolpyruvate to form 5-enolpyruvyl-shikimate-3-phosphate (EPSP). Glyphosate

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3906-611: The "first industrial process to chirally synthesize an important compound"— L‑dopa , which is used to treat Parkinson's disease . In 2001, Knowles and Ryōji Noyori won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry . In the mid-1960s, chemists at Monsanto developed the Monsanto process for making acetic acid , which until 2000 was the most widely used production method. In 1964, Monsanto chemists invented AstroTurf (initially ChemGrass). In

3999-629: The "new" Pharmacia; Monsanto's medical research division, which included products such as Celebrex. PL Laboratories LKB-produkter AB (Acq 1968) Kabi Vitrum (Acq 1990) Farmitalia (Acq 1993) Upjohn (Merged 1995) Monsanto (Est 1901) Swann Chemical Company (Acq 1935) Thomas & Hochwalt Laboratories (Acq 1936) American Viscose (Acq 1949) G. D. Searle & Company (Acq 1985) Agracetus (Acq 1996) DeKalb Genetics Corporation (Acq 1998) Cargill (Seed div, Acq 1998) In 2000, Pharmacia spun off its agro-biotech subsidiary into

4092-454: The 1920s, Monsanto expanded into basic industrial chemicals such as sulfuric acid and PCBs . Queeny's son Edgar Monsanto Queeny took over the company in 1928. In 1926 the company founded and incorporated a town called Monsanto in Illinois (now known as Sauget ). It was formed to provide minimal regulation and low taxes for Monsanto plants at a time when local jurisdictions had most of

4185-643: The 1960s and 1970s, Monsanto was a producer of Agent Orange for United States Armed Forces operations in Vietnam , and settled out of court in a lawsuit brought by veterans in 1984. In 1968, it became the first company to start mass production of (visible) light-emitting diodes (LEDs), using gallium arsenide phosphide . From 1968 to 1970, sales doubled every few months. Their products (discrete LEDs and seven-segment numeric displays) became industry standards. The primary markets then were electronic calculators , digital watches and digital clocks. Monsanto became

4278-604: The European MRLs were most frequently found in dry lentils, linseeds, soya beans, dry peas, tea, buckwheat, barley, wheat and rye. In Canada, a survey of 7,955 samples of food found that 42.3% contained detectable quantities of glyphosate and only 0.6% contained a level higher than the Canadian MRL of 0.1 mg/kg for most foods and 4 mg/kg for beans and chickpeas. Of the products that exceeded MRLs, one third were organic products. Health Canada concluded based on

4371-693: The Manhattan Project at Los Alamos with Robert Oppenheimer , but Thomas was reluctant to leave Dayton and Monsanto. He joined the NDRC, and Monsanto's Central Research Department began to conduct related research. To that end, Monsanto operated the Dayton Project , and later Mound Laboratories , and assisted in the development of the first nuclear weapons . In 1946, Monsanto developed and marketed "All" laundry detergent, which it sold to Lever Brothers in 1957. In 1947, its styrene factory

4464-571: The Roundup brandname. While its initial patent expired in 1991, Monsanto retained exclusive rights in the United States until its patent on the isopropylamine salt expired in September 2000. In 2008, United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service (USDA ARS) scientist Stephen O. Duke and Stephen B. Powles – an Australian weed expert – described glyphosate as a "virtually ideal" herbicide. In 2010 Powles stated: "glyphosate

4557-407: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Celebrex became a blockbuster drug and was often mentioned as a key reason for Pfizer 's acquisition of Monsanto's pharmaceutical business in 2002. In 1994, Monsanto introduced a recombinant version of bovine somatotropin , brand-named Posilac. Monsanto later sold this business to Eli Lilly and Company . In 1996, Monsanto purchased Agracetus ,

4650-558: The United States were from strains that were genetically modified to be tolerant to multiple herbicides, including dicamba , glufosinate , and glyphosate. Glyphosate has four ionizable sites, with pKa values of 2.0, 2.6, 5.6 and 10.6. Therefore, it is a zwitterion in aqueous solutions and is expected to exist almost entirely in zwitterionic forms in the environment. Zwitterions generally adsorb more strongly to soils containing organic carbon and clay than their neutral counterparts. Glyphosate strongly sorbs onto soil minerals, and, with

4743-483: The analysis "that there was no long-term health risk to Canadian consumers from exposure to the levels of glyphosate". Glyphosate is the active ingredient in herbicide formulations containing it. However, in addition to glyphosate salts, commercial formulations of glyphosate contain additives (known as adjuvants) such as surfactants , which vary in nature and concentration. Surfactants such as polyethoxylated tallow amine (POEA) are added to glyphosate to enable it to wet

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4836-552: The bankruptcy proceedings, Textile Management Associates, Inc. (TMA) of Dalton, Georgia, acquired the AstroTurf brand and other assets. TMA began marketing the AstroTurf brand under the company AstroTurf, LLC. In 2006, General Sports Venue (GSV) became TMA's marketing partner for the AstroTurf brand for the American market. AstroTurf, LLC handled the marketing of AstroTurf in the rest of the world. In 2009, TMA acquired GSV to enter

4929-472: The binding site of the phosphoenolpyruvate, mimicking an intermediate state of the ternary enzyme–substrate complex. Glyphosate inhibits the EPSPS enzymes of different species of plants and microbes at different rates. Glyphosate is effective in killing a wide variety of plants, including grasses and broadleaf and woody plants . By volume, it is one of the most widely used herbicides. In 2007, glyphosate

5022-399: The biotechnology company that had generated the first transgenic cotton, soybeans, peanuts and other crops, and from which Monsanto had been licensing technology since 1991. In 1997, Monsanto divested Solutia , a company created to carry off the responsibility for Monsanto's PCB business and associated liabilities, along with some related organic chemical production. Monsanto first entered

5115-416: The cardiovascular systems of rats and rabbits. In many freshwater invertebrates, glyphosate has a 48-hour LC 50 ranging from 55 to 780 ppm. The 96-hour LC 50 is 281 ppm for grass shrimp ( Palaemonetas vulgaris ) and 934 ppm for fiddler crabs ( Uca pagilator ). These values make glyphosate "slightly toxic to practically non-toxic". The antimicrobial activity of glyphosate has been described in

5208-483: The chemical. Glyphosate is also used for crop desiccation to increase harvest yield and uniformity. Glyphosate itself is not a chemical desiccant ; rather crop desiccants are so named because application just before harvest kills the crop plants so that the food crop dries from normal environmental conditions ("dry-down") more quickly and evenly. Because glyphosate is systemic, excess residue levels can persist in plants due to incorrect application and this may render

5301-402: The crop unfit for sale. When applied appropriately, it can promote useful effects. In sugarcane, for example, glyphosate application increases sucrose concentration before harvest. In grain crops (wheat, barley, oats), uniformly dried crops do not have to be windrowed (swathed and dried) prior to harvest, but can easily be straight-cut and harvested. This saves the farmer time and money, which

5394-473: The environment at that 20% limit, and that all products registered in Canada at that time were at or below that limit. Glyphosate is an aminophosphonic analogue of the natural amino acid glycine and, like all amino acids, exists in different ionic states depending on pH . Both the phosphonic acid and carboxylic acid moieties can be ionised and the amine group can be protonated and the substance exists as

5487-506: The exception of colloid-facilitated transport , its soluble residues are expected to be poorly mobile in the free porewater of soils. The spatial extent of ground and surface water pollution is therefore considered to be relatively limited. Glyphosate is readily degraded by soil microbes to aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA, which like glyphosate strongly adsorbs to soil solids and is thus unlikely to leach to groundwater). Though both glyphosate and AMPA are commonly detected in water bodies,

5580-580: The firm with his own money and capital from a soft drink distributor. He used for the company name the maiden name of his wife, Olga Méndez Monsanto, who was a scioness of the Monsanto family . The company's first products were commodity food additives, such as the artificial sweetener saccharin , caffeine and vanillin . Monsanto expanded to Europe in 1919 in a partnership with Graesser's Chemical Works at Cefn Mawr , Wales. The venture produced vanillin, aspirin and its raw ingredient salicylic acid , and later rubber processing chemicals. In

5673-453: The first for which Harvard allowed its faculty to submit patent application . Monsanto scientists were among the first to genetically modify a plant cell, publishing their results in 1983. Five years later the company conducted the first field tests of genetically modified crops . Increasing involvement in agricultural biotechnology dates from the installment of Richard Mahoney as Monsanto's CEO in 1983. This involvement increased under

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5766-519: The induction of positive trends in the incidence of renal tubule carcinoma and haemangiosarcoma in male mice, and increased pancreatic islet-cell adenoma in male rats. In reproductive toxicity studies performed in rats and rabbits, no adverse maternal or offspring effects were seen at doses below 175–293 mg/kg/day. Large quantities of glyphosate-based herbicides may cause life-threatening arrhythmias in mammals. Evidence also shows that such herbicides cause direct electrophysiological changes in

5859-439: The leadership of Robert Shapiro , appointed CEO in 1995, leading ultimately to the disposition of product lines unrelated to agriculture. In 1985, Monsanto acquired G.D. Searle & Company , a life sciences company that focused on pharmaceuticals, agriculture and animal health. In 1993, its Searle division filed a patent application for Celebrex , which in 1998 became the first selective COX‑2 inhibitor to be approved by

5952-431: The leaves and penetrate the cuticle of the plants. The acute oral toxicity for mammals is low, but death has been reported after deliberate overdose of concentrated formulations. The surfactants in glyphosate formulations can increase the relative acute toxicity of the formulation. Glyphosate is less toxic than 94% of herbicides, and is also less toxic than household chemicals such as table salt or vinegar . In

6045-691: The longer term. In June 2007, Monsanto purchased Delta and Pine Land Company , a major cotton seed breeder, for $ 1.5 billion. As a condition for approval from the Department of Justice , Monsanto was obligated to divest its Stoneville cotton business, which it sold to Bayer , and to divest its NexGen cotton business, which it sold to Americot . Monsanto also exited the pig-breeding business by selling Monsanto Choice Genetics to Newsham Genetics LC in November, divesting itself of "any and all swine-related patents, patent applications, and all other intellectual property". In 2007, Monsanto and BASF announced

6138-444: The maker of glyphosate, Monsanto ), Dow AgroSciences , DuPont , Jiangsu Good Harvest-Weien Agrochemical Company, Nantong Jiangshan Agrochemical & Chemicals Co., Nufarm , SinoHarvest, Syngenta , and Zhejiang Xinan Chemical Industrial Group Company. Glyphosate is an acid molecule, so it is formulated as a salt for packaging and handling. Various salt formulations include isopropylamine, diammonium, monoammonium, or potassium as

6231-743: The marketplace as a direct seller. AstroTurf, LLC focused its efforts on research and development, which has promoted rapid growth. AstroTurf introduced new product features and installation methods, including AstroFlect (a heat-reduction technology) and field prefabrication (indoor, climate-controlled inlaying). AstroTurf also introduced a product called "RootZone" consisting of crimped fibers designed to encapsulate infill. In 2016, SportGroup Holding announced that it would purchase AstroTurf, along with its associated manufacturing facilities. The AstroTurf brand has operated since then in North America as AstroTurf Corporation. In August 2021, AstroTurf became

6324-527: The massive financial and reputational blows caused by ongoing litigation concerning Monsanto's herbicide Roundup, the Bayer-Monsanto merger is considered one of the worst corporate mergers in history. In 1901, Monsanto was founded in St. Louis, Missouri, as a chemical company . The founder was John Francis Queeny , who, at age 42, was a 30‑year veteran of the nascent pharmaceutical industry. He funded

6417-569: The microbiology literature since its discovery in 1970 and the description of glyphosate's mechanism of action in 1972. Efficacy was described for numerous bacteria and fungi. Glyphosate can control the growth of apicomplexan parasites, such as Toxoplasma gondii , Plasmodium falciparum (malaria), and Cryptosporidium parvum , and has been considered an antimicrobial agent in mammals. Inhibition can occur with some Rhizobium species important for soybean nitrogen fixation, especially under moisture stress. When glyphosate comes into contact with

6510-412: The necessary adjuvants, including surfactant ; some contain no adjuvant system, while other products contain only a limited amount of adjuvant (minimal or partial loading) and additional surfactants must be added to the spray tank before application. Products are supplied most commonly in formulations of 120, 240, 360, 480, and 680 g/L of active ingredient. The most common formulation in agriculture

6603-453: The need for triethylamine altogether. Technical grade glyphosate is a white powder which, according to FAO specification, should contain not less than 95% glyphosate. Formaldehyde , classified as a known human carcinogen, and N -nitrosoglyphosate , have been identified as toxicologically relevant impurities. The FAO specification limits the formaldehyde concentration to a maximum of 1.3 g/kg glyphosate. N -Nitrosoglyphosate, "belonging to

6696-547: The official supplier of artificial turf to the United Soccer League , who run soccer leagues at the second, third, and fourth tiers of the U.S. men's soccer pyramid and the second tier of the U.S. women's soccer pyramid. 1964 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1980 1984 1985 1987 1989 1993 1999 Monsanto The Monsanto Company ( / m ɒ n ˈ s æ n t oʊ / )

6789-594: The plant. While growth stops within hours of application, it takes several days for the leaves to begin turning yellow . Glyphosate may chelate Co which contributes to its mode of action. [REDACTED] Under normal circumstances, EPSP is dephosphorylated to chorismate , an essential precursor for the amino acids mentioned above. These amino acids are used in protein synthesis and to produce secondary metabolites such as folates , ubiquinones , and naphthoquinone . X-ray crystallographic studies of glyphosate and EPSPS show that glyphosate functions by occupying

6882-484: The product became highly uniform. In 1987, Monsanto consolidated its AstroTurf management, marketing, and technical activities in Dalton , Georgia , as AstroTurf Industries, Inc. In 1988, Balsam AG purchased all the capital stock of AstroTurf Industries, Inc. In 1994, Southwest Recreational Industries, Inc. (SRI) acquired the AstroTurf brand. In 1996, SRI was acquired by American Sports Products Group Inc. While AstroTurf

6975-406: The purchase of Seminis Inc , a leading global vegetable and fruit seed company, for $ 1.4 billion. This made it the world's largest conventional seed company. In 1999, Monsanto sold off NutraSweet Co. In December of the same year, Monsanto agreed to merge with Pharmacia & Upjohn , in a deal valuing the transaction at $ 27 billion. The agricultural division became a wholly owned subsidiary of

7068-667: The responsibility for environmental rules. It was renamed in honor of Leo Sauget, its first village president. In 1935, Monsanto bought the Swann Chemical Company in Anniston, Alabama , and thereby entered the business of producing PCBs . In 1936, Monsanto acquired Thomas & Hochwalt Laboratories in Dayton, Ohio , to acquire the expertise of Charles Allen Thomas and Carroll A. Hochwalt. The acquisition became Monsanto's Central Research Department. Thomas spent

7161-620: The rest of his career at Monsanto, serving as President (1951–1960) and Board Chair (1960–1965). He retired in 1970. In 1943, Thomas was called to a meeting in Washington, D.C., with Leslie Groves , commander of the Manhattan Project , and James Conant , president of Harvard University and chairman of the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC). They urged Thomas to become co-director of

7254-410: The salt, and others report both. To compare performance of different formulations, knowledge of how the products were formulated is needed. Given that different salts have different weights, the acid equivalent is a more accurate method of expressing and comparing concentrations. Adjuvant loading refers to the amount of adjuvant already added to the glyphosate product. Fully loaded products contain all

7347-622: The soil, it can be bound to soil particles , thereby slowing its degradation. Glyphosate and its degradation product, aminomethylphosphonic acid are considered to be much more benign toxicologically and environmentally than most of the herbicides replaced by glyphosate. A 2016 meta-analysis concluded that at typical application rates glyphosate had no effect on soil microbial biomass or respiration. A 2016 review noted that contrasting effects of glyphosate on earthworms have been found in different experiments with some species unaffected, but others losing weight or avoiding treated soil. Further research

7440-542: The total global consumption of glyphosate by volume was for agricultural crops, with forestry comprising another important market. Asia and the Pacific was the largest and fastest growing regional market. As of 2014, Chinese manufacturers collectively are the world's largest producers of glyphosate and its precursors and account for about 30% of global exports. Key manufacturers include Anhui Huaxing Chemical Industry Company, BASF , Bayer CropScience (which also acquired

7533-400: The use of glyphosate formulations does not necessarily constitute a health risk, and giving an acceptable daily intake limit of 1 milligram per kilogram of body weight per day for chronic toxicity. The consensus among national pesticide regulatory agencies and scientific organizations is that labeled uses of glyphosate have demonstrated no evidence of human carcinogenicity. In March 2015,

7626-551: Was an American agrochemical and agricultural biotechnology corporation founded in 1901 and headquartered in Creve Coeur, Missouri . Monsanto's best-known product is Roundup , a glyphosate -based herbicide , developed in the 1970s. Later, the company became a major producer of genetically engineered crops. In 2018, the company ranked 199th on the Fortune 500 of the largest United States corporations by revenue. Monsanto

7719-431: Was banned in the United States in 1972 due to its harmful environmental impacts. In 1977, Monsanto stopped producing PCBs; Congress banned PCB production two years later. In the mid‑1960s, William Standish Knowles and his team invented a way to selectively synthesize enantiomers via asymmetric hydrogenation . This was the first method for the catalytic production of pure chiral compounds. Knowles' team designed

7812-479: Was destroyed in the Texas City Disaster . In 1949, Monsanto acquired American Viscose Corporation from Courtaulds . In 1954, Monsanto partnered with German chemical giant Bayer to form Mobay and market polyurethanes in the United States. Monsanto began manufacturing DDT in 1944, along with some 15 other companies. This insecticide was used to kill malaria -transmitting mosquitoes, but it

7905-461: Was discovered by Monsanto chemist John E. Franz in 1970. Monsanto brought it to market for agricultural use in 1974 under the trade name Roundup . Monsanto's last commercially relevant United States patent expired in 2000. Farmers quickly adopted glyphosate for agricultural weed control, especially after Monsanto introduced glyphosate-resistant Roundup Ready crops , enabling farmers to kill weeds without killing their crops. In 2007, glyphosate

7998-617: Was first synthesized in 1950 by Swiss chemist Henry Martin, who worked for the Swiss company Cilag . The work was never published. Early studies found it to be a weak chemical chelating agent . Somewhat later, glyphosate was independently discovered in the United States at Monsanto in 1970. Monsanto chemists had synthesized about 100 derivatives of aminomethylphosphonic acid as potential water-softening agents. Two were found to have weak herbicidal activity, and John E. Franz ,

8091-561: Was identified by Monsanto scientists after much trial and error in an Agrobacterium strain called CP4, which was found surviving in a waste-fed column at a glyphosate production facility. This CP4 EPSPS gene was cloned and transfected into soybeans. In 1996, genetically modified soybeans were made commercially available. Current glyphosate-resistant crops include soy, maize (corn), canola , alfalfa , sugar beets , and cotton , with wheat still under development. In 2023, 91% of corn, 95% of soybeans, and 94% of cotton produced in

8184-415: Was one of four groups to introduce genes into plants in 1983, and was among the first to conduct field trials of genetically modified crops in 1987. It was one of the top-ten U.S. chemical companies until it divested most of its chemical businesses between 1997 and 2002, through a process of mergers and spin-offs that focused the company on biotechnology . Monsanto was one of the first companies to apply

8277-427: Was the industry leader throughout the late 20th century, other companies emerged in the early 2000s. FieldTurf , AstroTurf's chief competitor since the early 2000s, marketed a product of tall-pile polyethylene turf with infill, meant to mimic natural grass more than the older products. This third-generation turf, as it became known, changed the landscape of the marketplace. Although SRI successfully marketed AstroPlay,

8370-467: Was the most used herbicide in the United States agricultural sector, with 180 to 185 million pounds (82,000 to 84,000 tonnes) applied, the second-most used in home and garden with 5 to 8 million pounds (2,300 to 3,600 tonnes) and 13 to 15 million pounds (5,900 to 6,800 tonnes) in non-agricultural settings. It is commonly used for agriculture , horticulture , viticulture , and silviculture purposes, as well as garden maintenance (including home use). It has

8463-532: Was the most used herbicide in the United States' agricultural sector and the second-most used (after 2,4-D ) in home and garden, government and industry, and commercial applications. From the late 1970s to 2016, there was a 100-fold increase in the frequency and volume of application of glyphosate-based herbicides (GBHs) worldwide, with further increases expected in the future. Glyphosate is absorbed through foliage, and minimally through roots, and from there translocated to growing points. It inhibits EPSP synthase ,

8556-656: Was the only manufacturer of white phosphorus for military use in the US. Monsanto (Spun off from Pharmacia & Upjohn 2000) Glyphosate Glyphosate ( IUPAC name : N -(phosphonomethyl)glycine ) is a broad-spectrum systemic herbicide and crop desiccant . It is an organophosphorus compound, specifically a phosphonate , which acts by inhibiting the plant enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSP). Glyphosate-based herbicides are used to kill weeds , especially annual broadleaf weeds and grasses that compete with crops . Its herbicidal effectiveness

8649-544: Was the third-largest U.S. cotton seed company, with about 12% of the U.S. market. Monsanto's goal was to obtain "a strategic cotton germplasm and traits platform". Also in 2005, Monsanto purchased Seminis , the California-based world leader in vegetable seed production, for $ 1.4 billion. Seminis developed new vegetable varieties using advanced cross-pollination methods. Monsanto indicated that Seminis would continue with non-GM development, while not ruling out GM in

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