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101-486: Fraxinus ( / ˈ f r æ k s ɪ n ə s / ), commonly called ash , is a genus of plants in the olive and lilac family, Oleaceae , and comprises 45–65 species of usually medium-to-large trees , most of which are deciduous trees, although some subtropical species are evergreen trees. The genus is widespread throughout much of Europe, Asia, and North America. The leaves are opposite (rarely in whorls of three), and mostly pinnately compound , though simple in

202-464: A biological control for the management of EAB populations in the United States. The public is being cautioned to avoid transporting unfinished wood products, such as firewood, to slow the spread of this insect pest. Damage occurs when emerald ash borer larvae feed on the inner bark, phloem , inside branches and tree trunks. Feeding on the phloem prevents nutrients and water transportation. If

303-557: A species : see Botanical name and Specific name (zoology) . The rules for the scientific names of organisms are laid down in the nomenclature codes , which allow each species a single unique name that, for animals (including protists ), plants (also including algae and fungi ) and prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ), is Latin and binomial in form; this contrasts with common or vernacular names , which are non-standardized, can be non-unique, and typically also vary by country and language of usage. Except for viruses ,

404-462: A tonewood commonly used in the manufacture of electric guitars . It exhibits a pronounced bright tone with a scooped midrange. It is lightweight, easy to work and sand, accepts glue, stain , paint and finish very well and is inexpensive. All this has made it a favourite of large factories mass-producing instruments. The Fender musical instrument company has been continuously and uninterruptedly using Ash to make electric guitars since 1956. Swamp ash

505-563: A "poor cousin" to the other major open pore wood, oak, but it is useful in any furniture application. Ash veneers are extensively used in office furniture. Ash is not used much outdoors due to the heartwood having a low durability to ground contact, meaning it will typically perish within five years. The F. japonica species is favored as a material for making baseball bats by Japanese sporting-goods manufacturers. Its robust structure, good looks, and flexibility combine to make ash ideal for staircases. Ash stairs are extremely hard-wearing, which

606-603: A biological control agent in European fruit orchards. Several species of entomopathogenic nematode are important predators of insect and other invertebrate pests. Entomopathogenic nematodes form a stress–resistant stage known as the infective juvenile. These spread in the soil and infect suitable insect hosts. Upon entering the insect they move to the hemolymph where they recover from their stagnated state of development and release their bacterial symbionts . The bacterial symbionts reproduce and release toxins, which then kill

707-573: A biological control agent was made by Charles V. Riley in 1873, shipping to France the predatory mites Tyroglyphus phylloxera to help fight the grapevine phylloxera ( Daktulosphaira vitifoliae ) that was destroying grapevines in France. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) initiated research in classical biological control following the establishment of the Division of Entomology in 1881, with C. V. Riley as Chief. The first importation of

808-690: A considerable litter problem with their seeds. Rowans or mountain ashes have leaves and buds superficially similar to those of true ashes, but belong to the unrelated genus Sorbus in the rose family . The tree's common English name, "ash", traces back to the Old English æsc , which relates to the Proto-Indo-European for the tree, while the generic name originated in Latin from a Proto-Indo-European word for birch. Both words are also used to mean " spear " in their respective languages, as

909-496: A few species. The seeds, popularly known as "keys" or "helicopter seeds", are a type of fruit known as a samara . Some Fraxinus species are dioecious , having male and female flowers on separate plants but sex in ash is expressed as a continuum between male and female individuals, dominated by unisexual trees. With age, ash may change their sexual function from predominantly male and hermaphrodite towards femaleness ; if grown as an ornamental and both sexes are present, ashes can cause

1010-516: A good food source for the frogs, but also reduces its resistance to the ash borer . Species with higher leaf tannin levels (including maples and non-native ash species) are taking the place of native ash, thanks to their greater resistance to the ash borer. They produce much less suitable food for the tadpoles, resulting in poor survival rates and small frog sizes. Ash species native to North America also provide important habitat and food for various other creatures native to North America. This includes

1111-651: A later homonym of a validly published name is a nomen illegitimum or nom. illeg. ; for a full list refer to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants and the work cited above by Hawksworth, 2010. In place of the "valid taxon" in zoology, the nearest equivalent in botany is " correct name " or "current name" which can, again, differ or change with alternative taxonomic treatments or new information that results in previously accepted genera being combined or split. Prokaryote and virus codes of nomenclature also exist which serve as

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1212-628: A long time and redescribed as new by a range of subsequent workers, or if a range of genera previously considered separate taxa have subsequently been consolidated into one. For example, the World Register of Marine Species presently lists 8 genus-level synonyms for the sperm whale genus Physeter Linnaeus, 1758, and 13 for the bivalve genus Pecten O.F. Müller, 1776. Within the same kingdom, one generic name can apply to one genus only. However, many names have been assigned (usually unintentionally) to two or more different genera. For example,

1313-463: A meta-analysis was done to find such an overall trend in previously published data, if it existed. In some cases floral resources are outright necessary. Overall, floral resources (and an imitation, i.e. sugar water) increase longevity and fecundity , meaning even predatory population numbers can depend on non-prey food abundance. Thus biocontrol population maintenance – and success – may depend on nearby flowers. Parasitoids lay their eggs on or in

1414-805: A natural enemy of a pest is introduced in the hope of achieving control; inductive (augmentation), in which a large population of natural enemies are administered for quick pest control; and inoculative (conservation), in which measures are taken to maintain natural enemies through regular reestablishment. Natural enemies of insects play an important part in limiting the densities of potential pests. Biological control agents such as these include predators , parasitoids , pathogens , and competitors . Biological control agents of plant diseases are most often referred to as antagonists. Biological control agents of weeds include seed predators, herbivores , and plant pathogens. Biological control can have side-effects on biodiversity through attacks on non-target species by any of

1515-732: A number of recent studies pursuing sustainable methods for controlling urban cockroaches using parasitic wasps. Since most cockroaches remain in the sewer system and sheltered areas which are inaccessible to insecticides, employing active-hunter wasps is a strategy to try and reduce their populations. Pathogenic micro-organisms include bacteria , fungi , and viruses . They kill or debilitate their host and are relatively host-specific. Various microbial insect diseases occur naturally, but may also be used as biological pesticides . When naturally occurring, these outbreaks are density-dependent in that they generally only occur as insect populations become denser. The use of pathogens against aquatic weeds

1616-405: A parasitoidal wasp into the United States was that of the braconid Cotesia glomerata in 1883–1884, imported from Europe to control the invasive cabbage white butterfly, Pieris rapae . In 1888–1889 the vedalia beetle, Novius cardinalis , a lady beetle, was introduced from Australia to California to control the cottony cushion scale, Icerya purchasi . This had become a major problem for

1717-409: A reference for designating currently accepted genus names as opposed to others which may be either reduced to synonymy, or, in the case of prokaryotes, relegated to a status of "names without standing in prokaryotic nomenclature". An available (zoological) or validly published (botanical) name that has been historically applied to a genus but is not regarded as the accepted (current/valid) name for

1818-487: A roll of cardboard inside. Birdhouses enable insectivorous birds to nest; the most useful birds can be attracted by choosing an opening just large enough for the desired species. In cotton production, the replacement of broad-spectrum insecticides with selective control measures such as Bt cotton can create a more favorable environment for natural enemies of cotton pests due to reduced insecticide exposure risk. Such predators or parasitoids can control pests not affected by

1919-427: A taxon; however, the names published in suppressed works are made unavailable via the relevant Opinion dealing with the work in question. In botany, similar concepts exist but with different labels. The botanical equivalent of zoology's "available name" is a validly published name . An invalidly published name is a nomen invalidum or nom. inval. ; a rejected name is a nomen rejiciendum or nom. rej. ;

2020-455: A total of c. 520,000 published names (including synonyms) as at end 2019, increasing at some 2,500 published generic names per year. "Official" registers of taxon names at all ranks, including genera, exist for a few groups only such as viruses and prokaryotes, while for others there are compendia with no "official" standing such as Index Fungorum for fungi, Index Nominum Algarum and AlgaeBase for algae, Index Nominum Genericorum and

2121-627: A trained chemist and first Director of the Dominion Experimental Farms, for controlling the invasive currantworm Nematus ribesii . Between 1884 and 1908, the first Dominion Entomologist, James Fletcher, continued introductions of other parasitoids and pathogens for the control of pests in Canada. There are three basic biological pest control strategies: importation (classical biological control), augmentation and conservation. Importation or classical biological control involves

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2222-602: A two-year period. Small, commercially-reared parasitoidal wasps , Trichogramma ostriniae , provide limited and erratic control of the European corn borer ( Ostrinia nubilalis ), a serious pest. Careful formulations of the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis are more effective. The O. nubilalis integrated control releasing Tricogramma brassicae (egg parasitoid) and later Bacillus thuringiensis subs. kurstaki (larvicide effect) reduce pest damages more than insecticide treatments The population of Levuana iridescens ,

2323-518: A wide range of insects including caterpillars, beetle adults and larvae, and true bugs . Parasitoids are most effective at reducing pest populations when their host organisms have limited refuges to hide from them. Parasitoids are among the most widely used biological control agents. Commercially, there are two types of rearing systems: short-term daily output with high production of parasitoids per day, and long-term, low daily output systems. In most instances, production will need to be matched with

2424-533: A wide spectrum of arthropods. Entomophaga is effective against pests such as the green peach aphid . Several members of Chytridiomycota and Blastocladiomycota have been explored as agents of biological control. From Chytridiomycota, Synchytrium solstitiale is being considered as a control agent of the yellow star thistle ( Centaurea solstitialis ) in the United States. Baculoviruses are specific to individual insect host species and have been shown to be useful in biological pest control. For example,

2525-516: A wood-boring beetle accidentally introduced to North America from eastern Asia via solid wood packing material in the late 1980s to early 1990s. It has killed tens of millions of trees in 22 states in the United States and adjacent Ontario and Quebec in Canada. It threatens some seven billion ash trees in North America. Research is being conducted to determine whether three native Asian wasps that are natural predators of EAB could be used as

2626-461: Is a small parasitoid wasp attacking whiteflies , sap-feeding insects which can cause wilting and black sooty moulds in glasshouse vegetable and ornamental crops. It is most effective when dealing with low level infestations, giving protection over a long period of time. The wasp lays its eggs in young whitefly 'scales', turning them black as the parasite larvae pupate. Gonatocerus ashmeadi ( Hymenoptera : Mymaridae ) has been introduced to control

2727-447: Is available to organic farmers in sachets of dried spores which are mixed with water and sprayed onto vulnerable plants such as brassicas and fruit trees . Genes from B. thuringiensis have also been incorporated into transgenic crops , making the plants express some of the bacterium's toxins, which are proteins . These confer resistance to insect pests and thus reduce the necessity for pesticide use. If pests develop resistance to

2828-612: Is discouraged by both the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants , there are some five thousand such names in use in more than one kingdom. For instance, A list of generic homonyms (with their authorities), including both available (validly published) and selected unavailable names, has been compiled by the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG). The type genus forms

2929-677: Is effective against white flies, thrips and aphids; Purpureocillium lilacinus is used against root-knot nematodes , and 89 Trichoderma species against certain plant pathogens. Trichoderma viride has been used against Dutch elm disease , and has shown some effect in suppressing silver leaf , a disease of stone fruits caused by the pathogenic fungus Chondrostereum purpureum . Pathogenic fungi may be controlled by other fungi, or bacteria or yeasts, such as: Gliocladium spp., mycoparasitic Pythium spp., binucleate types of Rhizoctonia spp., and Laetisaria spp. The fungi Cordyceps and Metacordyceps are deployed against

3030-542: Is frequently released inundatively to control harmful moths. New way for inundative releases are now introduced i.e. use of drones. Egg parasitoids are able to find the eggs of the target host by means of several cues. Kairomones were found on moth scales. Similarly, Bacillus thuringiensis and other microbial insecticides are used in large enough quantities for a rapid effect. Recommended release rates for Trichogramma in vegetable or field crops range from 5,000 to 200,000 per acre (1 to 50 per square metre) per week according to

3131-480: Is greatest if the agent has temporal persistence so that it can maintain its population even in the temporary absence of the target species, and if it is an opportunistic forager, enabling it to rapidly exploit a pest population. One of the earliest successes was in controlling Icerya purchasi (cottony cushion scale) in Australia, using a predatory insect Rodolia cardinalis (the vedalia beetle). This success

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3232-540: Is particularly important for treads. Due to its elasticity, ash can also be steamed and bent to produce curved stair parts such as volutes (curled sections of handrail) and intricately shaped balusters. However, a reduction in the supply of healthy trees, especially in Europe, is making ash an increasingly expensive option. Ash was commonly used for the structural members of the bodies of cars made by carriage builders. Early cars had frames which were intended to flex as part of

3333-460: Is somewhat arbitrary. Although all species within a genus are supposed to be "similar", there are no objective criteria for grouping species into genera. There is much debate among zoologists about whether enormous, species-rich genera should be maintained, as it is extremely difficult to come up with identification keys or even character sets that distinguish all species. Hence, many taxonomists argue in favor of breaking down large genera. For instance,

3434-474: Is the type species , and the generic name is permanently associated with the type specimen of its type species. Should the specimen turn out to be assignable to another genus, the generic name linked to it becomes a junior synonym and the remaining taxa in the former genus need to be reassessed. In zoological usage, taxonomic names, including those of genera, are classified as "available" or "unavailable". Available names are those published in accordance with

3535-523: Is used a lot in guitar building because of its figure. It is a choice of material for electric guitar bodies and, less commonly, for acoustic guitar bodies, known for its bright, cutting edge and sustaining quality. Some Fender Stratocasters and Telecasters are made of ash, (such as Bruce Springsteen 's Telecaster on the Born to Run album cover), as an alternative to alder. Ash is also used for making drum shells . Woodworkers generally consider ash

3636-637: Is widely planted as a street tree in the United States. The inner bark of the blue ash ( F. quadrangulata ) has been used as a source for blue dye . In Sicily, Italy, sugars are obtained by evaporating the sap of the manna ash , extracted by making small cuts in the bark. The manna ash, native to southern Europe and southwest Asia, produces a blue-green sap, which has medicinal value as a mild laxative, demulcent, and weak expectorant. The young seedpods of Ash trees, also known as "keys", are edible for human consumption. In Britain, they are traditionally pickled with vinegar, sugar and spices. In Greek mythology ,

3737-532: The Bt protein . Reduced prey quality and abundance associated with increased control from Bt cotton can also indirectly decrease natural enemy populations in some cases, but the percentage of pests eaten or parasitized in Bt and non-Bt cotton are often similar. Predators are mainly free-living species that directly consume a large number of prey during their whole lifetime. Given that many major crop pests are insects, many of

3838-621: The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ; the earliest such name for any taxon (for example, a genus) should then be selected as the " valid " (i.e., current or accepted) name for the taxon in question. Consequently, there will be more available names than valid names at any point in time; which names are currently in use depending on the judgement of taxonomists in either combining taxa described under multiple names, or splitting taxa which may bring available names previously treated as synonyms back into use. "Unavailable" names in zoology comprise names that either were not published according to

3939-824: The International Plant Names Index for plants in general, and ferns through angiosperms, respectively, and Nomenclator Zoologicus and the Index to Organism Names for zoological names. Totals for both "all names" and estimates for "accepted names" as held in the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG) are broken down further in the publication by Rees et al., 2020 cited above. The accepted names estimates are as follows, broken down by kingdom: The cited ranges of uncertainty arise because IRMNG lists "uncertain" names (not researched therein) in addition to known "accepted" names;

4040-463: The Lymantria dispar multicapsid nuclear polyhedrosis virus has been used to spray large areas of forest in North America where larvae of the spongy moth are causing serious defoliation. The moth larvae are killed by the virus they have eaten and die, the disintegrating cadavers leaving virus particles on the foliage to infect other larvae. A mammalian virus, the rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus

4141-561: The Meliae are nymphs associated with the ash, perhaps specifically of the manna ash ( Fraxinus ornus ), as dryads were nymphs associated with the oak . They appear in Hesiod 's Theogony, which states that they were born when drops of Ouranos's blood fell on the earth (Gaia). In Norse mythology , a vast, evergreen ash tree Yggdrasil ("the steed ( gallows ) of Odin "), watered by three magical springs, serves as axis mundi , sustaining

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4242-634: The fungus Hymenoscyphus fraxineus , causing ash dieback in a large number of trees since the mid-1990s, particularly in eastern and northern Europe. The disease has infected about 90% of Denmark's ash trees. At the end of October 2012 in the UK, the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) reported that ash dieback had been discovered in mature woodland in Suffolk ; previous occurrences had been on young trees imported from Europe. In 2016,

4343-596: The glassy-winged sharpshooter Homalodisca vitripennis (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae ) in French Polynesia and has successfully controlled ~95% of the pest density. The eastern spruce budworm is an example of a destructive insect in fir and spruce forests. Birds are a natural form of biological control, but the Trichogramma minutum , a species of parasitic wasp, has been investigated as an alternative to more controversial chemical controls. There are

4444-404: The platypus belongs to the genus Ornithorhynchus although George Shaw named it Platypus in 1799 (these two names are thus synonyms ) . However, the name Platypus had already been given to a group of ambrosia beetles by Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Herbst in 1793. A name that means two different things is a homonym . Since beetles and platypuses are both members of the kingdom Animalia,

4545-463: The Colombian cities of Bello , Medellín , and Itagüí . The project was executed by non-profit World Mosquito Program (WMP). Wolbachia prevents mosquitos from transmitting viruses such as dengue and zika . The insects pass the bacteria on to their offspring. The project covered a combined area of 135 square kilometres (52 sq mi), home to 3.3 million people. Most of the project area reached

4646-473: The French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656–1708) is considered "the founder of the modern concept of genera". The scientific name (or the scientific epithet) of a genus is also called the generic name ; in modern style guides and science, it is always capitalised. It plays a fundamental role in binomial nomenclature , the system of naming organisms , where it is combined with the scientific name of

4747-509: The Levuana moth, a serious coconut pest in Fiji , was brought under control by a classical biological control program in the 1920s. Augmentation involves the supplemental release of natural enemies that occur in a particular area, boosting the naturally occurring populations there. In inoculative release, small numbers of the control agents are released at intervals to allow them to reproduce, in

4848-677: The above mechanisms, especially when a species is introduced without a thorough understanding of the possible consequences. The term "biological control" was first used by Harry Scott Smith at the 1919 meeting of the Pacific Slope Branch of the American Association of Economic Entomologists, in Riverside, California . It was brought into more widespread use by the entomologist Paul H. DeBach (1914–1993) who worked on citrus crop pests throughout his life. However,

4949-462: The amount of land covered by the plant. Another aquatic weed, the giant salvinia ( Salvinia molesta ) is a serious pest, covering waterways, reducing water flow and harming native species. Control with the salvinia weevil ( Cyrtobagous salviniae ) and the salvinia stem-borer moth ( Samea multiplicalis ) is effective in warm climates, and in Zimbabwe, a 99% control of the weed was obtained over

5050-562: The appropriate release dates when susceptible host species at a suitable phase of development will be available. Larger production facilities produce on a yearlong basis, whereas some facilities produce only seasonally. Rearing facilities are usually a significant distance from where the agents are to be used in the field, and transporting the parasitoids from the point of production to the point of use can pose problems. Shipping conditions can be too hot, and even vibrations from planes or trucks can adversely affect parasitoids. Encarsia formosa

5151-485: The ash is attacked, the branches can die and eventually the whole tree can as well. Ways to detect emerald ash borer infestation include seeing bark peeling off, vertical cracks in the bark, seeing galleries within the tree that contain powdery substance, and D-shaped exit holes on the branches or trunk. Not all of these may be present, but any of these warning signs could be an indication of possible infestation. The European ash, Fraxinus excelsior , has been affected by

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5252-399: The ash tree was reported as in danger of extinction in Europe. Ash is a hardwood and is dense (within 20% of 670 kg/m for Fraxinus americana , and higher at 710 kg/m for Fraxinus excelsior ), tough and very strong but elastic , extensively used for making bows , tool handles, baseball bats , hurleys , and other uses demanding high strength and resilience . Ash is

5353-671: The autumn allow insects to make use of their hollow stems during winter. In California, prune trees are sometimes planted in grape vineyards to provide an improved overwintering habitat or refuge for a key grape pest parasitoid. The providing of artificial shelters in the form of wooden caskets, boxes or flowerpots is also sometimes undertaken, particularly in gardens, to make a cropped area more attractive to natural enemies. For example, earwigs are natural predators that can be encouraged in gardens by hanging upside-down flowerpots filled with straw or wood wool . Green lacewings can be encouraged by using plastic bottles with an open bottom and

5454-442: The base for higher taxonomic ranks, such as the family name Canidae ("Canids") based on Canis . However, this does not typically ascend more than one or two levels: the order to which dogs and wolves belong is Carnivora ("Carnivores"). The numbers of either accepted, or all published genus names is not known precisely; Rees et al., 2020 estimate that approximately 310,000 accepted names (valid taxa) may exist, out of

5555-509: The body of an insect host, which is then used as a food for developing larvae. The host is ultimately killed. Most insect parasitoids are wasps or flies , and many have a very narrow host range. The most important groups are the ichneumonid wasps , which mainly use caterpillars as hosts; braconid wasps , which attack caterpillars and a wide range of other insects including aphids; chalcidoid wasps , which parasitize eggs and larvae of many insect species; and tachinid flies , which parasitize

5656-750: The book Guangdong Xing Yu (17th century), Lingnan by Wu Zhen Fang (Qing dynasty), in Nanyue Miscellanies by Li Diao Yuan, and others. Biological control techniques as we know them today started to emerge in the 1870s. During this decade, in the US, the Missouri State Entomologist C. V. Riley and the Illinois State Entomologist W. LeBaron began within-state redistribution of parasitoids to control crop pests. The first international shipment of an insect as

5757-482: The borders of rice fields. These provide nectar to support parasitoids and predators of planthopper pests and have been demonstrated to be so effective (reducing pest densities by 10- or even 100-fold) that farmers sprayed 70% less insecticides and enjoyed yields boosted by 5%. Predators of aphids were similarly found to be present in tussock grasses by field boundary hedges in England, but they spread too slowly to reach

5858-403: The brown-tail moth, Euproctis chrysorrhoea , invasive pests of trees and shrubs. As a result, nine parasitoids (solitary wasps) of the spongy moth, seven of the brown-tail moth, and two predators of both moths became established in the US. Although the spongy moth was not fully controlled by these natural enemies, the frequency, duration, and severity of its outbreaks were reduced and the program

5959-453: The centers of fields. Control was improved by planting a meter-wide strip of tussock grasses in field centers, enabling aphid predators to overwinter there. Cropping systems can be modified to favor natural enemies, a practice sometimes referred to as habitat manipulation. Providing a suitable habitat, such as a shelterbelt , hedgerow , or beetle bank where beneficial insects such as parasitoidal wasps can live and reproduce, can help ensure

6060-595: The decades since, the same biocontrol methods that are routine on land have become common in the water. Bacteria used for biological control infect insects via their digestive tracts, so they offer only limited options for controlling insects with sucking mouth parts such as aphids and scale insects. Bacillus thuringiensis , a soil-dwelling bacterium, is the most widely applied species of bacteria used for biological control, with at least four sub-species used against Lepidopteran ( moth , butterfly ), Coleopteran (beetle) and Dipteran (true fly) insect pests. The bacterium

6161-431: The effectiveness of barn owls for this purpose, they are known rodent predators that can be used in addition to or instead of cats; they can be encouraged into an area with nest boxes. In Honduras, where the mosquito Aedes aegypti was transmitting dengue fever and other infectious diseases, biological control was attempted by a community action plan; copepods , baby turtles , and juvenile tilapia were added to

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6262-446: The form "author, year" in zoology, and "standard abbreviated author name" in botany. Thus in the examples above, the genus Canis would be cited in full as " Canis Linnaeus, 1758" (zoological usage), while Hibiscus , also first established by Linnaeus but in 1753, is simply " Hibiscus L." (botanical usage). Each genus should have a designated type , although in practice there is a backlog of older names without one. In zoology, this

6363-737: The generic name (or its abbreviated form) still forms the leading portion of the scientific name, for example, Canis lupus lupus for the Eurasian wolf subspecies, or as a botanical example, Hibiscus arnottianus ssp. immaculatus . Also, as visible in the above examples, the Latinised portions of the scientific names of genera and their included species (and infraspecies, where applicable) are, by convention, written in italics . The scientific names of virus species are descriptive, not binomial in form, and may or may not incorporate an indication of their containing genus; for example,

6464-400: The hope of setting up longer-term control and thus keeping the pest down to a low level, constituting prevention rather than cure. In inundative release, in contrast, large numbers are released in the hope of rapidly reducing a damaging pest population, correcting a problem that has already arisen. Augmentation can be effective, but is not guaranteed to work, and depends on the precise details of

6565-403: The host insect. Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita is a microscopic nematode that kills slugs. Its complex life cycle includes a free-living, infective stage in the soil where it becomes associated with a pathogenic bacteria such as Moraxella osloensis . The nematode enters the slug through the posterior mantle region, thereafter feeding and reproducing inside, but it is the bacteria that kill

6666-432: The idea that a newly defined genus should fulfill these three criteria to be descriptively useful: Moreover, genera should be composed of phylogenetic units of the same kind as other (analogous) genera. The term "genus" comes from Latin genus , a noun form cognate with gignere ('to bear; to give birth to'). The Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum , but

6767-414: The interactions between each pest and control agent. An example of inoculative release occurs in the horticultural production of several crops in greenhouses . Periodic releases of the parasitoidal wasp, Encarsia formosa , are used to control greenhouse whitefly , while the predatory mite Phytoseiulus persimilis is used for control of the two-spotted spider mite. The egg parasite Trichogramma

6868-409: The introduction of a pest's natural enemies to a new locale where they do not occur naturally. Early instances were often unofficial and not based on research, and some introduced species became serious pests themselves. To be most effective at controlling a pest, a biological control agent requires a colonizing ability which allows it to keep pace with changes to the habitat in space and time. Control

6969-633: The largest component, with 23,236 ± 5,379 accepted genus names, of which 20,845 ± 4,494 are angiosperms (superclass Angiospermae). By comparison, the 2018 annual edition of the Catalogue of Life (estimated >90% complete, for extant species in the main) contains currently 175,363 "accepted" genus names for 1,744,204 living and 59,284 extinct species, also including genus names only (no species) for some groups. The number of species in genera varies considerably among taxonomic groups. For instance, among (non-avian) reptiles , which have about 1180 genera,

7070-417: The larvae of multiple long-horn beetles , as well as other insects including those in the genus Tropidosteptes , lace bugs , aphids , larvae of gall flies , and caterpillars. Birds are also interested in black, green, and white ash trees. The black ash alone supports wood ducks , wild turkey , cardinals , pine grosbeaks , cedar waxwings , and yellow-bellied sapsuckers , with habitat and food (such as

7171-511: The level of pest infestation. Similarly, nematodes that kill insects (that are entomopathogenic) are released at rates of millions and even billions per acre for control of certain soil-dwelling insect pests. The conservation of existing natural enemies in an environment is the third method of biological pest control. Natural enemies are already adapted to the habitat and to the target pest, and their conservation can be simple and cost-effective, as when nectar-producing crop plants are grown in

7272-727: The lizard genus Anolis has been suggested to be broken down into 8 or so different genera which would bring its ~400 species to smaller, more manageable subsets. Biological pest control Biological control or biocontrol is a method of controlling pests , whether pest animals such as insects and mites , weeds , or pathogens affecting animals or plants by using other organisms . It relies on predation , parasitism , herbivory , or other natural mechanisms, but typically also involves an active human management role. It can be an important component of integrated pest management (IPM) programs. There are three basic strategies for biological control: classical (importation), where

7373-403: The most (>300) have only 1 species, ~360 have between 2 and 4 species, 260 have 5–10 species, ~200 have 11–50 species, and only 27 genera have more than 50 species. However, some insect genera such as the bee genera Lasioglossum and Andrena have over 1000 species each. The largest flowering plant genus, Astragalus , contains over 3,000 species. Which species are assigned to a genus

7474-563: The moth strictly consumes its host plant, poison hemlock, and can exist at hundreds of larvae per individual host plant, destroying large swathes of the hemlock. For rodent pests , cats are effective biological control when used in conjunction with reduction of "harborage"/hiding locations. While cats are effective at preventing rodent "population explosions" , they are not effective for eliminating pre-existing severe infestations. Barn owls are also sometimes used as biological rodent control. Although there are no quantitative studies of

7575-428: The name could not be used for both. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach published the replacement name Ornithorhynchus in 1800. However, a genus in one kingdom is allowed to bear a scientific name that is in use as a generic name (or the name of a taxon in another rank) in a kingdom that is governed by a different nomenclature code. Names with the same form but applying to different taxa are called "homonyms". Although this

7676-530: The newly developed citrus industry in California, but by the end of 1889, the cottony cushion scale population had already declined. This great success led to further introductions of beneficial insects into the US. In 1905 the USDA initiated its first large-scale biological control program, sending entomologists to Europe and Japan to look for natural enemies of the spongy moth, Lymantria dispar dispar , and

7777-525: The nine worlds of the cosmos in its roots and branches. Askr , the first man in Norse myth, literally means 'ash'. In Italian folklore , an ash stake could be used to kill a vampire . Genus The composition of a genus is determined by taxonomists . The standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. There are some general practices used, however, including

7878-559: The population of weevils in the alfalfa area treated for alfalfa weevil in the Northeastern United States remained 75 percent down. Alligator weed was introduced to the United States from South America . It takes root in shallow water, interfering with navigation , irrigation , and flood control . The alligator weed flea beetle and two other biological controls were released in Florida , greatly reducing

7979-494: The practice has previously been used for centuries. The first report of the use of an insect species to control an insect pest comes from " Nanfang Caomu Zhuang " (南方草木狀 Plants of the Southern Regions ) ( c.  304 AD ), attributed to Western Jin dynasty botanist Ji Han (嵇含, 263–307), in which it is mentioned that " Jiaozhi people sell ants and their nests attached to twigs looking like thin cotton envelopes,

8080-773: The predators used in biological control are insectivorous species. Lady beetles , and in particular their larvae which are active between May and July in the northern hemisphere, are voracious predators of aphids , and also consume mites , scale insects and small caterpillars . The spotted lady beetle ( Coleomegilla maculata ) is also able to feed on the eggs and larvae of the Colorado potato beetle ( Leptinotarsa decemlineata ). The larvae of many hoverfly species principally feed upon aphids , one larva devouring up to 400 in its lifetime. Their effectiveness in commercial crops has not been studied. The running crab spider Philodromus cespitum also prey heavily on aphids, and act as

8181-526: The predatory midge Feltiella acarisuga , and a ladybird Stethorus punctillum . The bug Orius insidiosus has been successfully used against the two-spotted spider mite and the western flower thrips ( Frankliniella occidentalis ). Predators including Cactoblastis cactorum (mentioned above) can also be used to destroy invasive plant species. As another example, the poison hemlock moth ( Agonopterix alstroemeriana) can be used to control poison hemlock ( Conium maculatum ). During its larval stage,

8282-541: The provisions of the ICZN Code, e.g., incorrect original or subsequent spellings, names published only in a thesis, and generic names published after 1930 with no type species indicated. According to "Glossary" section of the zoological Code, suppressed names (per published "Opinions" of the International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature) remain available but cannot be used as the valid name for

8383-568: The reddish-yellow ant being larger than normal. Without such ants, southern citrus fruits will be severely insect-damaged ". The ants used are known as huang gan ( huang = yellow, gan = citrus) ants ( Oecophylla smaragdina ). The practice was later reported by Ling Biao Lu Yi (late Tang dynasty or Early Five Dynasties ), in Ji Le Pian by Zhuang Jisu ( Southern Song dynasty ), in the Book of Tree Planting by Yu Zhen Mu ( Ming dynasty ), in

8484-400: The sap being of interest to the sapsucker) among others. Many mammalian species from meadow voles eating the seeds to white-tailed deer eating the foliage to silver-haired bats nesting will also make use of ash trees. Ash is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species ( butterflies and moths ). The emerald ash borer ( Agrilus planipennis ), also called EAB, is

8585-469: The slug. The nematode is available commercially in Europe and is applied by watering onto moist soil. Entomopathogenic nematodes have a limited shelf life because of their limited resistance to high temperature and dry conditions. The type of soil they are applied to may also limit their effectiveness. Species used to control spider mites include the predatory mites Phytoseiulus persimilis , Neoseilus californicus , and Amblyseius cucumeris ,

8686-497: The specific name particular to the wolf. A botanical example would be Hibiscus arnottianus , a particular species of the genus Hibiscus native to Hawaii. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by subspecies names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany . When the generic name is already known from context, it may be shortened to its initial letter, for example, C. lupus in place of Canis lupus . Where species are further subdivided,

8787-696: The spread of the plant, the cactus moth Cactoblastis cactorum , and the scale insect Dactylopius . Between 1926 and 1931, tens of millions of cactus moth eggs were distributed around Queensland with great success, and by 1932, most areas of prickly pear had been destroyed. The first reported case of a classical biological control attempt in Canada involves the parasitoidal wasp Trichogramma minutum . Individuals were caught in New York State and released in Ontario gardens in 1882 by William Saunders,

8888-412: The standard format for a species name comprises the generic name, indicating the genus to which the species belongs, followed by the specific epithet, which (within that genus) is unique to the species. For example, the gray wolf 's scientific name is Canis lupus , with Canis ( Latin for 'dog') being the generic name shared by the wolf's close relatives and lupus (Latin for 'wolf') being

8989-466: The survival of populations of natural enemies. Things as simple as leaving a layer of fallen leaves or mulch in place provides a suitable food source for worms and provides a shelter for insects, in turn being a food source for such beneficial mammals as hedgehogs and shrews . Compost piles and stacks of wood can provide shelter for invertebrates and small mammals. Long grass and ponds support amphibians. Not removing dead annuals and non-hardy plants in

9090-556: The suspension system to simplify construction. The Morgan Motor Company of Great Britain still manufactures sports cars with frames made from ash. It was also widely used by early aviation pioneers for aircraft construction. It lights and burns easily, so is used for starting fires and barbecues , and is usable for maintaining a fire, though it produces only a moderate heat. The two most economically important species for wood production are white ash, in eastern North America, and European ash in Europe. The green ash ( F. pennsylvanica )

9191-579: The target of infecting 60% of local mosquitoes. The technique is not endorsed by WHO. Entomopathogenic fungi , which cause disease in insects, include at least 14 species that attack aphids . Beauveria bassiana is mass-produced and used to manage a wide variety of insect pests including whiteflies , thrips , aphids and weevils . Lecanicillium spp. are deployed against white flies, thrips and aphids. Metarhizium spp. are used against pests including beetles, locusts and other grasshoppers, Hemiptera , and spider mites . Paecilomyces fumosoroseus

9292-403: The taxon is termed a synonym ; some authors also include unavailable names in lists of synonyms as well as available names, such as misspellings, names previously published without fulfilling all of the requirements of the relevant nomenclatural code, and rejected or suppressed names. A particular genus name may have zero to many synonyms, the latter case generally if the genus has been known for

9393-578: The toxins in these crops, B. thuringiensis will become useless in organic farming also. The bacterium Paenibacillus popilliae which causes milky spore disease has been found useful in the control of Japanese beetle , killing the larvae. It is very specific to its host species and is harmless to vertebrates and other invertebrates. Bacillus spp., fluorescent Pseudomonads , and Streptomycetes are controls of various fungal pathogens. The largest-ever deployment of Wolbachia -infected A. aegypti mosquitoes reduced dengue incidence by 94–97% in

9494-576: The values quoted are the mean of "accepted" names alone (all "uncertain" names treated as unaccepted) and "accepted + uncertain" names (all "uncertain" names treated as accepted), with the associated range of uncertainty indicating these two extremes. Within Animalia, the largest phylum is Arthropoda , with 151,697 ± 33,160 accepted genus names, of which 114,387 ± 27,654 are insects (class Insecta). Within Plantae, Tracheophyta (vascular plants) make up

9595-429: The virus species " Salmonid herpesvirus 1 ", " Salmonid herpesvirus 2 " and " Salmonid herpesvirus 3 " are all within the genus Salmonivirus ; however, the genus to which the species with the formal names " Everglades virus " and " Ross River virus " are assigned is Alphavirus . As with scientific names at other ranks, in all groups other than viruses, names of genera may be cited with their authorities, typically in

9696-491: The wells and tanks where the mosquito breeds and the mosquito larvae were eliminated. Even amongst arthropods usually thought of as obligate predators of animals (especially other arthropods), floral food sources ( nectar and to a lesser degree pollen ) are often useful adjunct sources. It had been noticed in one study that adult Adalia bipunctata (predator and common biocontrol of Ephestia kuehniella ) could survive on flowers but never completed its life cycle , so

9797-461: The wood is good for shafts. Species are arranged into sections supported by phylogenetic analysis: North American native ash tree species are a critical food source for North American frogs, as their fallen leaves are particularly suitable for tadpoles to feed upon in ponds (both temporary and permanent), large puddles, and other water bodies. Lack of tannins in the American ash makes their leaves

9898-400: Was introduced to Australia to attempt to control the European rabbit populations there. It escaped from quarantine and spread across the country, killing large numbers of rabbits. Very young animals survived, passing immunity to their offspring in due course and eventually producing a virus-resistant population. Introduction into New Zealand in the 1990s was similarly successful at first, but

9999-514: Was regarded as successful. This program also led to the development of many concepts, principles, and procedures for the implementation of biological control programs. Prickly pear cacti were introduced into Queensland , Australia as ornamental plants, starting in 1788. They quickly spread to cover over 25 million hectares of Australia by 1920, increasing by 1 million hectares per year. Digging, burning, and crushing all proved ineffective. Two control agents were introduced to help control

10100-460: Was repeated in California using the beetle and a parasitoidal fly, Cryptochaetum iceryae . Other successful cases include the control of Antonina graminis in Texas by Neodusmetia sangwani in the 1960s. Damage from Hypera postica , the alfalfa weevil, a serious introduced pest of forage, was substantially reduced by the introduction of natural enemies. 20 years after their introduction

10201-445: Was unknown until a groundbreaking 1972 proposal by Zettler and Freeman. Up to that point biocontrol of any kind had not been used against any water weeds. In their review of the possibilities, they noted the lack of interest and information thus far, and listed what was known of pests-of-pests – whether pathogens or not. They proposed that this should be relatively straightfoward to apply in the same way as other biocontrols. And indeed in

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