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61-579: The asherim were also cult objects related to the worship of Asherah, the consort of either Ba'al or, as inscriptions from Kuntillet ‘Ajrud and Khirbet el-Qom attest, Yahweh , and thus objects of contention among competing cults. Most English translations of the Hebrew Bible translate the Hebrew words asherim ( אֲשֵׁרִים ‎ ’ăšērīm ) or asheroth ( אֲשֵׁרוֹת ‎ ’ăšērōṯ ) to "Asherah poles". Asherim are mentioned in

122-646: A Counter-Reformation renewal of venerable imagery, though banning some of the more fanciful medieval iconographies. Veneration of the Virgin Mary flourished, in practice and in imagery, and new shrines, such as in Rome's Santa Maria Maggiore , were built for Medieval miraculous icons as part of this trend. According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church : The Christian veneration of images

183-419: A cult image is a human-made object that is venerated or worshipped for the deity , spirit or daemon that it embodies or represents. In several traditions, including the ancient religions of Egypt , Greece and Rome, and Hinduism, cult images in a temple may undergo a daily routine of being washed, dressed, and having food left for them. Processions outside the temple on special feast days are often

244-420: A murti is a representation of a divinity, made usually of stone, wood, or metal, which serves as a means through which a divinity may be worshiped. Hindus consider a murti worthy of serving as a focus of divine worship only after the divine is invoked in it for the purpose of offering worship. The depiction of the divinity must reflect the gestures and proportions outlined in religious tradition. In Jainism ,

305-582: A cult image in the cella . The cella in Greek temples was in the center, while it was located in the back of Roman temples. Access to the cella varied, but apart from the priests, at the least some of the general worshippers could access the cella some of the time, though sacrifices to the deity were normally made on altars outside in the temple precinct ( temenos in Greek). Some cult images were easy to see, and were major tourist attractions. The image normally took

366-401: A divine origin. The Book of Isaiah gave classic expression to the paradox inherent in the worship of cult images: Their land also is full of idols; they worship the work of their own hands, that which their own fingers have made. Judaism emphatically forbids idolatry, and considers it one of the gravest sins . Judaism is aniconic , meaning any physical depiction of God whatsoever

427-411: A feature. Religious images cover a wider range of all types of images made with a religious purpose, subject, or connection. In many contexts "cult image" specifically means the most important image in a temple, kept in an inner space, as opposed to what may be many other images decorating the temple. The term idol is an image or representation of a god used as an object of worship, while idolatry

488-462: Is Jerusalem. It also shows a special concern for the poor, widows and the fatherless: all Israelites are brothers and sisters, and each will answer to God for his treatment of his neighbour. This concern for equality and humanity extends also to the stranger who lives among the Israelites. The stranger is often mentioned in tandem with the concern for the widow and the orphan. Furthermore, there

549-487: Is disallowed; this likewise applies to cult images. The prohibition of idols within Judaism is so severe that numerous stipulations exist which are beyond simply concerning their use: Jews cannot eat anything offered to an idol as a libation , cannot move openly in places where idols are present, and cannot interact with idol worshippers within certain timeframes of idolatrous festivals or gatherings. As time progressed and

610-486: Is not contrary to the first commandment which proscribes idols. Indeed, "the honor rendered to an image passes to its prototype", and "whoever venerates an image venerates the person portrayed in it". The honor paid to sacred images is a "respectful veneration", not the adoration due to God alone: Religious worship is not directed to images in themselves, considered as mere things, but under their distinctive aspect as images leading us on to God incarnate. The movement toward

671-478: Is the worship of an "idol" as though it were God . The use of images in the Ancient Near East seems typically to have been similar to that of the ancient Egyptian religion , about which we are the best-informed. Temples housed a cult image, and there were large numbers of other images. The ancient Hebrew religion was or became an exception, rejecting cult images despite developing monotheism ;

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732-461: The Book of Deuteronomy . The author used his sources with a heavy hand, depicting Joshua as a grand, divinely guided conquest, Judges as a cycle of rebellion and salvation, and the story of the kings as recurring disaster due to disobedience to God. A series of studies that modified Noth's original concept began in the late 1960s. In 1968, Frank Moore Cross made an important revision, suggesting that

793-656: The Deuteronomic Code followed by blessings and curses; and a conclusion. The book's core is the law code (chapters 12–26). 2 Kings 22 – 23 tells how a "Book of the Law," commonly identified with the law code, was found in the Temple in Jerusalem during the reign of Josiah . According to the story in 2 Kings, reading the book caused Josiah to embark on a series of religious reforms, and it has been suggested that it

854-657: The Hebrew Bible in the books of Exodus , Deuteronomy , Judges , the Books of Kings , the second Book of Chronicles , and the books of Isaiah , Jeremiah , and Micah . The term often appears as merely אשרה ‎ , ( Asherah ) referred to as "groves" in the King James Version , which follows the Septuagint rendering as ἄλσος ( alsos ), pl. ἄλση ( alsē ) and the Vulgate lucus , and "poles" in

915-633: The Historical Buddha , and other buddhas and bodhisattvas became important in many schools of Buddhist art , and have mostly remained so. The attitude of the devotee towards the image is highly complicated and variable in Buddhism, depending on the particular tradition, and the degree of training in Buddhist thought of the individual. The dharma wheel is an image that used for worship in Buddhism. The Dharma represents and symbolizes all of

976-568: The Holy Temple (2 Kings 21:7). King Josiah's reforms in the late 7th century BC included the destruction of many Asherah poles (2 Kings 23:14). Exodus 34:13 states: "Break down their altars, smash their sacred stones and cut down their Asherim [Asherah poles]." Biblical archaeologists have suggested that until the 6th century BC the Israelite peoples had household shrines, or at least figurines, of Asherah, which are strikingly common in

1037-638: The Jahwist ), and independently of the historical Books of Chronicles . Most scholars trace all or most of Deuteronomistic history to the Babylonian captivity (6th century BCE), and associate it with editorial reworking of both the Tetrateuch and Jeremiah . Since the mid-20th century, scholars have imagined the Deuteronomists as country Levites , a junior order of priests, or as prophets in

1098-507: The L ORD your God" or as living trees: "You shall not plant any tree as an Asherah beside the altar of the Lord your God which you shall make". That Asherahs were not always living trees is shown in 1 Kings 14:23: "their asherim, beside every luxuriant tree". However, the record indicates that the Jewish people often departed from this ideal. For example, King Manasseh placed an Asherah pole in

1159-493: The New Revised Standard Version ; no word that may be translated as "poles" appears in the text. Scholars have indicated, however, that the plural use of the term (English "Asherahs", translating Hebrew Asherim or Asherot ) provides ample evidence that reference is being made to objects of worship rather than a transcendent figure. The Hebrew Bible suggests that the poles were made of wood. In

1220-544: The Palatine Chapel, Aachen was probably a decisive moment, leading to the widespread use of monumental reliefs on churches, and later large statues. Many Christians believed that idols were not merely idle statues, but that they are inhabited by demons who could exercise influence through the idol. By destroying idols, converted Christians believed to deprave devils of their earthly and material dwelling. The Libri Carolini , an eighth-century work composed at

1281-606: The Sinai Peninsula pairs Yahweh with Asherah. Scholars believe Asherah is merely a cultic object or temple but others argue that it is a generic name for any consort of Yahweh. Ronald Hendel argues a middle ground is possible, where the Asherah pole is a symbol of the eponymous goddess but is believed to be the mediator between the worshipper and Yahweh, where she becomes the "effective bestower of blessing". Stéphanie Anthonioz says that early references to Asherah poles in

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1342-690: The Statue of Zeus at Olympia , and Phidias 's Athena Parthenos in the Parthenon in Athens, both colossal statues now completely lost. Fragments of two chryselephantine statues from Delphi have been excavated. The acrolith was another composite form, this time a cost-saving one with a wooden body. A xoanon was a primitive and symbolic wooden image, perhaps comparable to the Hindu lingam ; many of these were retained and revered for their antiquity. Many of

1403-606: The Tirthankaras ("ford-maker") represent the true goal of all human beings. Their qualities are worshipped by the Jains. Images depicting any of the twenty four Tirthankaras are placed in the Jain temples . There is no belief that the image itself is other than a representation of the being it represents. The Tirthankaras cannot respond to such veneration, but that it can function as a meditative aid. Although most veneration takes

1464-525: The conquest of Mecca in the year 630. In the aftermath, Muhammad did three things. Firstly, with his companions he visited the Kaaba and literally threw out the idols and destroyed them, thus removing the signs of Jahiliyyah from the Kaaba. Secondly, he ordered the construction of a mosque around the Kaaba, the first Masjid al-Haram after the birth of Islam . Thirdly, in a magnanimous manner, Muhammad pardoned all those who had taken up arms against him. With

1525-484: The "Jeremiah" Deuteronomists represent a distinct party from the "DtrH" Deuteronomists, with opposing agendas. Deuteronomy is conceived of as a covenant (a treaty) between the Israelites and Yahweh , who has chosen ("elected") the Israelites as his people and requires them to live according to his law. Israel is to be a theocracy with Yahweh as the divine suzerain . The law is to be supreme over all other sources of authority, including kings and royal officials, and

1586-666: The Book of Jeremiah occurring some time before the end of the Exile (pre-539 BCE) – a process which also involved the prophetic books of Amos and Hosea . The biblical text records about the "authors" of the Deuteronomistic works that Jeremiah the prophet used scribes such as Baruch to accomplish his ends. It is also noteworthy that the Deuteronomistic History never mentions Jeremiah and some scholars believe that

1647-468: The Greek statues well-known from Roman marble copies were originally temple cult images, which in some cases, such as the Apollo Barberini , can be credibly identified. A very few actual originals survive, for example the bronze Piraeus Athena (2.35 metres high, including a helmet). In Greek and Roman mythology , a " palladium " was an image of great antiquity on which the safety of a city

1708-469: The Hebrew Bible (i.e. Deuteronomy 16:21–22 ) were built on the awareness that Yahweh had a consort, from the perspective of many Israelites. With the exception of Deuteronomists , many Near Easterners believed symbols and cult images, like the Asherah pole, were reflections of the divine and the divine themselves in their anthropomorphized forms. Cult object In the practice of religion ,

1769-608: The Kaaba, in the process being charged tithes . This helped the Meccan merchants to incur substantial wealth, as well as ensuring a fruitful atmosphere for trade and intertribal relations in relative peace. Muhammad 's preaching incurred the wrath of the pagan merchants, causing them to revolt against him. The opposition to his teachings grew so volatile that Muhammad and his followers were forced to flee Mecca to Medina for protection, leading to armed conflict and triggering many battles that were won and lost, which finally culminated in

1830-445: The archaeological remains. Thus, the pro-Yahwist prophets and priests were the "innovators" whilst Asherah worshippers were the "traditionalists". Joan E. Taylor suggests the temple menorah ’s iconography can be traced to representations of a sacred tree, possibly “based on the form of an asherah, perhaps one associated in particular with Bethel .” However, Rachel Hachlili finds this hypothesis unlikely. Raphael Patai identified

1891-457: The chamber, but Hindu temple architecture typically allows the image to be seen by worshippers in the mandapa connected to it (entry to this, and the whole temple, may also be restricted in various ways). Hinduism allows for many forms of worship and therefore it neither prescribes nor proscribes worship of images ( murti ). In Hinduism, murti usually means an image that expresses a Divine Spirit ( murta ). Meaning literally "embodiment",

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1952-835: The command of Charlemagne in response to the Second Council of Nicaea , set out what remains the Catholic position on the veneration of images, giving them a similar but slightly less significant place than in Eastern Orthodoxy. The 16th-century Reformation engendered spates of destruction of images, especially in England, Scotland, Ireland, Germany, Switzerland, the Low Countries (the Beeldenstorm ), and France. Destruction of three-dimensional images

2013-667: The connection between this and the Atenism that Akhenaten tried to impose on Egypt has been much discussed. In the art of Amarna , Aten is represented only as the sun-disk, with rays emanating from it, sometimes ending in hands, and temples to Aten (e.g. the Great Temple of the Aten in Amarna ) were open courts with no roof, that the Sun might be worshipped directly as it traveled across

2074-469: The core of Deuteronomy and the second to all of Deuteronomy and the history. The Deuteronomist is one of the sources identified through source criticism as underlying much of the Hebrew Bible . Among source-critical scholars, it is generally agreed that the Deuteronomistic history originated independently of the books of Genesis , Exodus , Leviticus and Numbers (based on the Priestly source and

2135-646: The degree of veneration or worship which is thought by opponents to be given to them. The word idol entered Middle English in the 13th century from Old French idole adapted in Ecclesiastical Latin from the Greek eidolon ("appearance", extended in later usage to "mental image, apparition, phantom") a diminutive of eidos ("form"). Plato and the Platonists employed the Greek word eidos to signify perfect immutable " forms ". One can, of course, regard such an eidos as having

2196-462: The destruction of the idols and the construction of the Masjid al-Haram, a new era was ushered in, facilitating the rise of Islam . The garbhagriha or inner shrine of a Hindu temple contains an image of the deity. This may take the form of an elaborate statue, but a symbolic lingam is also very common, and sometimes a yoni or other symbolic form. Normally only the priests are allowed to enter

2257-513: The entire Deuteronomistic history (Deuteronomy to Kings). The term was coined in 1943 by the German biblical scholar Martin Noth to explain the origin and purpose of Joshua , Judges , Samuel , and Kings . These, he argued, were the work of a single 6th-century BCE author/compiler seeking to explain recent events (the fall of Jerusalem and the Babylonian exile ) using the theology and language of

2318-423: The form of a statue of the deity, typically roughly life-size, but in some cases many times life-size, in marble or bronze, or in the specially prestigious form of a Chryselephantine statue using ivory plaques for the visible parts of the body and gold for the clothes, around a wooden framework. Most cult statues are anthropromorphic and take human shape. The most famous Greek cult images were of this type, including

2379-458: The form of prayers, hymns and recitations, the idol is sometimes ritually bathed, and often has offerings made to it; there are eight kinds of offering representing the eight types of karmas as per Jainism. This form of reverence is not a central tenet of the faith. Very early Buddhism avoided representations of the Buddha, who was represented by symbols or an empty space . Later large images of

2440-578: The history was first written in the late 7th century BCE as a contribution to King Josiah of Judah 's program of reform (the Dtr1 version), and only later revised and updated by Noth's 6th-century author (Dtr2). Dtr1 saw Israel's history as a contrast between God's judgment on the sinful northern Kingdom of Israel of Jeroboam I , who set up golden calves to be worshiped in Bethel and Dan, and virtuous Judah, where faithful king David had reigned and where now

2501-623: The idol depends on the school of Buddhism that you belong to. Buddhist idols that originate from Theravada Buddhism are commonly slim, and majestic. Buddhist idols that originate from Mahayana Buddhism are usually thicker, with a more dignified and nonchalant face. Buddhist idols that originate from Vajrayana Buddhism usually have a more exaggerated posture, and usually show the Buddha / Bodhisattva performing hand Mudras . In Shinto , cult images are called shintai . The earliest historical examples of these were natural objects such as stones, waterfalls, trees or mountains, like Mount Fuji , while

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2562-640: The image does not terminate in it as image, but tends toward that whose image it is. Towards the end of the pre-Islamic era in the Arabian city of Mecca , an era otherwise known by the Muslims as جاهلية, or al-Jahiliyah , the pagan or pre-Islamic merchants of Mecca controlled the sacred Kaaba , thereby regulating control over it and, in turn, over the city itself. The local tribes of the Arabian peninsula came to this centre of commerce to place their idols in

2623-548: The last five years an increasing number of commentators have expressed grave doubts about fundamental tenets of Noth's classic study." The prose sermons in the Book of Jeremiah are written in a style and outlook closely akin to, yet different from, the Deuteronomistic history. Scholars differ over how much of the book is from Jeremiah himself and how much from later disciples, but the Swiss scholar Thomas Römer has recently identified two Deuteronomistic "redactions" (editings) of

2684-600: The pillar figurines with Asherah in The Hebrew Goddess . So far, the purpose of Asherah poles are unknown. Due to its role in Iron Age Yahwism, some suggest they were embodiments of Yahweh himself. Evidence for the latter includes pro-Yahwist kings like Jehu not destroying Asherah poles, despite violently suppressing non-Yahwist cults. In addition, the Yahwist inscription of Kuntillet ʿAjrud in

2745-424: The priests were allowed access to the inner sanctuary. There was also a huge range of smaller images, many kept in the homes of ordinary people. The very large stone images around the exteriors of temples were usually representations of the pharaoh as himself or "as" a deity, and many other images gave deities the features of the current royal family. Ancient Greek temples and Roman temples normally contained

2806-496: The prophets are the guardians of the law: prophecy is instruction in the law as given through Moses, the law given through Moses is the complete and sufficient revelation of the Will of God, and nothing further is needed. Under the covenant, Yahweh promised the Israelites the land of Canaan , but the promise was conditional: they would lose the land if they were unfaithful. The Deuteronomistic history explains successes and failures as

2867-714: The religious traditions which the Jews were exposed to diversified, what was considered "idolatry" was subject to some debate. In the Mishnah and Talmud , idolatry is defined as worshipping a graven image through the actions of both typical idol worshippers, and through actions customarily reserved for worship of the Jewish God in the Temple in Jerusalem , such as prostrating , sacrificing animals , offering incense , or sprinkling animal blood on altars. Kissing, embracing, or "honoring" an idol, while not considered idolatry per se ,

2928-623: The result of faithfulness, which brings success, or disobedience, which brings failure; the destruction of the Kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians in 721 BCE and the Kingdom of Judah by the Babylonians in 586 BCE are Yahweh's punishment for continued sinfulness. Deuteronomy insists on the centralisation of worship "in the place that the Lord your God will choose"; Deuteronomy never says where this place will be, but Kings makes it clear that it

2989-491: The righteous Josiah was reforming the kingdom. The exilic Dtr2 supplemented Dtr1's history with warnings of a broken covenant, an inevitable punishment and exile for the sinful (in Dtr2's view) Kingdom of Judah . Cross's "dual redaction" model is probably the most widely accepted, but a considerable number of European scholars prefer an alternative model put forward by Rudolf Smend and his pupils. This approach holds that Noth

3050-459: The sixth chapter of the Book of Judges , God is recorded as instructing the Israelite judge Gideon to cut down an Asherah pole that was next to an altar to Baal . The wood was to be used for a burnt offering. Deuteronomy 16:21 states that YHWH (rendered as "the L ORD ") hated Asherim whether rendered as poles: "Do not set up any [ wooden ] Asherah [ pole ] beside the altar you build to

3111-445: The sky. Cult images were a common presence in ancient Egypt, and still are in modern-day Kemetism . The term is often confined to the relatively small images, typically in gold, that lived in the naos in the inner sanctuary of Egyptian temples dedicated to that god (except when taken on ceremonial outings, say to visit their spouse). These images usually showed the god in their sacred barque or boat; none of them survive. Only

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3172-467: The source document underlying the core chapters (12–26) of the Book of Deuteronomy , or to the broader "school" that produced all of Deuteronomy as well as the Deuteronomistic history of Joshua , Judges , Samuel , Kings , and also the Book of Jeremiah . The adjectives "Deuteronomic" and "Deuteronomistic" are sometimes used interchangeably; if they are distinguished, then the first refers to

3233-399: The teachings of the Buddha. The Dharma is a wheel or circle, that maintains different qualities that are meant to be essential to the Buddhist religion. Typically, the wheel shows the eight step path that Buddhists follow to reach Nirvana. The symbol is a wheel in order to show the flow of life: Buddhists believe in reincarnation, so life moves in a circle and does not end in death. The build of

3294-427: The tradition of the northern Kingdom of Israel , or as sages and scribes at the royal court. Recent scholarship has interpreted the book as involving all these groups, and the origin and growth of Deuteronomism is usually described in the following terms: Deuteronomy was formed by a complex process that reached probably from the 7th century BCE to the early 5th. It consists of a historical prologue; an introduction;

3355-544: The vast majority are man-made objects such as swords, jewels or mirrors. Rather than being representative of or part of the kami , shintai are seen as repositories in which the essence of such spirits can temporarily reside to make themselves accessible for humans to worship. A ceremony called kanjō can be used to propagate the essence of a kami into another shintai, allowing the same deity to be enshrined in multiple shrines. Deuteronomist The Deuteronomist , abbreviated as either Dtr or simply D , may refer either to

3416-594: Was highly controversial for centuries, and in Eastern Orthodoxy the controversy lingered until it re-erupted in the Byzantine Iconoclasm of the 8th and 9th centuries. Religious monumental sculpture remained foreign to Orthodoxy. In the West, resistance to idolatry delayed the introduction of sculpted images for centuries until the time of Charlemagne , whose placing of a life-size crucifix in

3477-674: Was normally near-total, especially images of the Virgin Mary and saints, and the iconoclasts ("image-breakers") also smashed representations of holy figures in stained glass windows and other imagery. Further destruction of icons, anathema to Puritans , occurred during the English Civil War . Less extreme transitions occurred throughout northern Europe in which formerly Catholic churches became Protestant. Catholic regions of Europe, especially artistic centres like Rome and Antwerp , responded to Reformation iconoclasm with

3538-434: Was right to locate the composition of the history in the 6th century, but that further redactions took place after the initial composition, including a "nomistic" (from the Greek word for "law"), or DtrN, layer, and a further layer concerned with the prophets, abbreviated as DtrP. For a time, the Deuteronomistic history enjoyed "canonical" status in biblical studies. However, writing in 2000, Gary N. Knoppers noted that "in

3599-513: Was said to depend, especially the wooden one that Odysseus and Diomedes stole from the citadel of Troy and which was later taken to Rome by Aeneas . (The Roman story was related in Virgil 's Aeneid and other works.) Some members of Abrahamic religions identify cult images as idols and their worship or veneration as idolatry ; the worship of hollow forms, though others do not. The matter has long been controversial, depending largely on

3660-470: Was still forbidden. Christian images that are venerated are called icons . Christians who venerate icons make an emphatic distinction between " veneration " and " worship ". Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christians make an exception for the veneration of images of saints – they distinguish such veneration from adoration or latria . The introduction of venerable images in Christianity

3721-401: Was written to validate this program. Notwithstanding, it is generally accepted that at least some of the laws are much earlier than Josiah. The introduction to the code (chapters 4:44–11:32) was added during Josiah's time, thus creating the earliest version of Deuteronomy as a book, and the historical prologue (chapters 1–4:43) was added still later to turn Deuteronomy into an introduction to

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