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24-603: The precise usage of the term has varied both historically and geographically. The word derives from the Arabic root sh–r–f, which expresses meanings related to honor, nobility, and prominence. It has no etymological connection with the English term sheriff , which comes from the Old English word scīrgerefa , meaning "shire-reeve", the local reeve (enforcement agent) of the king in the shire (county). Precise usage of

48-463: A common proper name . Arabic root The roots of verbs and most nouns in the Semitic languages are characterized as a sequence of consonants or " radicals " (hence the term consonantal root ). Such abstract consonantal roots are used in the formation of actual words by adding the vowels and non-root consonants (or " transfixes ") which go with a particular morphological category around

72-711: A different and specific social status. In most places, the term has functioned as a mark of nobility (both the Abbasids and the Fatimids were at one time holder of the caliphate ), except in South Asia , where the meaning of the term has expanded to include all Muslims of foreign descent. Thus, in the caste system among South Asian Muslims , the term ashrāf designates not only Muslims of Arab descent ( sayyid s or purported descendants of Ali and Fatima, and shaykh s, which include all those who claim descent from

96-642: A mix of biconsonantal and triconsonantal roots. A triliteral or triconsonantal root ( Hebrew : שורש תלת־עיצורי , šoreš təlat-ʻiṣuri ; Arabic : جذر ثلاثي , jiḏr ṯulāṯī ; Syriac : ܫܪܫܐ , šeršā ) is a root containing a sequence of three consonants. The following are some of the forms which can be derived from the triconsonantal root k-t-b כ־ת־ב ك-ت-ب (general overall meaning "to write") in Hebrew and Arabic: Note: The Hebrew fricatives stemming from begadkefat lenition are transcribed here as "ḵ", "ṯ" and "ḇ", to retain their connection with

120-411: A pre- Natufian cultural background, i.e., older than c.  14500 BCE . As we have no texts from any Semitic language older than c.  3500 BCE , reconstructions of Proto-Semitic are inferred from these more recent Semitic texts. A quadriliteral is a consonantal root containing a sequence of four consonants (instead of three consonants , as is more often the case). A quadriliteral form

144-456: A sequence of five consonants. Traditionally, in Semitic languages, forms with more than four basic consonants (i.e. consonants not introduced by morphological inflection or derivation) were occasionally found in nouns, mainly in loanwords from other languages, but never in verbs. However, in modern Israeli Hebrew, syllables are allowed to begin with a sequence of two consonants (a relaxation of

168-630: A strong wind'. The conjugation of this small class of verb roots is explained by Wolf Leslau . Unlike the Hebrew examples, these roots conjugate in a manner more like regular verbs, producing no indivisible clusters. Voiceless velar fricative The voiceless velar fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages . It was part of the consonant inventory of Old English and can still be found in some dialects of English , most notably in Scottish English , e.g. in loch , broch or saugh (willow). The symbol in

192-524: A subset of the verb derivations formed from triliteral roots are allowed with quadriliteral roots. For example, in Hebrew, the Piʿel, Puʿal, and Hiṯpaʿel , and in Arabic, forms similar to the stem II and stem V forms of triliteral roots . Another set of quadriliteral roots in modern Hebrew is the set of secondary roots. A secondary root is a root derived from a word that was derived from another root. For example,

216-591: Is a word derived from such a four-consonant root. For example, the abstract quadriliteral root t-r-g-m / t-r-j-m gives rise to the verb forms תרגם ‎ tirgem in Hebrew, ترجم ‎ tarjama in Arabic, ተረጐመ täräggwämä in Amharic , all meaning "he translated". In some cases, a quadriliteral root is actually a reduplication of a two-consonant sequence. So in Hebrew דגדג ‎ digdeg / Arabic دغدغ ‎ daġdaġa means "he tickled", and in Arabic زلزل ‎ zalzala means "he shook". Generally, only

240-511: Is best transcribed as ⟨ x̞ ⟩, ⟨ ɣ̞̊ ⟩ or ⟨ ɣ̊˕ ⟩ - see voiced velar approximant . The velar approximant can in many cases be considered the semivocalic equivalent of the voiceless variant of the close back unrounded vowel ⟨ ɯ̊ ⟩. Features of the voiceless velar fricative: The voiceless velar fricative and its labialized variety are postulated to have occurred in Proto-Germanic ,

264-704: The International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ x ⟩, the Latin letter x . It is also used in broad transcription instead of the symbol ⟨ χ ⟩, the Greek chi , for the voiceless uvular fricative . There is also a voiceless post-velar fricative (also called pre-uvular ) in some languages, which can be transcribed as [x̠] or [χ̟]. For voiceless pre-velar fricative (also called post-palatal ), see voiceless palatal fricative . Some scholars also posit

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288-559: The Quraysh or from one of Muhammad's companions ), but also Muslims of Pasthun or Turko-Mongol ( Mughal ) descent. Over time, people who were not of Hashimite descent were sometimes also granted the title sharīf as a general mark of nobility. The result of this has been that today the term sayyid has become a more common designation for those claiming descent from Muhammad. As such, Sayyid (or one of its many alternative spellings, like Sayyed or Syed ) has also become

312-401: The voiceless velar approximant distinct from the fricative, used in some spoken languages . The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ ɰ̊ ⟩, but this symbol is not suitable in case of the voiceless velar approximant that is unspecified for rounding (the sound represented by the symbol ⟨ ɰ̊ ⟩ is specified as unrounded), which

336-559: The ancestor of the Germanic languages , as the reflex of the Proto-Indo-European voiceless palatal and velar stops and the labialized voiceless velar stop. Thus Proto-Indo-European * ḱ r̥nom "horn" and * kʷ ód "what" became Proto-Germanic * h urnan and * hw at, where *h and *hw were likely [x] and [xʷ] . This sound change is part of Grimm's law . In Modern Greek , the voiceless velar fricative (with its allophone ,

360-550: The consonantal root כ־ת־ב k-t-b. They are pronounced [ x ] , [ θ ] , [ β ] in Biblical Hebrew and [ χ ] , [ t ] , [ v ] in Modern Hebrew respectively. Modern Hebrew has no gemination ; where there was historically gemination, they are reduced to single consonants, with consonants in the begadkefat remaining the same. In Hebrew grammatical terminology,

384-700: The other of them was the original form of the Afroasiatic verb. According to one study of the Proto-Semitic lexicon, biconsonantal roots are more abundant for words denoting Stone Age materials, whereas materials discovered during the Neolithic are uniquely triconsonantal. This implies a change in Proto-Semitic language structure concomitant with the transition to agriculture . In particular, monosyllabic biconsonantal names are associated with

408-475: The relation between: The Hebrew root ש־ק־ף ‎ – √sh-q-p "look out/through" or "reflect" deriving from ק־ף ‎ – √q-p "bend, arch, lean towards" and similar verbs fit into the shaCCéC verb-pattern. This verb-pattern sh-C-C is usually causative , cf. There is debate about whether both biconsonantal and triconsonantal roots were represented in Proto-Afroasiatic , or whether one or

432-428: The root מ-ס-פ-ר ‎ m-s-p-r is secondary to the root ס-פ-ר ‎ s-p-r . סָפַר ‎ saphar , from the root s-p-r , means "counted"; מִסְפָּר ‎ mispar , from the same root, means "number"; and מִסְפֶּר ‎ misper , from the secondary root מ-ס-פ-ר ‎, means "numbered". An irregular quadriliteral verb made from a loanword is: A quinqueliteral is a consonantal root containing

456-477: The root consonants, in an appropriate way, generally following specific patterns. It is a peculiarity of Semitic linguistics that a large majority of these consonantal roots are triliterals (although there are a number of quadriliterals, and in some languages also biliterals). Such roots are also common in other Afroasiatic languages. While Berber mostly has triconsonantal roots, Chadic , Omotic , and Cushitic have mostly biconsonantal roots, and Egyptian shows

480-500: The root have not gained the same currency in cross-linguistic Semitic scholarship as the Hebrew equivalents, and Western grammarians continue to use "stem"/"form"/"pattern" for the former and "root" for the latter—though "form" and "pattern" are accurate translations of the Arabic grammatical term wazan (originally meaning 'weight, measure'), and "root" is a literal translation of jiḏr . Although most roots in Hebrew seem to be triliteral, many of them were originally biliteral, cf.

504-461: The situation in early Semitic, where only one consonant was allowed), which has opened the door for a very small set of loan words to manifest apparent five root-consonant forms, such as טלגרף ‎ tilgref "he telegraphed". However, -lgr- always appears as an indivisible cluster in the derivation of this verb and so the five root-consonant forms do not display any fundamentally different morphological patterns from four root-consonant forms (and

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528-518: The term "quinqueliteral" or "quinquiliteral" would be misleading if it implied otherwise). Only a few Hebrew quinqueliterals are recognized by the Academy of the Hebrew Language as proper, or standard; the rest are considered slang. Other examples are: In Amharic , there is a very small set of verbs which are conjugated as quinqueliteral roots. One example is wäšänäffärä 'rain fell with

552-518: The term has varied both historically and geographically. Often, the terms sharīf and sayyid were used interchangeably, while in other contexts they referred to Hasanid vs. Husaynid descent (especially in the Hejaz , where the Sharifate of Mecca was restricted to persons of Hasanid descent). In still other contexts, they both referred to some form of Hashimite descent, but were linked to

576-523: The word binyan ( Hebrew : בניין , plural בניינים binyanim ) is used to refer to a verb derived stem or overall verb derivation pattern, while the word mishqal (or mishkal ) is used to refer to a noun derivation pattern , and these words have gained some use in English-language linguistic terminology. The Arabic terms, called وزن wazan (plural أوزان , awzān ) for the pattern and جذر jiḏr (plural جذور , juḏūr ) for

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