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121-819: Due to the patriarchal nature of traditional Armenian culture and society, women in Armenia are often expected to be virtuous and submissive, to safeguard their virginity until marriage, and assume primarily domestic tasks. Traditional social norms and lagging economic development in Azerbaijan's rural regions continue to restrict women's roles in society and the economy, and there were reports that women had difficulty exercising their legal rights due to gender discrimination. Women in Cambodia, sometimes referred to as Khmer women , are supposed to be modest, soft-spoken, "light" walkers, well-mannered, industrious, belong to

242-418: A "good mother" trains her son to be competitive, individualistic, and comfortable within the hierarchies of patriarchy, knowing that he may likely be economically successful but a mean person, or whether she resists patriarchal ideologies and socializes her son to be cooperative and communal but economically unsuccessful. Lerner, in her 1986 book The Creation of Patriarchy , makes a series of arguments about

363-457: A "high measure of independence" and had retained their "legal and economic rights" despite the influences of Buddhism and Hinduism . Burma once had a matriarchal system that includes the exclusive right to inherit oil wells and the right to inherit the position as village head . Burmese women were also appointed to high offices by Burmese kings , can become chieftainesses and queens . Palestinian women were not expected to secure income for

484-478: A "universal, trans-historical and trans-cultural phenomenon" where "women were everywhere oppressed by men in more or less the same ways […] tended toward a biological essentialism." Gender Development Index The Gender Development Index ( GDI ) is an index designed to measure gender equality . GDI, together with the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM), was introduced in 1995 in

605-502: A basis for feminist thought. She published The Woman's Bible , which proposed a feminist reading of the Old and New Testament. This tendency was enlarged by feminist theory, which denounced the patriarchal Judeo-Christian tradition. In 2020, social theorist and theologian Elaine Storkey retold the stories of thirty biblical women in her book Women in a Patriarchal World and applied the challenges they faced to women today. Working from both

726-453: A certain way not because they are biologically inclined to, but rather because they are judged by "how well they conform to the stereotypical local image of femininity". Feminists believe that people have gendered biases, which are perpetuated and enforced across generations by those who benefit from them. For instance, it has historically been claimed that women cannot make rational decisions during their menstrual periods. This claim cloaks

847-488: A component in the rule of the patriarchal state that rules its inhabitants with the head of the family. Many feminists (especially scholars and activists) have called for culture repositioning as a method for deconstructing patriarchy. Culture repositioning relates to culture change . It involves the reconstruction of the cultural concept of a society. Prior to the widespread use of the term patriarchy , early feminists used male chauvinism and sexism to refer roughly to

968-563: A greater share of legal equality. All women, regardless of age, are required to have a male guardian in Saudi Arabia. The World Economic Forum 2009 Global Gender Gap Report ranked Saudi Arabia 130th out of 134 countries for gender parity. It was the only country to score a zero in the category of political empowerment. The report also noted that Saudi Arabia is one of the few Middle Eastern countries to improve from 2008, with small gains in economic opportunity. 21% of Saudi women are in

1089-608: A host of highly specialized skills and crafts, especially those connected with the household and its maintenance. Women in Azerbaijan nominally enjoy the same legal rights as men; however, societal discrimination is a problem. Universal suffrage was introduced in Azerbaijan in 1918 by the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic , thus making Azerbaijan the first Muslim country ever to enfranchise women. Most Bahraini women are also well represented in all of

1210-520: A male child would. Children born to a Lebanese woman and a man from another country will not have their children granted Lebanese nationality. Women in Malaysia receives support from the Malaysian government concerning their rights to advance, to make decisions, to health, education and social welfare, and to the removal of legal obstacles. The Malaysian government has ensured these factors through

1331-513: A man, it is easily stated that a man's virtue is this—that he be competent to manage the affairs of his city, and to manage them so as to benefit his friends and harm his enemies, and to take care to avoid suffering harm himself. Or take a woman's virtue: there is no difficulty in describing it as the duty of ordering the house well, looking after the property indoors, and obeying her husband. The works of Aristotle portrayed women as morally, intellectually, and physically inferior to men; saw women as

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1452-501: A period of resource scarcity in Africa approximately 2 million years ago. In the 2009 book Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human , British primatologist Richard Wrangham suggests that the origin of the division of labor between males and females may have originated with the invention of cooking, which is estimated to have happened simultaneously with humans gaining control of fire between 1 and 2 million years ago. The idea

1573-436: A primary cause of women's oppression, or as part of an interactive system. Shulamith Firestone , a radical-libertarian feminist, defines patriarchy as a system of oppression of women. Firestone believes that patriarchy is caused by the biological inequalities between women and men, e.g. that women bear children, while men do not. Firestone writes that patriarchal ideologies support the oppression of women and gives as an example

1694-459: A sharp increase following several high-profile cases of young girls brutally raped in public areas. According to a global poll conducted by Thomson Reuters , India is the "fourth most dangerous country" in the world for women, and the worst country for women among the G20 countries. Societal discrimination and domestic violence against women has been identified as a significant problem, particularly in

1815-399: A society, and would serve in the military. The Pythagoreans also valued the participation of women, who were treated as intellectual equals. Lerner states that Aristotle believed that women had colder blood than men, which made women not evolve into men, the sex that Aristotle believed to be perfect and superior. Maryanne Cline Horowitz stated that Aristotle believed that "soul contributes

1936-686: A source of pride for the Yemeni nation”. In addition, Queen Arwa has been noted for her attention to infrastructure, which added to a documented time of prosperity under her rule. Modern day women of Yemen, however, are subject to a society that reflects largely agrarian, tribal, and patriarchal traditions. This, combined with illiteracy and economic issues has led women to continuously be deprived of their rights as citizens of Yemen. The roles of women in Thailand's national development has not yet been fully established. Factors that affect women's participation in

2057-533: A specific "initiating event". Historian Gerda Lerner asserts in her 1986 book The Creation of Patriarchy that there was no single event, and documents that patriarchy as a social system arose in different parts of the world at different times. Some scholars point to social and technological events, notably the emergence of agriculture , about six thousand years ago (4000 BCE ). Marxist theory, as articulated mainly by Friedrich Engels in The Origin of

2178-623: A stigma which did not follow men. Similarly, in the People's Republic of China , laws governing morality which were written as egalitarian were selectively enforced favoring men, with insufficient enforcement against female infanticide in various areas, while infanticide of any form was, by the letter of the law, prohibited. Sociologists tend to reject predominantly biological explanations of patriarchy and contend that socialization processes are primarily responsible for establishing gender roles . According to standard sociological theory, patriarchy

2299-844: A strong component of the State's and participating organizations' various initiatives. In the 2007/2008 United Nations Development Programme report, the UAE ranked 29th among 177 countries in the Gender Empowerment Measures, the best rating received in the Arab World. UNDP's Millennium Development Goal No. 3, to “Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women” has reached its targeted levels of female participation in primary education and continues to increase. Women in Yemen have historically had much less power in society than men. Although

2420-921: A strong decline and destabilization: by 1995 real GDP dropped to 61,4% of its 1990 level, resulting also in a brain drain . Nevertheless, the 1990s also had some positives for women, such as the accession to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women in 1998. Women in Kuwait are considered to be among the most emancipated women in the Gulf region . Women in Kuwait can travel, drive, and work without their fathers' or husbands' consent and they even hold senior government positions. Women in Kuwait are able to work freely and can achieve positions of power and influence. Women in Kuwait gained

2541-463: A veil similar to that of the women of some of its neighboring countries. As Turkmenistan is a tribal nation, customs regarding women can vary within the country: for example, women in the eastern part of the country are permitted to drink some alcohol whereas women who live in the central portion of the country, particularly those of the Tekke tribe, are not permitted to imbibe alcohol. Most women possess

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2662-544: A virtuous woman must practice sexual propriety, proper speech, modest appearance, and hard work. Ban Zhao , a Confucian disciple, writes in her book Precepts for Women that a woman's primary concern is to subordinate themselves before patriarchal figures, such as a husband or father, and that they need not concern themselves with intelligence or talent. Ban Zhao is considered by some historians as an early champion for women's education in China; however, her extensive writing on

2783-568: A work entitled Patriarcha . However, it was not published until after his death. In it, he defended the divine right of kings as having title inherited from Adam , the first man of the human species, according to Judeo-Christian-Islamic tradition. However, in the latter half of the 18th century, clerical sentiments of patriarchy were meeting challenges from intellectual authorities – Diderot 's Encyclopédie denies inheritance of paternal authority stating, "... reason shows us that mothers have rights and authority equal to those of fathers; for

2904-485: Is a social construction, it can be overcome by revealing and critically analyzing its manifestations. Jaggar, Young, and Hartmann are among the feminist theorists who argue that the system of patriarchy should be completely overturned, especially the heteropatriarchal family, which they see as a necessary component of female oppression. The family not only serves as a representative of the greater civilization by pushing its own affiliates to change and obey, but performs as

3025-477: Is a theory in response to patriarchy. Feminism focuses on the empowerment of women in society and the dismissal of traditional gender roles that are oppressive. Traditional female roles in the household are largely abandoned, and equal opportunity for women is the largest ideal that feminism stands with. Feminist theories believe that financial and social opportunities should be equally available for all. This social division of gender roles as caretakers and providers

3146-525: Is also related to patrilineality in a anthropological sense, although not exclusively. Some preconditions for the eventual development of patriarchy were the emergence of increased paternal investment in the offspring, also referred to as fatherhood , and of a sexual division of labour . Several researchers have stated that the first signs of a sexual division of labour dates from around 2 million years ago, deep within humanity's evolutionary past. It has been connected to an evolutionary process during

3267-524: Is broken down to better allow women to participate outside of caring for a home and children. Financial opportunity refers to employment pursuits, access to one's own finances, and wage equality for job positions that are available for both men and women. The wage gap issues and traditional roles as unpaid laborers for the family significantly drive the growth of feminism in modern social settings. Which in turn shuts down patriarchal structures. Feminist theorists have written extensively about patriarchy either as

3388-424: Is from class to class." Instead, the patriarchy is not the result of men's oppression of women or sexism per se, with men not even identified as the main beneficiaries of such a system, but capital itself. As such, female liberation needs to begin "with an assessment of the material position of women in capitalist society." In that, German differs from Young or Hartmann by rejecting the notion ("eternal truth") that

3509-1092: Is happening despite the slowness in the Macanese people 's absorption of the ideological concept of gender equality . The status of women in India has been subject to many great changes over the past few millennia. From equal status with men in ancient times through the low points of the medieval period, to the promotion of equal rights by many reformers, the history of women in India has been eventful. The roles of Indonesian women today are being affected by many factors, including increased modernization , globalization , improved education and advances in technology (in particular communications technology). Many women in Indonesia choose to reside in cities instead of staying in townships to perform agricultural work because of personal, professional, and family-related necessities, and economic requirements. These women are moving away from

3630-464: Is most apparent in the American representation of a nuclear family; the father works and brings home an income while the mother takes care of the children and the household. This economic power dynamic in the home typically places the desires of the man/father/husband as priority over the desires of the woman/mother/wife. Structural patriarchy expands the range of this social hierarchy outside of just

3751-476: Is natural has, however, come under attack from many sociologists, explaining that patriarchy evolved due to historical, rather than biological, conditions. In technologically simple societies, men's greater physical strength and women's common experience of pregnancy combined to sustain patriarchy. Gradually, technological advances, especially industrial machinery, diminished the primacy of physical strength in everyday life. Introduction of household appliances reduced

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3872-519: Is not an independent measure of gender gaps. Below is a list of countries by their Gender Development Index, based on data collected in 2018, and published in 2019. Countries are grouped into five groups based on the absolute deviation from gender parity in HDI values, from 1 (closest to gender parity) to 5 (furthest from gender parity). This means that grouping takes equally into consideration gender gaps favoring males, as well as those favoring females. In

3993-540: Is often considered a "gender-sensitive extension of the HDI" (Klasen 245). It addresses gender gaps in life expectancy, education, and income. It uses an "inequality aversion" penalty, which creates a development score penalty for gender wander gaps in any of the categories of the Human Development Index (HDI) which include life expectancy, adult literacy , school enrollment, and logarithmic transformations of per-capita income. In terms of life expectancy,

4114-623: Is reported to happen in Taiwan. Women in Thailand were among the first women in Asia who were granted the right to vote in 1932. However, they are still underrepresented in Thai politics . Violence against women in Afghanistan is high, although the situation is improving slowly as the country progresses with the help of the international community. Bride kidnapping occurs in Azerbaijan. In

4235-490: Is shared. Additionally, the GDI has been criticized because it does not consider the value of care work as well as other work performed in the informal sector (such as cleaning, cooking, housework, and childcare). Another criticism of the GDI is that it only takes gender into account as a factor for inequality; it does not, however, consider inequality among class, region or race, which could be very significant. Another criticism with

4356-549: Is the Gender Gap Measure which could be interpreted directly as a measure of gender inequality, instead of having to be compared to the HDI as the GDI is. It would average the female-male gaps in human development and use a gender-gap in labor force participation instead of earned income. In the 2010 Human Development Report, another alternative to the GDI, namely, the Gender Inequality Index (GII)

4477-446: Is the reality that while suffrage was gained in 1967 and constitutional and legal protection was extended to women during the first years of Yemen unity between 1990 and 1994, they continue to struggle “in exercising their full political and civil rights”. History shows that women have played major roles in Yemeni society. Some women of pre-Islamic and early Islamic Yemen held elite status in society. The Queen of Sheba, for example, “is

4598-407: Is the result of sociological constructions that are passed down from generation to generation. These constructions are most pronounced in societies with traditional cultures and less economic development. Even in modern, developed societies, however, gender messages conveyed by family, mass media, and other institutions largely favor males having a dominant status. Although patriarchy exists within

4719-481: The Consultative Assembly . Women in Taiwan have especially achieved prominent roles in politics. In 2000, feminist movement advocator Annette Lu elected as first female vice president while Yeh Chu-lan was promoted to be the first female vice premier in 2004. In 2016, Tsai Ing-wen was elected as president of Taiwan . Nevertheless, as in other parts of East Asia , sex-selective abortion

4840-468: The Han dynasty , Confucianism has strong dictates regarding the behavior of women, declaring a woman's place in society, as well as outlining virtuous behavior. Three Obediences and Four Virtues , a Confucian text, places a woman's value on her loyalty and obedience. It explains that an obedient woman is to obey their father before her marriage, her husband after marriage, and her first son if widowed, and that

4961-569: The Human Development Report written by the United Nations Development Program . These measurements aimed to add a gender-sensitive dimension to the Human Development Index (HDI). The first measurement that they created as a result was the GDI. The GDI is defined as a "distribution-sensitive measure that accounts for the human development impact of existing gender gaps in the three components of

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5082-801: The Iranian Constitutional Revolution in 1910, the year in which the first Women Journal was published by women. The movement lasted until 1933 in which the last women's association was dissolved by the Reza Shah Pahlavi ’s government. It heightened again after the Iranian Revolution (1979). Between 1962 and 1978, the Iranian women's movement gained tremendous victories: women won the right to vote in 1963 as part of Mohammad Reza Shah's White Revolution , and were allowed to stand for public office, and in 1975

5203-776: The President , Prime Minister , Speaker of the Lok Sabha and Leader of the Opposition . As of 2011, the Speaker of the Lok Sabha and the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha (Lower House of the parliament) were women. Women cannot vote or be elected to high political positions in Saudi Arabia. However, King Abdullah has declared that women will be able to vote and run in the 2015 local elections , and be appointed to

5324-742: The United Arab Emirates has advanced greatly in recent years, making the UAE a leader in women's rights in the Arab world . Though there were few opportunities for women outside the home before 1960, the discovery of oil led to advancement in women's position. The UAE constitution guarantees equality between men and women in areas including legal status, claiming of titles, and access to education. The General Women's Union (GWU), established by HH Sheikha Fatima bint Mubarak wife of then President Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan , remains

5445-571: The right to vote and stand in parliamentary and local elections in May 2005. And in October 2009 Kuwait's constitutional court ruled that women were able to gain their own passports, without the consent of their husbands. Because of the demands of the nomadic economy, women in Kyrgyzstan worked as virtual equals with men, having responsibility for chores such as milking as well as child-rearing and

5566-654: The "Persian woman" had a pre-defined appearance set by social norms that were the standard for all women in society. Women in Kyrgyzstan traditionally had assigned roles , although only the religious elite sequestered women as was done in other Muslim societies. Historically, women in Burma (Myanmar) have had a unique social status in Burmese society . According to the research made by Daw Mya Sein, Burmese women "for centuries – even before recorded history" owned

5687-439: The "conflict between work and family" resulting from their becoming members of the working population. Thirdly, Singapore's female managers are still fewer in number despite their rising educational level and attainments when compared to male managers. Syria Comment described that Syrian women have been able to acquire several rights that have not been granted to their counterparts in other Arab nations . Such rights include

5808-480: The Azeri kidnap custom, a young woman is taken to the home of the abductor's parents through either deceit or force. Regardless of whether rape occurs or not, the woman is generally regarded as impure by her relatives, and is therefore forced to marry her abductor. Women in India continue to face atrocities such as rape, acid throwing, dowry killings while young girls are forced into prostitution; as of late rape has seen

5929-509: The Central Election Commission. There are no legal restrictions on the participation of women in politics. As of 2011, there were 19 women in the 125-seat parliament . The percentage of female members of parliament increased from 11 to 16 percent between 2005 and 2010. Bangladesh as of 2015 has a female speaker of parliament and Prime Minister . In modern India, women have held high offices in India including that of

6050-549: The Cultural Revolution. When the People's Republic of China was established, employed women accounted for only 7 percent of the workforce; whereas in 1992 women's participation in the workforce had increased to account for 38 percent. Women's representation in higher educational institutions has also increased since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. Under the traditional Chinese patriarchy structure,

6171-610: The Family Protection Law provided new rights for women, including expanded divorce and custody rights and reduced polygamy. Following the 1979 Revolution, several laws based on gender discrimination were established such as the introduction of mandatory veiling and public dress code of females. Women's rights since the Islamic Revolution has varied. About 9% of the Iranian parliament members are women, while

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6292-520: The Family, Private Property and the State (1884), assigns the origin of patriarchy to the emergence of private property , which has traditionally been controlled by men. In this view, men directed household production and sought to control women in order to ensure the passing of family property to their own (male) offspring, while women were limited to household labor and producing children. Lerner disputes this idea, arguing that patriarchy emerged before

6413-519: The GDI (and the GEM) actually hide more than they reveal. More specifically, there has been a lot of criticism over the Life-Expectancy component of the GDI. As was mentioned previously, the GDI life expectancy section is adjusted by assuming that women will automatically live five years longer than men. This provision has been criticized on multiple grounds; e.g. it has been argued that if the GDI

6534-402: The GDI assumes that women will live an average of five years longer than men. Additionally, in terms of income, the GDI considers income gaps in terms of actual earned income. The GDI cannot be used independently from the HDI score, and so, it cannot be used on its own as an indicator of gender gaps. Only the gap between the HDI and the GDI can actually be accurately considered; the GDI on its own

6655-446: The GDI does not account for sex-selective abortion , meaning that the penalty levied against a country for gender inequality is smaller as it affects less of the population (see Sen, Missing Women). Another area of debate surrounding the GDI is in the area of income gaps. The GDI considers income-gaps in terms of actual earned income. This has been said to be problematic because often, men may make more money than women, but their income

6776-689: The God-humanity covenant". The archaeologist Marija Gimbutas argues that waves of kurgan -building invaders from the Ukrainian steppes into the early agricultural cultures of Old Europe in the Aegean, the Balkans and southern Italy instituted male hierarchies that led to the rise of patriarchy in Western society . Steven Taylor argues that the rise of patriarchal domination was associated with

6897-494: The HDI" (Klasen 243). Distribution sensitivity means that the GDI takes into account not only the average or general level of well-being and wealth within a given country but focuses also on how this wealth and well-being is distributed between different groups within society. The HDI and the GDI (as well as the GEM) were created to rival the more traditional general income-based measures of development such as gross domestic product (GDP) and gross national product (GNP). The GDI

7018-849: The Hebrew Scriptures and the New Testament, she analysed different variations of patriarchy, and outlined the paradox of Rahab, a prostitute in the Old Testament who became a role-model in the New Testament Epistle of James, and Epistle to the Hebrews. In his essay "A Judicial Patriarchy: Family Law at the Turn of the Century", Michael Grossberg coined the phrase "judicial patriarchy", stating that "The judge became

7139-820: The Israeli Bedouin society. In the 21st century, the issue of violence against women in Kazakhstan has come to public attention, resulting in the Law on the Prevention of Domestic Violence of 2009. However, as in other parts of Central Asia, bride kidnapping remains a problem. Local and regional NGOs have helped to increase awareness of violence against women in Lebanon. Government policies regarding this are poor however, and attempts to improve this area have been met with resistance. Lebanon's laws do not recognize

7260-640: The People's Republic made a commitment to achieve equality between women and men. While advancing towards equality among men and women , the efforts met resistance in a traditionally Confucian society of male superiority. Although equality among men and women has been a long-term goal of the People's Republic of China, the dramatic reformations that followed the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) have inconsistently affected women's empowerment and status in China. Studies shows that Chinese women experienced rapid progress in terms of gender equality during

7381-445: The amount of manual labor needed in the households. Similarly, contraception has given women control over their reproductive cycle. Patriarchy and Feminism Patriarchy generally falls under two categories, "traditional patriarchy" and "structural patriarchy" (Pierik). Traditional patriarchy refers to the idea that the father is the head of the household and is at the top of families’ social hierarchies. This patriarchal structure

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7502-524: The appearance of socially stratified hierarchical polities, institutionalised violence and the separated individuated ego associated with a period of climatic stress. A prominent Greek general Meno , in the Platonic dialogue of the same name, sums up the prevailing sentiment in Classical Greece about the respective virtues of men and women. He says: First of all, if you take the virtue of

7623-520: The book The Three Paradoxes: Working Women in Singapore written by Jean Lee S.K., Kathleen Campbell, and Audrey Chia, there are "three paradoxes " confronting and challenging the career women of Singapore. Firstly, Singapore's society expects women to become creative and prolific corporate workers who are also expected to play the role of traditional women in the household, particularly as wife and mother. Secondly, Singaporean women are confronted by

7744-415: The breadwinners in a patriarchal society, and women are seen as homemakers. Formal job occupations outside of the home, traditionally carried out by men in a patriarchal society, are paid labor. Any work done inside of the home without financial compensation, traditionally carried out by women in patriarchal societies, is unpaid labor. Until 1974, women were not allowed to have their bank accounts, which pushed

7865-493: The buffer between the family and the state", and that "Judicial patriarchs dominated family law because within these institutional and intraclass rivalries judges succeeded in protecting their power over the law governing the hearth." In ancient Japan , power in society was more evenly distributed, particularly in the religious domain, where Shintoism worships the goddess Amaterasu , and ancient writings were replete with references to great priestesses and magicians. However, at

7986-596: The commonly accepted patriarchal interpretation of Christian scripture . Quaker Sarah Grimké voiced skepticism about the ability of men to translate and interpret passages relating to the roles of the sexes without bias. She proposed alternative translations and interpretations of passages relating to women, and she applied historical and cultural criticism to a number of verses, arguing that their admonitions applied to specific historical situations, and were not to be viewed as universal commands. Elizabeth Cady Stanton used Grimké's criticism of biblical sources to establish

8107-514: The concept of patriarchy represents an adaptation of the Marxist concept of class and class struggle . Lindsey German represents an outlier in this regard. German argued for a need to redefine the origins and sources of the patriarchy, describing the mainstream theories as providing "little understanding of how women's oppression and the nature of the family have changed historically. Nor is there much notion of how widely differing that oppression

8228-735: The concept of spousal rape, and attempt to add this to law have been attacked by Lebanese clerics. Patriarchal Patriarchy is a social system in which men typically hold authority and responsibility. In anthropology , it refers to a family or clan structure where the father or eldest male holds supremacy within the family, while in feminist theory , it encompasses a broader social structure where men collectively dominate societal norms and institutions. Patriarchal ideology acts to explain and rationalize patriarchy by attributing gender inequality to inherent natural differences between men and women , divine commandment, or other fixed structures. Sociologists tend to disagree with some of

8349-479: The conquests of Alexander the Great , who was educated by Aristotle. Although many 16th- and 17th-century theorists agreed with Aristotle's views concerning the place of women in society, none of them tried to prove political obligation on the basis of the patriarchal family until sometime after 1680. The patriarchal political theory is closely associated with Sir Robert Filmer . Sometime before 1653, Filmer completed

8470-496: The custody of children aged 15 years old or younger; and the right to give their nationality to their offspring whose father is not a national of Syria. A common attire of women, particularly in Damascus , are Western clothing that includes long skirts, pants, jeans, high-heeled shoes, in addition to the sporting of the hijab and the monteau (a type of coat), sometimes accented by a “coordinating purse ”. The role of women in

8591-648: The cycle of patriarchy continues much past the Greeks. Egypt left no philosophical record, but Herodotus left a record of his shock at the contrast between the roles of Egyptian women and the women of Athens . He observed that Egyptian women attended market and were employed in trade . In ancient Egypt, middle-class women were eligible to sit on a local tribunal , engage in real estate transactions, and inherit or bequeath property . Women also secured loans, and witnessed legal documents. Athenian women were denied such rights. Greek influence spread, however, with

8712-536: The development of class-based society and the concept of private property. Domination by men of women is found in the Ancient Near East as far back as 3100 BCE, as are restrictions on a woman's reproductive capacity and exclusion from "the process of representing or the construction of history". According to some researchers, with the appearance of the Hebrews , there is also "the exclusion of woman from

8833-871: The duration of their lives. Biographies of Exemplary Women , a book containing biographies of women who lived according to the Confucian ideals of virtuous womanhood, popularized an entire genre of similar writing during the Ming dynasty. Women who lived according to this Neo-Confucian ideal were celebrated in official documents, and some had structures erected in their honor. In China's Qing dynasty , laws governing morality, sexuality, and gender-relations continued to be based on Confucian teachings. Men and women were both subject to strict laws regarding sexual behavior, however men were punished infrequently in comparison to women. Additionally, women's punishment often carried strong social stigma , "rendering [women] unmarriageable",

8954-666: The educational opportunities for the Pakistani women increased in the previous years. According to a Human Development Report released by the United Nations, Pakistan has better gender equality than neighbouring India. However, in 2012, the World Economic Forum ranked the gender gap in Pakistan , Chad , and Yemen as the worst in their Global Gender Gap Report. Although they generally define themselves in

9075-514: The elder Trung sister, sacrificed herself and drowned over surrendering to foreign conquerors. This trait is also epitomized in the old Vietnamese adage: "When war comes, even women have to fight", and its variation: "When the enemy is at the gate, the woman goes out fighting"."Ba Me Anh Hung" (Hero Mothers), which is a term that has been coined recently, illustrates that even though Vietnamese women did not contribute greatly in combat, they were heroes that took care of children and overcame poverty. While

9196-581: The end of the Second World War , a significant improvement in the role of men has been witnessed, while female dominance society structure is still taking in place. Hence, women studies in Hong Kong are slightly differ from China 's. Women in Hong Kong are generally more independent, monetarily autonomous, assertive, and career-focused; which makes them seem to be more prominent when comparing with women in some other Southeast Asian countries . With

9317-556: The establishment of Ministry of National Unity and Social Development in 1997 (formerly known in 1993 as Women's Affairs Secretariat or HAWA). This was followed by the formation of the Women's Affairs Ministry in 2001 to recognize the roles and contributions of Malaysian women. Around 47% of Malaysian women are in the workforce. Women now pursue careers and professional training in Oman, slowly moving from their previous household confinement to

9438-561: The fact that men also have periods of time where they can be aggressive and irrational; furthermore, unrelated effects of aging and similar medical problems are often blamed on menopause, amplifying its reputation. These biological traits and others specific to women, such as their ability to get pregnant, are often used against them as an attribute of weakness. Sociologist Sylvia Walby has composed six overlapping structures that define patriarchy and that take different forms in different cultures and different times: The idea that patriarchy

9559-533: The family, but women were expected to adapt to the customary roles of women in Palestinian society wherein females were traditionally molded as inferior to men. The role of women in Turkmenistan has never conformed to Western stereotypes about Muslim women . Although a division of labor exists and women usually are not visible actors in political affairs outside the home, Turkmen women have never worn

9680-405: The family, which in turn drives up the cost of living further. With this reliance on further income and sourcing traditionally female childcare roles outside of the home, patriarchal norms start to become less relevant. This breakdown of traditional roles leads to the natural decrease of a gender-specific social structure. Feminist Ideologies Feminism is not a direct opposition to patriarchy, it

9801-711: The financial divide further and placed men in higher economic positions. (Adam) The uneven financial compensation between these levels of labor is one of the factors that pushed feministic ideals forward. The Role of Patriarchy in Feminism With men being expected to bring home an income to support a family and the entire household, the strain of the increasing cost of living makes that ideal impractical. Because of this economic strain, many households rely on multiple incomes from both men and women. When women would traditionally be expected to stay home and provide childcare, they now have to seek it out elsewhere to provide for

9922-521: The form and model of creation". This implies that any imperfection that is caused in the world must be caused by a woman because one cannot acquire an imperfection from perfection (which he perceived as male). Aristotle had a hierarchical ruling structure in his theories. Lerner claims that through this patriarchal belief system, passed down generation to generation, people have been conditioned to believe that men are superior to women. These symbols are benchmarks which children learn about when they grow up, and

10043-621: The global average is 13%. Following the Revolution, women were allowed to join the police and military forces. The women's rights movement in Iran continues to attempt influencing reforms, particularly with the One Million Signatures Campaign to End Discrimination Against Women. Women in the country went through a difficult period in the 1990s, when Kazakhstan's economy, being in a period of transition, experienced

10164-455: The government of Yemen has made efforts that will improve the rights of women in Yemen (including the formation of a Women's Development Strategy and a Women Health Development Strategy), many cultural and religious norms, along with poor enforcement of this legislation from the Yemeni government, have prevented Yemeni women from having equal rights to men. Today, Yemeni women do not hold many economic, social or cultural rights. Even more striking

10285-445: The history of Persia, Persian women (presently known as women in Iran ), like Persian men, used make-up, wore jewellery and coloured their body parts. Moreover, their garments were both elaborate and colorful. Rather than being marked by gender, clothing styles were distinguished by class and status. Women in modern Iran (post 1935 " Persia ") are of various mixes and appearances, both in fashion and social norm. Traditionally however,

10406-424: The home and family dynamic. The typical influence that men hold in the home is extended to their social and professional positions. Women are often considered the caretakers of the workplace when in a professional setting while men do the labor. This dynamic can be seen in an office setting, with men as sources of income for the business and women in roles as secretaries to care for the workplace. This system leans into

10527-431: The household, act as the family's caregivers and caretakers and financial comptrollers, perform as the "preserver of the home", maintain their virginity until marriage, become faithful wives, and act as advisors and servants to their husbands. The "light" walking and refinement of Cambodian women is further described as being "quiet in [...] movements that one cannot hear the sound of their silk skirt rustling". Throughout

10648-512: The idea that men are typically placed in higher-power positions in society due to the traditional role of a financial provider, and women fall into caretaker roles. Development of Feminism The extended presence of patriarchal structures has led to the establishment of feministic ideals over centuries (Brunell). Several prominent fronts led to and continue to push the development of feminism; including paid and unpaid labor and expectations of gender roles(Thompson). Men are traditionally viewed as

10769-764: The incidence of divorce . At the same time, educated urban women entered professional services and careers. The social and legal situation of women in Uzbekistan has been influenced by local traditions, religion, the Soviet rule, and changing social norms since independence. Women in Vietnam played a significant role in defending Vietnam during the Vietnam War from 1945 to 1975. They took roles such as village patrol guards, intelligence agents, propagandists, and military recruiters. By becoming "active participants" in

10890-519: The income-gap portion of the GDI is that it is heavily dependent on gross domestic product (GDP) and gross national product (GNP). For most countries, the earned-income gap accounts for more than 90% of the gender penalty. As was suggested by Halis Akder in 1994, one alternative to the Gender Development Index (GDI) would be the calculation of a separate male and female Human Development Index (HDI). Another suggested alternative

11011-483: The increase number of women in professional and managerial positions in recent decades, the terms of "female strong person" or " superwomen " are being used to describe women in Hong Kong. Candice Chio Ngan Ieng, president of the Macau Women's General Association (AGMM), describes in 2010 that women are currently defining themselves as capable and irreplaceable powers to Macau's modern-day civilization. This change

11132-704: The joy of giving birth, which she labels a patriarchal myth. For Firestone, women must gain control over reproduction in order to be free from oppression. Feminist historian Gerda Lerner believes that male control over women's sexuality and reproductive functions is a fundamental cause and result of patriarchy. Alison Jaggar also understands patriarchy as the primary cause of women's oppression. The system of patriarchy accomplishes this by alienating women from their bodies. Interactive systems theorists Iris Marion Young and Heidi Hartmann believe that patriarchy and capitalism interact together to oppress women. Young, Hartmann, and other socialist and Marxist feminists use

11253-519: The large number of officially recognized religions in Lebanon , Lebanese family matters are governed by at least 15 personal statute codes. Lebanese women have legal protection that varies depending on their religion. Marriageable age can be as young as 12.5, polygamy is allowed if the male of the family is Muslim, parental authority belongs to the patriarch of the house and legal guardian of all children, and female children receive less inheritance than

11374-439: The major professions, women's societies, and women's organizations. Apart from having the right to vote, around one-quarter of the women of Bahrain are able to hold jobs outside the confines of the household. Available data on health, nutrition, education, and economic performance indicated that in the 2014 women participation in the workforce was 57%. Bangladesh has a Gender Development Index of .917. As financial controllers,

11495-449: The men were away in war, these women worked domestically to build up the next generation and the future of the country. Vietnamese women's roles in society would in turn develop Vietnam's socioeconomic status. "Women are laborers, citizens, mothers, and the first teachers of people..." As of 2007, several women in Azerbaijan held senior government positions, including deputy speaker of parliament, several deputy ministers, and deputy chair of

11616-534: The milieu of a masculine dominated post-colonial Asian Catholic society, Filipino women live in a culture that is focused on the community, with the family as the main unit of society. It is in this framework of Philippine hierarchical structure, class differences, religious justifications, and living in a globally developing nation that Filipino women struggle for respect. Compared to other parts of Southeast Asia , women in Philippine society have always enjoyed

11737-414: The obligations imposed on children originate equally from the mother and the father, as both are equally responsible for bringing them into the world. Thus the positive laws of God that relate to the obedience of children join the father and the mother without any differentiation; both possess a kind of ascendancy and jurisdiction over their children...." In the 19th century, various women began to question

11858-410: The origins and reproduction of patriarchy as a system of oppression of women, and concludes that patriarchy is socially constructed and seen as natural and invisible. Some feminist theorists believe that patriarchy is an unjust social system that is harmful to both men and women. It often includes any social, political, or economic mechanism that evokes male dominance over women. Because patriarchy

11979-420: The patriarchy is at the root of female oppression. Audre Lorde , an African American feminist writer and theorist, believed that racism and patriarchy were intertwined systems of oppression. Sara Ruddick , a philosopher who wrote about "good mothers" in the context of maternal ethics, describes the dilemma facing contemporary mothers who must train their children within a patriarchal system. She asks whether

12100-592: The predominantly biological explanations of patriarchy and contend that socialization processes are primarily responsible for establishing gender roles . Sociobiologists compare human gender roles to sexed behavior in other primates and some argue that gender inequality comes primarily from genetic and reproductive differences between men and women. Social constructionists contest this argument, arguing that gender roles and gender inequity are instruments of power and have become social norms to maintain control over women. Historically, patriarchy has manifested itself in

12221-553: The preparation and storage of food. In the ordinary family, women enjoyed approximately equal status with their husbands, within their traditional roles. Laotian women have long been active participants in their nation 's society, involved in politics, driving social transformation and development, becoming active in the world of business and serving as nurses and food producers for the military . Due to modernization and rural uprooting , Lao women have begun to embrace lifestyles that are foreign to traditional Laotian ideals. Due to

12342-434: The property of men; claimed that women's role in society was to reproduce and to serve men in the household; and saw male domination of women as natural and virtuous. Not all of the great Greek thinkers believed that women were inferior. Aristotle's teacher Plato laid out his vision of the most just society in his work Republic . In it, Plato argues that women would have complete educational and political equality in such

12463-527: The public sphere. In Oman, 17 October is celebrated every year as the Omani Women's Day with various pro-female events. The Pakistani women of today enjoy a better status than most Muslim women. However, on an average, the women's situation vis-à-vis men is one of systemic gender subordination , although there have been attempts by the government and enlightened groups to elevate the status of women in Pakistani society. Now due to much awareness among people

12584-456: The same phenomenon. Author bell hooks argues that the new term identifies the ideological system itself (that men claim dominance and superiority to women) that can be believed and acted upon by either men or women, whereas the earlier terms imply only men act as oppressors of women. Sociologist Joan Acker , analyzing the concept of patriarchy and the role that it has played in the development of feminist thought, says that seeing patriarchy as

12705-418: The scientific atmosphere, "the periods over which women would have been at a physiological disadvantage in participation in hunting through being at a late stage of pregnancy or early stage of child-rearing would have been short". During the time of the nomads, patriarchy still grew with power. Lewontin and others argue that such biological determinism unjustly limits women. In his study, he states women behave

12826-487: The scores from the Human Development Index, but not on its own. Additionally, the data that is needed in order to calculate the GDI is not always readily available in many countries, making the measure very hard to calculate uniformly and internationally. There is also worry that the combination of so many different developmental influences in one measurement could result in muddled results and that perhaps

12947-561: The social, legal, political, religious, and economic organization of a range of different cultures. Most contemporary societies are, in practice, patriarchal. Patriarchy literally means "the rule of the father" and comes from the Greek πατριάρχης ( patriarkhēs ), "father or chief of a race", which is a compound of πατριά ( patria ), "lineage, descent, family, fatherland" (from πατήρ patēr , "father") and ἀρχή ( arkhē ), "domination, authority, sovereignty". Historically,

13068-530: The society was male-dominated, and women in Hong Kong had a relatively subordinate familial role. However, there is a cultural change in Hong Kong during the British colonial period with an emergence of Western culture (i.e. " Westernization "). A mix of traditional Chinese culture and Western values creates a unique culture of Hong Kong . Along with the rapid economic and social development of Hong Kong since

13189-519: The socio-economic field include "inadequate gender awareness in the policy and planning process" and social stereotyping. During the Soviet period, women in Turkmenistan assumed responsibility for the observance of some Muslim rites to protect their husbands' careers. Many women entered the work force out of economic necessity, a factor that disrupted some traditional family practices and increased

13310-585: The struggle to liberate their country from foreign occupation, Vietnamese women were able to free themselves from "centuries of Confucian influence that had made them second-class citizens". Historically, this character and spirit of Vietnamese women were first exemplified by the conduct of the Trung sisters , the “first historical figures” in the history of Vietnam who revolted against Chinese control . These "women warriors" are not only fighting to protect their families, but also to preserve their culture. Trung Trac,

13431-484: The term patriarchy has been used to refer to autocratic rule by the male head of a family; however, since the late 20th century it has also been used to refer to social systems in which power is primarily held by adult men. The term was particularly used by writers associated with second-wave feminism such as Kate Millett ; these writers sought to use an understanding of patriarchal social relations to liberate women from male domination. This concept of patriarchy

13552-425: The terms patriarchal capitalism or capitalist patriarchy to describe the interactive relationship of capitalism and patriarchy in producing and reproducing the oppression of women. According to Hartmann, the term patriarchy redirects the focus of oppression from the labour division to a moral and political responsibility liable directly to men as a gender . In its being both systematic and universal, therefore,

13673-460: The time contemporary with Constantine in the West, "the emperor of Japan changed Japanese modes of worship", giving supremacy to male deities and suppressing belief in female spiritual power in what feminist scholars in the field of religious studies have called a "patriarchal revolution." In ancient China, gender roles and patriarchy were shaped by Confucianism . Adopted as the official religion in

13794-463: The traditional dictates of Indonesian culture , wherein women act simply and solely as wives and mothers. At present, the women of Indonesia are also venturing actively into the realm of national development, and working as active members of organizations that focus and act on women's issues and concerns. The Iranian women's movement is based on the Iranian women 's social movement for women's rights . This movement first emerged some time after

13915-485: The value of a woman's mediocrity and servile behavior leaves others feeling that this narrative is the result of a misplaced desire to cast her in a contemporary feminist light. Similarly to Three Obediences and Four Virtues , Precepts for Women was meant as a moral guide for proper feminine behavior, and was widely accepted as such for centuries. In China's Ming dynasty , widowed women were expected to never remarry, and unmarried women were expected to remain chaste for

14036-513: The women of Cambodia can be identified as having real household authority at the familial level. In recent years, women have become more active in the traditionally male-dominated spheres of work and politics in Cambodia. October 1, 1949 marks the formal establishment of the People's Republic of China. Since 1949, the government of the People's Republic of China has actively promoted the cultural, social, economic and political roles of women in order to improve women's liberation. The new government of

14157-866: The workforce and make up 16.5% of the overall workforce. There is evidence that some women in Saudi Arabia do not want change. Even many advocates of reform reject Western critics, for "failing to understand the uniqueness of Saudi society." Journalist Maha Akeel is a frequent critic of her country's patriarchal customs. Nonetheless, she agrees that Westerners criticize what they do not understand. She has said: "Look, we are not asking for ... women's rights according to Western values or lifestyles ... We want things according to what Islam says. Look at our history, our role models." Women in Singapore , particularly those who have joined Singapore 's workforce, are faced with balancing their traditional and modern-day roles in Singaporean society and economy. According to

14278-476: The years since its creation in 1995, much debate has arisen surrounding the reliability, and usefulness of the Gender Development Index (GDI) in making adequate comparisons between different countries and in promoting gender-sensitive development. The GDI is particularly criticized for being often mistakenly interpreted as an independent measure of gender gaps when it is not, in fact, intended to be interpreted in that way, because it can only be used in combination with

14399-564: Was developed to explain male dominance as a social, rather than biological, phenomenon. Patriarchy is a social system in which men are the primary authority figures in the areas of political leadership , moral authority and control of property . Sociologist Sylvia Walby defines patriarchy as "a system of social structures and practices in which men dominate, oppress, and exploit women". Social stratification along gender lines, with power predominantly held by men, has been observed in most, but not all societies. The concept of patriarchy

14520-569: Was early proposed by Friedrich Engels in an unfinished essay from 1876 . Anthropological , archaeological and evolutionary psychological evidence suggests that most prehistoric societies were relatively egalitarian , and suggests that patriarchal social structures did not develop until after the end of the Pleistocene epoch, following social and technological developments such as agriculture and domestication . According to Robert M. Strozier , historical research has not yet found

14641-677: Was really looking to promote true equality, it would strive to attain the same life expectancy for women and men, despite what might be considered a "normalized" advantage. In terms of policy, this could be achieved through providing better treatment to men, which women's rights organizations sometimes argue to be discriminatory against women. Critics also argue that the UN provides a number of strategies and plans giving preferential treatment to women and girls that are not seen as discriminatory towards men ─ not only for health issues but also for education and job opportunities. Furthermore, it has been argued that

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