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110-606: In the 100s BC, Mithridates had continued to avoid confrontation with the Roman republic, which itself was occupied in the Jugurthine and Cimbric wars . However, due to Mithridates' subjugation of Armenia and other territories along the Black Sea, Roman attention fell on Pontus. With Nicomedes III of Bithynia , Mithridates saw an opportunity in 108–107 BC and partitioned Paphlagonia. A Roman embassy protested and demanded

220-460: A Latin accent. Many had lived in Ephesus, and statues and monument of Roman citizens in Ephesus were also destroyed. But when they saw how badly the people of Chios had been treated by Zenobius, a general of Mithridates, they refused entry to his army. Zenobius was invited into the city to visit Philopoemen , the father of Monime , the favourite wife of Mithridates, and the overseer of Ephesus. As

330-561: A century until 197 BC. The Seleucid king Antiochus III the Great tried to regain the Greek cities of Asia Minor and recaptured Ephesus in 196 BC but he then came into conflict with Rome. After a series of battles, he was defeated by Scipio Asiaticus at the Battle of Magnesia in 190 BC. As a result of the subsequent Treaty of Apamea , Ephesus came under the rule of Eumenes II ,

440-565: A commission, led by the ex- Consul Lucius Opimius , to fairly divide Numidia between the remaining two contestants, starting in 116 BC. However, Jugurtha bribed the Roman officials in the commission into allotting him the better, more fertile and populous western half of Numidia, while Adherbal received the east. Powerless against Roman corruption, Adherbal accepted and peace was made. Shortly thereafter, in 113 BC, Jugurtha again declared war on his cousin anyway, and defeated him, forcing him to retreat into Cirta , Adherbal's capital. Jugurtha's goal

550-498: A commitment, Adherbal surrendered. Jugurtha promptly had him executed, along with all Romans who had joined in the defence of Cirta. The deaths of Roman citizens caused an immediate furor among the commoners at home, and the Senate, threatened by the popular tribune Gaius Memmius , finally declared war on Jugurtha in 111 BC and joined the late Adherbal's side in the war, though with reluctance. Lucius Calpurnius Bestia , consul for

660-401: A few ancient cities, or extensive settlement outside the city walls. This would have been impossible at Ephesus because of the mountain ranges, coastline and quarries which surrounded the city. The wall of Lysimachus has been estimated to enclose an area of 415 hectares (1,030 acres). Not all of this area was inhabited due to public buildings and spaces in the city center and the steep slope of

770-529: A huge indemnity, along with five years of back taxes, which left Asian cities heavily in debt for a long time to come. King Ptolemy XII Auletes of Egypt retired to Ephesus in 57 BC, passing his time in the sanctuary of the temple of Artemis when the Roman Senate failed to restore him to his throne. Mark Antony was welcomed by Ephesus for periods when he was proconsul and in 33 BC with Cleopatra when he gathered his fleet of 800 ships before

880-656: A large fleet that scoured the Aegean of Romans. Pontic forces occupied many vacated parts of the Hellenic world. Mithridates subverted the city of Athens , making use of his partisans there, including the peripatetic philosophers. He could not, however, despite maximum effort, take the port of Rhodes, as the Rhodians were master mariners, on whose ships the Romans had redesigned their own. When Sulla's men finally arrived to conduct

990-471: A lot more difficult by refusing to let his legions serve under Marius. Metellus sent them back to Italy to join the army of the other consul, Lucius Cassius Longinus , solely to prevent them from being used in Numidia. (Lucius was about to march north to confront a Germanic invasion of Gaul .) Marius found Rome's traditional manpower reserves depleted. As inequality increased, fewer men of military age met

1100-608: A loyal ally of Rome since the Punic Wars , Rome felt compelled to intervene. The war constituted an important phase in the Roman subjugation of Northern Africa , and the rise of the empire, but Numidia did not become a Roman province until 46 BC. Numidia was a kingdom located in North Africa (roughly corresponding to northern modern day Algeria ) adjacent to what had been Rome's arch enemy, Carthage . King Masinissa , who

1210-500: A message to Jugurtha to end the war and recognize Abherbal's right to his kingdom. The Jugurtha ignored the demand, and the Senate sent a second delegation, this time headed by Consul Marcus Scaurus , a respected member of the aristocracy, to threaten Jugurtha into submission. King Jugurtha, pretending to be open to discussion, protracted negotiations with Scaurus and Adherbal long enough for Cirta to run out of provisions and hope of relief. When Scaurus left without having forced Jugurtha to

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1320-402: A population between 138,000 and 172,500 . J.W. Hanson estimated the inhabited space to be smaller, at 224 hectares (550 acres). He argues that population densities of 150~250 people per hectare are more realistic, which gives a range of 33,600–56,000 inhabitants. Even with these much lower population estimates, Ephesus was one of the largest cities of Roman Asia Minor, ranking it as

1430-592: A side: "no city that did his bidding now could ever hope to be received back into Roman allegiance". The killings took place probably in the first half of the year 88 BC. Valerius Maximus and Memnon indicate a death toll of approximately 80,000; Plutarch claims – "less credibly" – a death toll of 150,000. The reported numbers, according to fragments of Dio, are however probably exaggerated. They were planned, with Mithridates writing secretly to regional satraps and leaders to kill all Italian residents (along with wives, children, and freedmen of Italian birth) thirty days after

1540-487: A siege of Athens, all mainland Greece had rallied to the Roman cause. A series of conflicts known as the Mithridatic Wars followed. The precise date of the massacre is disputed by modern historians, who have written about the question at length. A. N. Sherwin-White places the event in late 89 or early 88 BC. Ernst Badian , saying "precision seems impossible", places it in the first half of 88 BC, no later than

1650-679: A successful warrior, and as a king he was able to join the twelve cities of Ionia together into the Ionian League . During his reign the city began to prosper. He died in a battle against the Carians when he came to the aid of Priene , another city of the Ionian League. Androklos and his dog are depicted on the Hadrian temple frieze, dating from the 2nd century. Later, Greek historians such as Pausanias , Strabo and Herodotos and

1760-434: A treaty on extremely lenient terms: Numidia was restored to Jugurtha intact, in exchange for bribes to the Senate, a small additional fine, and the remittal of his war-elephants (which he later bought back at reduced price from corrupt officers). In fact, the treaty of Jugurtha's terms of surrender were so favorable that it led to a renewal of the popular outcry at Rome; at the demand of the tribune Memmius, an investigation

1870-631: The Pope Victor I , Bishop of Rome, defending the Quartodeciman position in the Easter controversy . A legend, which was first mentioned by Epiphanius of Salamis in the 4th century, purported that Mary, the mother of Jesus, may have spent the last years of her life in Ephesus. The Ephesians derived the argument from John's presence in the city, and Jesus' instructions to John to take care of his mother, Mary, after his death. Epiphanius, however,

1980-482: The Goths in 263 AD. This marked the decline of the city's splendour. However, emperor Constantine the Great rebuilt much of the city and erected new public baths. Until recently, the population of Ephesus in Roman times was estimated to number up to 225,000 people by Broughton. More recent scholarship regards these estimates as unrealistic. Such a large estimate would require population densities seen in only

2090-535: The Sasanian War , which initiated a drastic decline in the city's population and standard of living. The importance of the city as a commercial centre further declined as the harbour, today 5 kilometres inland, was slowly silted up by the river (today, Küçük Menderes) despite repeated dredging during the city's history. The loss of its harbour caused Ephesus to lose its access to the Aegean Sea , which

2200-731: The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World . Its many monumental buildings included the Library of Celsus and a theatre capable of holding 24,000 spectators. Ephesus was a recipient city of one of the Pauline epistles and one of the seven churches of Asia addressed in the Book of Revelation . The Gospel of John may have been written there, and it was the site of several 5th-century Christian Councils ( Council of Ephesus ). The city

2310-460: The baptism of John the Baptist . Later a silversmith named Demetrios stirred up a mob against Paul, saying that he was endangering the livelihood of those making silver Artemis shrines. Demetrios in connection with the temple of Artemis mentions some object (perhaps an image or a stone) "fallen from Zeus". Between 53 and 57 AD Paul wrote the letter 1 Corinthians from Ephesus (possibly from

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2420-460: The battle of Actium with Octavius . When Augustus became emperor in 27 BC, the most important change was when he made Ephesus the capital of proconsular Asia (which covered western Asia Minor) instead of Pergamum . Ephesus then entered an era of prosperity, becoming both the seat of the governor and a major centre of commerce. According to Strabo , it was second in importance and size only to Rome. The city and temple were destroyed by

2530-627: The 'Paul tower' near the harbour, where he was imprisoned for a short time). Later, Paul wrote the Epistle to the Ephesians while he was in prison in Rome (around 62 AD). Roman Asia was associated with John , one of the chief apostles, and the Gospel of John might have been written in Ephesus, c 90–100. Ephesus was one of the seven cities addressed in the Book of Revelation , indicating that

2640-431: The Aegean and Rhodes. Proceeding south, Mithridates induced the citizens of Laodicea, where Oppius was present, to surrender the proconsul. By the middle of 89 BC, Mithridates had defeated four allied armies and conquered most of Roman Asia. He revelled in his victory as he remitted all taxes for five years and appointed satraps and overseers for the conquered territories. News reached Rome of Mithridates' victories and

2750-591: The Attalid king of Pergamon , (ruled 197–159 BC). When his grandson Attalus III died in 133 BC without male children of his own, he left his kingdom to the Roman Republic , on condition that the city of Pergamon be kept free and autonomous. Ephesus, as part of the kingdom of Pergamon, became a subject of the Roman Republic in 129 BC after the revolt of Eumenes III was suppressed. The city felt Roman influence at once; taxes rose considerably, and

2860-530: The Bülbül Dağı mountain, which was enclosed by the wall. Ludwig Burchner estimated this area with the walls at 1000 acres. Jerome Murphy-O'Connor uses an estimate of 345 hectares for the inhabited land or 835 acres (Murphey cites Ludwig Burchner). He cites Josiah Russell using 832 acres and Old Jerusalem in 1918 as the yardstick estimated the population at 51,068 at 148.5 persons per hectare. Using 510 persons per hectare, he arrives at

2970-534: The Cimmerians had been driven away, the city was ruled by a series of tyrants. Following a revolt by the people, Ephesus was ruled by a council. The city prospered again under a new rule, producing a number of important historical figures such as the elegiac poet Callinus and the iambic poet Hipponax , the philosopher Heraclitus , the great painter Parrhasius and later the grammarian Zenodotos and physicians Soranus and Rufus. About 560 BC, Ephesus

3080-593: The Greek cities of Asia Minor into the Achaemenid Empire . Those cities were then ruled by satraps . Ephesus has intrigued archaeologists because for the Archaic Period there is no definite location for the settlement. There are numerous sites to suggest the movement of a settlement between the Bronze Age and the Roman period, but the silting up of the natural harbours as well as the movement of

3190-655: The Jugurthine War emphasising this decline of Roman ethics. He placed it, along with his work on the Catilinarian Conspiracy , in the timeline of the degeneration of Rome that began with the Fall of Carthage and ended with the Fall of the Roman Republic itself , believing this was the first of the events that set that collapse in motion. Sallust is one of the most valuable primary sources on

3300-711: The Kayster River meant that the location never remained the same. Ephesus continued to prosper, but when taxes were raised under Cambyses II and Darius , the Ephesians participated in the Ionian Revolt against Persian rule in the Battle of Ephesus (498 BC) , an event which instigated the Greco-Persian wars . In 479 BC, the Ionians, together with Athens , were able to oust the Persians from

3410-580: The Mauritanians, and King Jugurtha was handed over in chains to Sulla by Bocchus. In the aftermath, Bocchus annexed the western part of Jugurtha's kingdom, and was made a friend of the Roman people (a term used to describe a foreign king in good standing with Rome). Jugurtha was thrown into an underground prison (the Tullianum ) in Rome, and was ultimately executed after gracing Marius's Roman triumph in 104 BC. The Jugurthine War clearly revealed

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3520-530: The Numidian city of Zama , but the king refused to let himself be goaded and kept up his irregular warfare . In 108 BC, when Metellus found out the location of Jugurtha's army, he caught up with the Numidians and inflicted a serious defeat on the king. Jugurtha, with his family and treasure boxes, fled to the desert fortress of Thala, which was inaccessible except by an excruciating march of three days through

3630-575: The Numidian throne. Jugurtha assassinated him, and the Senate, though initially inclined to accept bribery again to allow him to escape retribution, was ultimately compelled by his insolence and by the fury of the mob to expel him from the city and revoke the recent peace. The armies of Rome were to return to Jugurtha's Numidia The consul Spurius Postumius Albinus took command of the Roman army in Africa (110 BC), but failed to carry out energetic action, due to incompetence, indiscipline in his army, and – it

3740-419: The Roman army . When Gaius Marius arrived in Numidia as consul in 107 BC, he immediately ceased negotiation and resumed the war. Marius marched west plundering the Numidian countryside, seizing minor Numidian towns and fortresses trying to provoke Jugurtha into a set piece battle , but the Numidian king refused to engage. Marius' strategy was similar to Metellus' and yielded no better results; he continued

3850-442: The Roman camp between Metellus and Marius led to this change of command. Metellus looked unfavourably on Marius' known ambitions in Roman politics and refused for days to allow him to sail to Rome and stand for the consulship. Eventually, Metellus permitted Marius to return to Rome and Marius was elected consul in 107. Metellus was, however, unaware that Marius still wanted to command the troops in Numidia, removing him entirely. Numidia

3960-435: The Romans into accepting his conquests but was largely unsuccessful. After a revolution overthrew Mithridates' son in 97 BC, Nicomedes appealed to Rome for support. Mithridates did so also, but the Romans – probably finding the matter too difficult to untangle – ordered both kings to leave Cappadocia and to allow its nobility to choose a new king. It then sent the governor of Cilicia, then Lucius Cornelius Sulla , to install

4070-472: The Romans routed both Jugurtha's and Bocchus's army. Marius had won the Second Battle of Cirta and could now put his army into winter quarters. Marius's army thus finished the year's campaigns in safety at Cirta, but it was by now evident that Rome could not defeat Jugurtha's guerrilla tactics through war. Over the winter, therefore, Marius resumed negotiations with Bocchus, who, though he had joined in

4180-563: The Romans, now received Jugurtha hospitably, and, without positively declaring war (on Rome), advanced with his troops into Numidia as far as Cirta, the capital. Metellus, who had taken up winter quarters in the area after the conclusion of the campaign, began negotiation with Bocchus to hand over Jugurtha. Before an agreement could be reached, Metellus was deposed from his command by the Roman Tribal Assembly and replaced by his lieutenant, Gaius Marius . An internal struggle in

4290-556: The Second Battle of Cirta, had not yet declared war on Rome itself. Ultimately, Marius reached a deal with Bocchus whereby Sulla, who was friendly with members of Bocchus' court, would enter Bocchus' camp to receive Jugurtha as a political hostage . In spite of the possibility of treachery on the Mauritanian's part, Sulla agreed. Siding with their Roman allies, Jugurtha's remaining followers were then treacherously massacred by

4400-490: The Senate. After he had taken command of the legions at Nola , a Roman Assembly passed a law stripping him of his authority in favor of Gaius Marius . At the instigation of his men, he marched on Rome to assert the authority of the Senate. Assured of its and his authority, he crossed the Adriatic with minimal troops and no heavy warships, after one year of doing nothing on the eastern front. Meanwhile, Mithridates had created

4510-566: The capital of the kingdom of Arzawa (another independent state in Western and Southern Anatolia/Asia Minor ) was Apasa (or Abasa ), and some scholars suggest that this is the same place the Greeks later called Ephesus. In 1954, a burial ground from the Mycenaean era (1500–1400 BC), which contained ceramic pots, was discovered close to the ruins of the basilica of St. John . This was

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4620-454: The centre of ancient Ephesus (as attested by excavations at the Seljuk castle during the 1990s). The mythical founder of the city was a prince of Athens named Androklos , who had to leave his country after the death of his father, King Kodros. According to the legend, he founded Ephesus on the place where the oracle of Delphi became reality ("A fish and a boar will show you the way"). He was

4730-534: The church at Ephesus was strong. According to Eusebius of Caesarea , Saint Timothy was the first bishop of Ephesus. In the early 2nd century, the church at Ephesus was still important enough to be addressed by a letter written by Bishop Ignatius of Antioch to the Ephesians which begins with "Ignatius, who is also called Theophorus, to the Church which is at Ephesus, in Asia, deservedly most happy, being blessed in

4840-453: The cities of Ionia was ceded again to Persia. These wars did not greatly affect daily life in Ephesus. The Ephesians were surprisingly modern in their social relations: they allowed strangers to integrate and education was valued. In later times, Pliny the Elder mentioned having seen at Ephesus a representation of the goddess Diana by Timarete , the daughter of a painter. In 356 BC

4950-507: The collapse of Roman rule in Asia in the autumn of 89 BC. Distracted by the Social war, the Romans immediately declared war on Mithridates but moved slowly in forming up forces. The consul of 88 BC, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, was given the command against Mithridates and it took him some eighteen months to assemble five legions. The massacres were a calculated response to the Roman declaration of war. They were meant to force cities to take

5060-408: The control of tyrants , and many of the inhabitants enthusiastically fell upon their Italian neighbours, who were blamed "for the prevailing climate of aggressive greed[,] acquisitiveness[,] and... malicious litigation". The declaration of war was immediate, but implementation of the mandate was delayed by an unrelated civil war already ongoing within the Roman Republic. Sulla received it first from

5170-479: The day of writing. Mithridates furthermore offered freedom to slaves which informed on their Italian masters and debt relief to those who slew their creditors. Assassins and informers would share with the Pontic treasury half the properties of those who were killed. Ephesus , Pergamon , Adramyttion , Caunus , Tralles , Nysa , and the island of Chios were all scenes of atrocities. Many of these cities were under

5280-647: The death of Lysimachus the town again was named Ephesus. Thus Ephesus became part of the Seleucid Empire . After the murder of king Antiochus II Theos and his Egyptian wife in 246 BC, pharaoh Ptolemy III invaded the Seleucid Empire and the Egyptian fleet swept the coast of Asia Minor. Ephesus was betrayed by its governor Sophron into the hands of the Ptolemies who ruled the city for half

5390-403: The desert without water. Metellus furnished his army with skins for water transport and followed to besiege the fortress , which fell after forty days. However, Jugurtha managed to escape from the flaming wreckage, undoing all of Metellus' efforts. At this point Jugurtha retired to the court of his father-in-law, king Bocchus I of Mauretania , who though previously professing friendship for

5500-479: The enemy a blow, allowed Jugurtha to lure him into the desolate wilds of the Sahara , where the cunning Numidian king, who had reportedly bribed Roman officers to facilitate his attack, was able to catch the Romans at a disadvantage. Half the Roman army was killed, and the survivors were forced to pass under a yoke in a disgraceful symbolism of surrender. The beaten Postumius signed a treaty permanently naming Jugurtha

5610-554: The enemy, while Metellus and Marius, rallying a group of legionaries , occupied the single hill on the plain, which commanded the situation. The Roman infantry drove back Jugurtha's inferior Numidian soldiers, who retreated into the desert with severe losses. Metellus had won the Battle of the Muthul , but it was not a definitive victory since the Numidian king had escaped. A fresh round of negotiations came to nothing, with Metellus rejecting Jugurtha's heavy concessions and demanding that

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5720-479: The first of the great civil wars of the Late Republican Period . The beginning of that rivalry, according to Plutarch , was purportedly Sulla's crucial role in the negotiations for and eventual capture of Jugurtha, which led to Sulla wearing a ring portraying the capture despite Marius being awarded the victory for it. The Roman historian Sallust wrote a monograph , Bellum Jugurthinum , on

5830-700: The first time in 1390. The Central Asian warlord Tamerlane defeated the Ottomans in Anatolia in 1402, and the Ottoman sultan Bayezid I died in captivity. The region was restored to the Anatolian beyliks . After a period of unrest, the region was again incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in 1425. Ephesus was completely abandoned by the 15th century. Nearby Ayasuluğ ( Ayasoluk being a corrupted form of

5940-544: The greatness and fullness of God the Father, and predestinated before the beginning of time, that it should be always for an enduring and unchangeable glory" ( Letter to the Ephesians ). The church at Ephesus had given their support for Ignatius, who was taken to Rome for execution. Polycrates of Ephesus ( Greek : Πολυκράτης ) was a bishop at the Church of Ephesus in the 2nd century. He is best known for his letter addressed to

6050-431: The infantry) lay further south, closer to the river. Metellus handled the situation by sending one force directly south to the river under Rufus while the rest under Metellus and Marius marched obliquely south-west to dislodge Jugurtha from his position, preventing him from hindering the march of the first body to the river. Jugurtha, however, displaying excellent generalship, dispatched an infantry column formation to hold

6160-521: The issues with political corruption at that time and to come. The fact that a man such as Jugurtha could have his treachery, conquests, and defiances ignored simply by buying Roman military and civil officials reflected Rome's moral and ethical decline. Romans now sought individual power often at the expense of the state. This was illustrated by Marius's rise to power by ignoring Roman traditions. These events were also observed by Marius's quaestor , Lucius Cornelius Sulla , who later came to rival Marius in

6270-413: The king of all of Numidia and returning to the peace concluded with Bestia and Scaurus . The Senate, however, when it heard of this capitulation, refused to honour the conditions and continued the war. After Postumius' defeat, the Senate finally shook itself from its lethargy, appointing as commander in Africa the plebeian Quintus Metellus , who had a reputation for integrity and courage. Metellus proved

6380-421: The king surrender himself into Roman custody. To resist the Romans more effectually, Jugurtha dismissed most of his low-quality recruits, keeping only the most active troops of infantry and light cavalry, in order to maintain the war by guerrilla tactics . Metellus advanced once again, capturing town after town, but was unable to capture his enemy. He tried to provoke Jugurtha into a pitched battle by besieging

6490-505: The king's second wife, Arsinoe II of Egypt . After Lysimachus had destroyed the nearby cities of Lebedos and Colophon in 292 BC, he relocated their inhabitants to the new city. Ephesus revolted after the treacherous death of Agathocles , giving the Hellenistic king of Syria and Mesopotamia Seleucus I Nicator an opportunity for removing and killing Lysimachus, his last rival, at the Battle of Corupedium in 281 BC. After

6600-418: The kingdom from his own somewhat less able sons, adopted him, and bequeathed the kingship jointly to his two sons and Jugurtha, with the realm to be divided into three. After King Micipsa's death the three kings fell out, and ultimately agreed between themselves to divide their inheritance into three separate kingdoms; however, they were unable to agree on the terms of division, and Jugurtha declared open war on

6710-491: The largest city after Sardis and Alexandria Troas . Hanson and Ortman (2017) estimate an inhabited area to be 263 hectares and their demographic model yields an estimate of 71,587 inhabitants, with a population density of 276 inhabitants per hectare. By contrast, Rome within the walls encompassed 1,500 hectares and as over 400 built-up hectares were left outside the Aurelian Wall, whose construction

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6820-588: The middle of that year. The name "Vêpres éphésiennes" was coined in 1890 by historian Théodore Reinach to describe the massacre, making a retrospective analogy with the Sicilian Vespers of 1282. Subsequent historians have adopted some variation of the phrase, using Vespers as a euphemism for "massacre". Jugurthine War French Algeria (19th–20th centuries) Algerian War (1954–1962) 1990s– 2000s 2010s to present The Jugurthine War ( Latin : Bellum Iugurthinum ; 112–106 BCE)

6930-501: The most important city of the Byzantine Empire in Asia after Constantinople in the 5th and 6th centuries. Emperor Flavius Arcadius raised the level of the street between the theatre and the harbour. The basilica of St. John was built during the reign of emperor Justinian I in the 6th century. Excavations in 2022 indicate that large parts of the city were destroyed in 614/615 by a military conflict, most likely during

7040-463: The mountain passes as soon as the Romans had descended into the plain, thus cutting off their line of retreat; meanwhile, his cavalry harried Metellus' detachment of infantry in swarms along the plain. The Romans were unable to respond effectively since they only had heavy cavalry ; on the other hand, the Numidian's light cavalry horses were well-adjusted to the rough terrain and could attack and then flee back with ease. Meanwhile, Rufus had advanced to

7150-461: The mountains into the desert, advancing to the Muthul River . Jugurtha had divided his army into two detachments, one of which (composed of cavalry and the best of his infantry) lay south of the mountain on the right flank of the Romans, who were marching to the river Muthul, which lay parallel to the mountains, 18 miles to the south; the second detachment (formed of war-elephants and the rest of

7260-464: The new king – Ariobarzanes I – into power. When Rome became occupied in the Social war , Mithridates took the opportunity to ally with Tigranes I of Armenia . With the death of Nicomedes III and the accession of his son Nicomedes IV , Mithridates and Tigranes unseated Ariobarzanes from Cappadocia and, after an assassination attempt failed, expelled Nicomedes IV from Bithynia. When news reached Rome,

7370-456: The next morning at dawn and completely routed the African army. They then marched east to take Cirta again and go into winter quarters there. The African kings harried the march east with light cavalry, but were beaten back by Sulla whom Marius had put in command of the rearguard and the cavalry. The combined African army then tried to finish off Marius, but when Sulla returned from his pursuit

7480-440: The occupation of Numidian towns and he fortified several strategic positions. At the end of 107 BC Marius made a dangerous desert march to Capsa in the far south where, after the town surrendered, he executed all survivors. Next he advanced far to the west, capturing a fortress near the river Muluccha where Jugurtha had moved a large part of his treasure. Meanwhile, Jugurtha's loyalists had recaptured Cirta . By marching so far to

7590-643: The original Greek name ) was turkified to Selçuk in 1914. Ephesus was an important centre for Early Christianity from the AD 50s. From AD 52–54, the apostle Paul lived in Ephesus, working with the congregation and apparently organizing missionary activity into the hinterlands. Initially, according to the Acts of the Apostles , Paul attended the Jewish synagogue in Ephesus, but after three months he became frustrated with

7700-514: The other two kings. Hiempsal , who, though the younger, was the braver of the brothers, was assassinated by Jugurtha's agents, and Adherbal , unable to defend himself, was defeated and forced to flee to Rome, where he appealed for arbitration to the Roman Senate . Although the Senate was given authority by Micipsa to arbitrate his will, they now allowed themselves to be bribed by Jugurtha into overlooking his crimes. The Roman Senate organized

7810-516: The people expected nothing good of him, they threw him into prison and murdered him. Mithridates took revenge and inflicted terrible punishments. However, the Greek cities were given freedom and several substantial rights. Ephesus became, for a short time, self-governing. When Mithridates was defeated in the First Mithridatic War by the Roman consul Lucius Cornelius Sulla , Ephesus came back under Roman rule in 86 BC. Sulla imposed

7920-664: The period of the Mycenaean expansion, when the Ahhiyawa began settling in Asia Minor , a process that continued into the 13th century BC. The names Apasa and Ephesus appear to be cognate, and recently found inscriptions seem to pinpoint the places in the Hittite record. Ephesus was founded as an Attic-Ionian colony in the 10th century BC on a hill (now known as the Ayasuluk Hill), three kilometers (1.9 miles) from

8030-623: The poet Kallinos reassigned the city's mythological foundation to Ephos, queen of the Amazons . The Greek goddess Artemis and the great Anatolian goddess Kybele were identified together as Artemis of Ephesus . The many-breasted "Lady of Ephesus", identified with Artemis, was venerated in the Temple of Artemis , one of the Seven Wonders of the World and the largest building of the ancient world according to Pausanias (4.31.8). Pausanias mentions that

8140-546: The property requirements to serve in the legions. Yet, thousands of poor Romans, the Capite Censi or lit.   ' Head Count ' , sat idly in Rome, ineligible to serve. Seeking to use them, and with precedent for waiving the property requirements during the existential crisis that was the Second Punic War , Marius was exempted from the requirements. These events would inspire Marius to try to reform

8250-496: The river Cayster (Grk. name Κάϋστρος) silted up the old harbour, the resulting marshes caused malaria and many deaths among the inhabitants. Lysimachus forced the people to move from the ancient settlement around the temple of Artemis to the present site two kilometres (1.2 miles) away, when as a last resort the king flooded the old city by blocking the sewers. The new settlement was officially called Arsinoea ( Ancient Greek : Ἀρσινόεια or Ἀρσινοΐα ) or Arsinoe (Ἀρσινόη), after

8360-413: The river but was attacked by Jugurtha's southern force; thus, the two Roman armies were incapable of coming to each other's relief. However, although Metellus' army was now entrapped in the desert with fewer troops and inferior generalship, the Romans still prevailed simultaneously on both fronts. Rufus overpowered the southern detachment by a forward charge which scattered the war elephants and infantry of

8470-490: The ruins were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Humans had begun inhabiting the area surrounding Ephesus by the Neolithic Age (about 6000 BC), as shown by evidence from excavations at the nearby höyük (artificial mounds known as tells ) of Arvalya and Cukurici . Excavations in recent years have unearthed settlements from the early Bronze Age at Ayasuluk Hill . According to Hittite sources,

8580-404: The senate decreed that both kings were to be restored and dispatched Manius Aquillius to lead a commission. Facing Roman demands for withdrawal, Mithridates complied and had his own puppet king of Bithynia executed. However, the reinstalled kings of Cappadocia and Bithynia were faced with a Roman bill for their restoration. Unable to find the funds, the Romans encouraged them to invade Pontus. This

8690-720: The shores of Asia Minor. In 478 BC, the Ionian cities with Athens entered into the Delian League against the Persians. Ephesus did not contribute ships but gave financial support. During the Peloponnesian War , Ephesus was first allied to Athens but in a later phase, called the Decelean War, or the Ionian War, sided with Sparta, which also had received the support of the Persians. As a result, rule over

8800-453: The soundness of his judgement by selecting men as officers for the campaign based on ability rather than of rank. Both Gaius Marius (a plebeian from Arpinum ) and the noted disciplinarian and military theorist Publius Rutilius Rufus documented Metellus' commitment to merit and expertise in his officer corps. When Metellus arrived in Africa in 109 BC, he first had to retrain the army and institute some form of military discipline . In

8910-402: The spring he led his reorganised army into Numidia. Jugurtha was alarmed and opened negotiations, where Metellus attempted to convince the royal envoys to capture Jugurtha and deliver him to the Romans. The crafty Jugurtha, guessing Metellus' intentions, broke off the talks and withdrew south beyond the Numidian mountains, taking up position on the plains behind them. Metellus followed and crossed

9020-553: The stubbornness of some of the Jews, and moved his base to the school of Tyrannus . The Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary reminds readers that the unbelief of "some" ( Greek : τινες ) implies that "others, probably a large number, believed" and therefore there must have been a community of Jewish Christians in Ephesus. Paul introduced about twelve men to the ' baptism with the Holy Spirit ' who had previously only experienced

9130-474: The surrounding Christian regions were organised, some officially sanctioned by the state and some by private parties. The town knew a short period of prosperity again during the 14th century under these new Seljuk rulers. They added important architectural works such as the İsa Bey Mosque , caravansaries, and hamams (bathhouses). Ephesians were incorporated as vassals into the Ottoman Empire for

9240-504: The temple of Artemis was burnt down, according to legend, by a lunatic called Herostratus . The inhabitants of Ephesus at once set about restoring the temple and even planned a larger and grander one than the original. When Alexander the Great defeated the Persian forces at the Battle of Granicus in 334 BC, the Greek cities of Asia Minor were liberated. The pro-Persian tyrant Syrpax and his family were stoned to death, and Alexander

9350-467: The temple was built by Ephesus, son of the river god Caystrus , before the arrival of the Ionians. Of this structure, scarcely a trace remains. Ancient sources seem to indicate that an older name of the place was Alope ( Ancient Greek : Ἀλόπη , romanized :  Alópē ). About 650 BC, Ephesus was attacked by the Cimmerians who razed the city, including the temple of Artemis. After

9460-589: The terms of the surrender, the Turks pillaged the church of Saint John and, when a revolt seemed probable, deported most of the local population to Thyrea, Greece . During these events, many of the remaining inhabitants were massacred. Shortly afterwards, Ephesus was ceded to the Aydinid principality that stationed a powerful navy in the harbour of Ayasuluğ (the present-day Selçuk , next to Ephesus). Ayasoluk became an important harbour, from which piratical raids on

9570-657: The town in December 1147. In 1206, the city came under the control of the Laskaris . It was an important religious and intellectual center during the 13th century. Nikephoros Blemmydes , a prominent intellectual of the time, taught in the city. However, the Byzantines lost control of the region by 1308. On 24 October 1304, the town surrendered to Sasa Bey, a Turkish warlord of the Menteşoğulları principality. Contrary to

9680-481: The treasures of the city were systematically plundered. Hence in 88 BC Ephesus welcomed Archelaus , a general of Mithridates , king of Pontus , when he conquered Asia (the Roman name for western Anatolia ). From Ephesus, Mithridates ordered every Roman citizen in the province to be killed which led to the Asiatic Vespers , the slaughter of 80,000 Roman citizens in Asia, or any person who spoke with

9790-524: The two kings to withdraw, but was ignored. A few years later, c.  102 BC , Nicomedes and Mithridates came into a dispute over Cappadocia : Nicomedes sent a garrison into the country and married its dowager queen, Laodice . After Mithridates attempted to assassinate the king of Cappadocia, Ariarathes VII Philometor , Ariarathes went to war. Mithridates invaded with a large army and killed Ariarathes, installing his own son – Ariarathes IX – c.  101 BC . Mithridates attempted to sway

9900-578: The vicinity of the Temple of Artemis, enlarging the city. Later in the same century, the Lydians under Croesus invaded Persia. The Ionians refused a peace offer from Cyrus the Great , siding with the Lydians instead. After the Persians defeated Croesus, the Ionians offered to make peace, but Cyrus insisted that they surrender and become part of the empire. They were defeated by the Persian army commander Harpagos in 547 BC. The Persians then incorporated

10010-596: The visions of Augustinian sister the Blessed Anne Catherine Emmerich (1774–1824). It is a popular place of Catholic pilgrimage which has been visited by three recent popes. The Church of Mary near the harbour of Ephesus was the setting for the Third Ecumenical Council in 431, which resulted in the condemnation of Nestorius . A Second Council of Ephesus was held in 449, but its controversial acts were never approved by

10120-514: The war, along with Plutarch's biographies of Sulla and Marius. Ephesus Ephesus ( / ˈ ɛ f ɪ s ə s / ; ‹See Tfd› Greek : Ἔφεσος , translit.   Éphesos ; Turkish : Efes ; may ultimately derive from Hittite : 𒀀𒉺𒊭 , romanized:  Apaša ) was a city in Ancient Greece on the coast of Ionia , 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) southwest of present-day Selçuk in İzmir Province , Turkey . It

10230-494: The west Marius had brought the Roman army very near to the dominions of king Bocchus, finally provoking the Mauretanian into direct war, joining the side of Jugurtha. In the deserts just west of Serif, Marius was taken by surprise by a massive army of Numidians and Mauretanians under command of the two enemy kings. For once, Marius was unprepared for action and in the melee all he could do was form defensive circles. The attack

10340-403: The year, was appointed to command the Roman army in Africa against Jugurtha. He was accompanied by Scaurus and other experienced officers, and received an offer of alliance from Bocchus I , king of Mauretania . The defection of Bocchus, his own father-in-law, filled Jugurtha with alarm, and he sent to the Roman consul to surrender. Ceasing to regard him as a threat, the Roman senators granted him

10450-526: Was a "disastrous and fatal miscalculation". Mithridates responded to the provocation by invading Cappadocia and Bithynia. Manius Aquillius attempted to raise troops from Bithynia and also called upon reinforcements under Gaius Cassius, the proconsul in Asia, and Quintus Oppius , proconsul in Cilicia. After defeating Nicomedes IV, Mithridates then defeated Aquillius in Bithynia, forcing Cassius to withdraw to

10560-541: Was a small village. The Byzantines resumed control in 1097 and changed the name of the town to Hagios Theologos. Crusaders passing through were surprised that there was only a small village, called Ayasalouk, where they had expected a bustling city with a large seaport. Even the temple of Artemis was completely forgotten by the local population. The Crusaders of the Second Crusade fought the Seljuks just outside

10670-593: Was a steadfast ally of Rome in the Third Punic War , died in 149 BC, and was succeeded by his son Micipsa , who ruled 149–118 BC. At the time of his death, Micipsa had three potential heirs: his two sons, Adherbal and Hiempsal I , and an illegitimate nephew , Jugurtha . Jugurtha had fought under Scipio Aemilianus at the siege of Numantia, where, through friendship with Roman aristocrats , he had formed an acquaintance with Roman manners and military tactics. Micipsa, worried that at his death Jugurtha would usurp

10780-481: Was alleged – bribery by Jugurtha. Later in the year Albinus returned to Italy, leaving the command to his brother, Aulus Postumius Albinus . The latter, more active though no more able than his brother, decided on a bold strike, marching in mid-winter to besiege the town of Suthul , where the Numidian treasury was kept; however, the town was strongly garrisoned and excellently fortified and could not be captured. Postumius, anxious not to have retreated without striking

10890-403: Was an armed conflict between the Roman Republic and King Jugurtha of Numidia , a kingdom on the north African coast approximating to modern Algeria . Jugurtha was the nephew and adopted son of Micipsa , king of Numidia , whom he succeeded on the throne, he had done so by overcoming his rivals through assassination, war, and bribery. Following Jugurtha's usurpation of the throne of Numidia,

11000-434: Was begun in 274 AD and finished in 279 AD, the total inhabited area plus public spaces inside the walls consisted of ca. 1,900 hectares. Imperial Rome had a population estimated to be between 750,000 and one million (Hanson and Ortman's (2017) model yields an estimate of 923,406 inhabitants), which imply in a population density of 395 to 526 inhabitants per hectare, including public spaces. Ephesus remained

11110-495: Was built in the 10th century BC on the site of Apasa, the former Arzawan capital, by Attic and Ionian Greek colonists. During the Classical Greek era, it was one of twelve cities that were members of the Ionian League . The city came under the control of the Roman Republic in 129 BC. The city was famous in its day for the nearby Temple of Artemis (completed around 550 BC), which has been designated one of

11220-540: Was conquered by the Lydians under king Croesus , who, though a harsh ruler, treated the inhabitants with respect and even became the main contributor to the reconstruction of the temple of Artemis. His signature has been found on the base of one of the columns of the temple (now on display in the British Museum ). Croesus made the populations of the different settlements around Ephesus regroup ( synoikismos ) in

11330-502: Was destroyed by the Goths in 263. Although it was afterwards rebuilt, its importance as a port and commercial centre declined as the harbour was slowly silted up by the Küçükmenderes River . In 614, it was partially destroyed by an earthquake. Today, the ruins of Ephesus are a favourite international and local tourist attraction, being accessible from Adnan Menderes Airport and from the resort town Kuşadası . In 2015,

11440-440: Was greeted warmly when he entered Ephesus in triumph. When Alexander saw that the temple of Artemis was not yet finished, he proposed to finance it and have his name inscribed on the front. But the inhabitants of Ephesus demurred, claiming that it was not fitting for one god to build a temple to another. After Alexander's death in 323 BC, Ephesus in 290 BC came under the rule of one of Alexander's generals, Lysimachus . As

11550-534: Was important for trade. People started leaving the lowland of the city for the surrounding hills. The ruins of the temples were used as building blocks for new homes. Marble sculptures were ground to powder to make lime for plaster. Sackings by the Arabs first in the year 654–655 by caliph Muawiyah I , and later in 700 and 716 hastened the decline further. When the Seljuk Turks conquered Ephesus in 1090, it

11660-660: Was keen to point out that, while the Bible says John was leaving for Asia, it does not say specifically that Mary went with him. He later stated that she was buried in Jerusalem. Since the 19th century, The House of the Virgin Mary , about 7 km (4 mi) from Selçuk, has been considered to have been the last home of Mary, mother of Jesus before her assumption into heaven in the Roman Catholic tradition, based on

11770-484: Was launched into the proceedings of the treaty. Jugurtha was summoned to Rome– with the promise of a safe conduct transit –and appeared as a witness. Rather than complying with the inquisition, he bribed two Roman Tribunes to veto the proceedings and prevent him from testifying. In the ensuing outrage, Jugurtha's cousin Massiva, who had fled to Rome in fear of his cousin, seized the opportunity to press his own claim to

11880-480: Was not an area designated to be assigned to a consul by the Roman Senate. However, the populares passed a law in its Tribal Assembly which gave the command against Jugurtha to Marius in 107. This was significant because the Assembly usurped the Senate's rights and powers in this matter and the Senate yielded, failing to contest it. Metellus was furious at all these developments and decided to make Marius' command

11990-412: Was now to conquer, and thus unite, Numidia under his rule. Rome, seeing this as a threat to stability in the region, sided with Adherbal. With Roman help, Adherbal held out for some months, aided by a large number of Roman Equites who had settled in Africa for commercial purposes. From inside his siege lines, Adherbal appealed again to Rome, and the Senate granted his request. The Roman Senate dispatched

12100-496: Was pressed by Gaetulian and Mauretanian cavalries and for a time Marius and his main force found themselves besieged on a hill, while Marius's quaestor Lucius Cornelius Sulla and his men were on the defensive on another hill nearby. However, the Romans managed to hold off the enemy until evening and the Africans retired, confident of finishing the job the next morning. The Romans surprised the Africans' insufficiently guarded camp

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