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54-547: The name appears in different scripts over the course of a few hundred years. The individual etymologies are unknown, but scholarship has come to accept that the Ancient Greek : Ᾰ̓σῐ́ᾱ , romanized :  Asia is cognate to the Mycenaean Greek : 𐀀𐀯𐀹𐀊 , romanized:  a-si-wi-ja ). Assuwa was located somewhere in western Anatolia. Linear B texts from Mycenaean Greece identified it as

108-404: A volcano . ‣" ...[it] can be equated Ilios by way of a hypothetical form Wiluwa ." ‣... an alternative location of Wilusa in the neighbourhood of present-day Beycesultan was proposed by Vangelis Pantazis ... ‣ "The possibility that [it] might be identified with Greek Troia, i.e. the city of Troy , was observed in 1924 by E. Forrer, and after much controversy philologists have agreed that

162-543: A pitch accent . In Modern Greek, all vowels and consonants are short. Many vowels and diphthongs once pronounced distinctly are pronounced as /i/ ( iotacism ). Some of the stops and glides in diphthongs have become fricatives , and the pitch accent has changed to a stress accent . Many of the changes took place in the Koine Greek period. The writing system of Modern Greek, however, does not reflect all pronunciation changes. The examples below represent Attic Greek in

216-515: A harbor), break-water" ) is the name given to ancient Old Assyrian period trade posts in Anatolia (modern Turkey ) from the 20th to 18th centuries BC. The main centre of karum trading was at the ancient town of Kanesh . Early references to karu come from the Ebla tablets ; in particular, a vizier known as Ebrium concluded the earliest treaty fully known to archaeology, known variously as

270-477: A lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period. They have the same general outline but differ in some of the detail. The only attested dialect from this period is Mycenaean Greek , but its relationship to the historical dialects and

324-419: A lesser degree. Pamphylian Greek , spoken in a small area on the southwestern coast of Anatolia and little preserved in inscriptions, may be either a fifth major dialect group, or it is Mycenaean Greek overlaid by Doric, with a non-Greek native influence. Regarding the speech of the ancient Macedonians diverse theories have been put forward, but the epigraphic activity and the archaeological discoveries in

378-550: A prefix /e-/, called the augment . This was probably originally a separate word, meaning something like "then", added because tenses in PIE had primarily aspectual meaning. The augment is added to the indicative of the aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect, but not to any of the other forms of the aorist (no other forms of the imperfect and pluperfect exist). The two kinds of augment in Greek are syllabic and quantitative. The syllabic augment

432-691: A rebellion by a league of towns in the aftermath of a Hittite campaign against Arzawan controlled territories west of the Maraššantiya . But when I turned back to Hattusa, then against me these lands declared war: [—]lugga, Kispuwa, Unaliya, [—], Dura, Halluwa, Huwallusiya, Karakisa, Dunda, Adadura, Parista, [—], [—]waa, Warsiya, Kuruppiya, [—]luissa, Alatra, Mount Pahurina, Pasuhalta, [—], Wilusiya, Taruisa. [These lands] with their warriors assembled themselves ......... and drew up their army opposite me. Cline dates this rebellion to circa 1430 BC and Bryce describes it as "the first major [Hittite] venture to

486-541: A region within reach of Pylos associated with levies of rowers, suggesting a location separated by water from the Peloponnese . While the extent of its geography is a matter of debate , recent scholarship has argued that much of its territory was located in the western part of classical Phrygia . This same region was designated by the Hittite laws as part of the land of Luwiya , according to modern researchers. It

540-589: A result of this contact the Luwian language and culture went through a profound metamorphosis, - and spread inland along the Hermos and Maeander river valleys into classical Pisidia and beyond: "Extension of the Lower land further to the southwest would have brought Hittite territory in close proximity to the region which came to be called Arzawa, thus creating the potential for border disputes and cross border raids of

594-608: A separate historical stage, though its earliest form closely resembles Attic Greek , and its latest form approaches Medieval Greek . There were several regional dialects of Ancient Greek; Attic Greek developed into Koine. Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language , divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic , Aeolic , Arcadocypriot , and Doric , many of them with several subdivisions. Some dialects are found in standardized literary forms in literature , while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms. Homeric Greek

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648-630: A standard subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance . This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical periods of the language, which are the best-attested periods and considered most typical of Ancient Greek. From the Hellenistic period ( c.  300 BC ), Ancient Greek was followed by Koine Greek , which is regarded as

702-510: A vowel or /n s r/ ; final stops were lost, as in γάλα "milk", compared with γάλακτος "of milk" (genitive). Ancient Greek of the classical period also differed in both the inventory and distribution of original PIE phonemes due to numerous sound changes, notably the following: The pronunciation of Ancient Greek was very different from that of Modern Greek . Ancient Greek had long and short vowels ; many diphthongs ; double and single consonants; voiced, voiceless, and aspirated stops ; and

756-570: Is a literary form of Archaic Greek (derived primarily from Ionic and Aeolic) used in the epic poems , the Iliad and the Odyssey , and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic and other Classical-era dialects. The origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of

810-418: Is added to stems beginning with consonants, and simply prefixes e (stems beginning with r , however, add er ). The quantitative augment is added to stems beginning with vowels, and involves lengthening the vowel: Some verbs augment irregularly; the most common variation is e → ei . The irregularity can be explained diachronically by the loss of s between vowels, or that of the letter w , which affected

864-452: Is also acknowledged to be a likely reference to Assuwa, though with no clear understanding of the context. Egyptian records mention a region called isy and an Assuwan "chief" and "prince" providing supplies to Tuthmose III from 1445-1439 BC during his military campaigns against Nuhašše in modern Syria, including copper, lead, lapis lazuli , ivory, wood and horses. It has been suggested these references predate Egypt's direct contacts with

918-666: Is called 'East Greek'. Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian Greek had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, as exemplified in the poems of the Boeotian poet Pindar who wrote in Doric with a small Aeolic admixture. Thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to

972-448: Is considered by some linguists to have been closely related to Greek . Among Indo-European branches with living descendants, Greek is often argued to have the closest genetic ties with Armenian (see also Graeco-Armenian ) and Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan ). Ancient Greek differs from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) and other Indo-European languages in certain ways. In phonotactics , ancient Greek words could end only in

1026-531: Is identified with Karatepe on the Cilician plain , far removed from traditional locations of Assuwa. ‣Woudhuizen associated it with a mountain near İzmir . ‣ ...not attested anywhere else ." ‣" ...only mentioned in a fragmentary ritual text without determinative and lacking any geographical context ." ‣Woudhuizen noted the correspondence with the Luwian name for Kaunos , Kwalatarna (“army camp”). ‣The Luwic root pāḫūr means "fire," which may indicate

1080-759: The Greek region of Macedonia during the last decades has brought to light documents, among which the first texts written in Macedonian , such as the Pella curse tablet , as Hatzopoulos and other scholars note. Based on the conclusions drawn by several studies and findings such as Pella curse tablet , Emilio Crespo and other scholars suggest that ancient Macedonian was a Northwest Doric dialect , which shares isoglosses with its neighboring Thessalian dialects spoken in northeastern Thessaly . Some have also suggested an Aeolic Greek classification. The Lesbian dialect

1134-742: The Leleges and the Lukka - but it is clear the Luwians came into contact with the Mycenaeans, whose strongholds in the Argolis lay directly across the Aegean Sea from modern İzmir and who seem to have at first called the Luwian territory ru-wa-ni-jo ("land where Luwian is spoken"). With time bred by familiarity the Luwian name a-šu-wi-ya was transliterated into Mycenaean as a-si-wi-ja . As

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1188-610: The ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek ( c.  1400–1200 BC ), Dark Ages ( c.  1200–800 BC ), the Archaic or Epic period ( c.  800–500 BC ), and the Classical period ( c.  500–300 BC ). Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers . It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been

1242-501: The present , future , and imperfect are imperfective in aspect; the aorist , present perfect , pluperfect and future perfect are perfective in aspect. Most tenses display all four moods and three voices, although there is no future subjunctive or imperative. Also, there is no imperfect subjunctive, optative or imperative. The infinitives and participles correspond to the finite combinations of tense, aspect, and voice. The indicative of past tenses adds (conceptually, at least)

1296-481: The "Treaty between Ebla and Aššur " or the "Treaty with Abarsal " (scholars have disputed whether the text refers to Aššur or to Abarsal, an unknown location). In either case, the other city contracted to establish karu in Eblaite territory (Syria), among other things. “The word derives from the mercantile quarter of Mesopotamian cities, which were usually just beyond the city walls, at a convenient landing place by

1350-1031: The 5th century BC. Ancient pronunciation cannot be reconstructed with certainty, but Greek from the period is well documented, and there is little disagreement among linguists as to the general nature of the sounds that the letters represent. /oː/ raised to [uː] , probably by the 4th century BC. Greek, like all of the older Indo-European languages , is highly inflected. It is highly archaic in its preservation of Proto-Indo-European forms. In ancient Greek, nouns (including proper nouns) have five cases ( nominative , genitive , dative , accusative , and vocative ), three genders ( masculine , feminine , and neuter ), and three numbers (singular, dual , and plural ). Verbs have four moods ( indicative , imperative , subjunctive , and optative ) and three voices (active, middle, and passive ), as well as three persons (first, second, and third) and various other forms. Verbs are conjugated through seven combinations of tenses and aspect (generally simply called "tenses"):

1404-495: The Archaic period of ancient Greek (see Homeric Greek for more details): Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά, Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε, πολλὰς δ' ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προΐαψεν ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι· Διὸς δ' ἐτελείετο βουλή· ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε Ἀτρεΐδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς. The beginning of Apology by Plato exemplifies Attic Greek from

1458-563: The Classical period of ancient Greek. (The second line is the IPA , the third is transliterated into the Latin alphabet using a modern version of the Erasmian scheme .) Ὅτι [hóti Hóti μὲν men mèn ὑμεῖς, hyːmêːs hūmeîs,   Karum (trade post) Karum ( Akkadian : kārum "quay, port, commercial district", plural kārū , from Sumerian kar "fortification (of

1512-462: The Hittite records, located somewhere beyond the Hittite sphere of influence in the Lower land. This suggests an extensive colonization of the land of Luwiya by a non-Luwian peoples by the turn of the sixteenth century BC - Gander focuses on Hurrian Yakubovich says Carian and Cline implies Ahhiyawan - in the wake of prior Luwian westward migration. There are historical traces of this migration -

1566-574: The Hittites and refer to a trade relationship mediated by Alashiya and initiated by an Assuwan power with access to the Mediterranean. Assuwa is likewise mentioned in six surviving Hittite documents , with all texts either dated to or referring to events occurring during the reign of Tudhaliya I/II . Most of our knowledge comes from the Annals of Tudḫaliya , which gives a detailed account of

1620-655: The Lusa campaign south of Lake Beyşehir . Some scholarship has been devoted to identifying the towns of the Assuwa league listed in the Annals of Tudḫaliya , though consensus has yet been reached. ‣" The group of states making up this confederacy probably lay in the far west of Anatolia, covering at least part of the Aegean coast. " ‣" ...the province of Assuwa...is located in the Hermos valley, as much as four toponyms featuring in

1674-659: The Seha River Land... " ‣" is to be localized in Kizzuwatna ... " ‣'...not attested anywhere else ." ‣ ...not attested anywhere else ." ‣" [S]uggests some close connection with the country of Warsiyalla mentioned in §14 of the Alaksandus treaty together with the Lukka lands , Masa and Karkisa, in a context which...probably serves only to locate these countries somewhere in the west of Asia Minor" . ‣The name

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1728-550: The aorist. Following Homer 's practice, the augment is sometimes not made in poetry , especially epic poetry. The augment sometimes substitutes for reduplication; see below. Almost all forms of the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect reduplicate the initial syllable of the verb stem. (A few irregular forms of perfect do not reduplicate, whereas a handful of irregular aorists reduplicate.) The three types of reduplication are: Irregular duplication can be understood diachronically. For example, lambanō (root lab ) has

1782-419: The augment when it was word-initial. In verbs with a preposition as a prefix, the augment is placed not at the start of the word, but between the preposition and the original verb. For example, προσ(-)βάλλω (I attack) goes to προσ έ βαλoν in the aorist. However compound verbs consisting of a prefix that is not a preposition retain the augment at the start of the word: αὐτο(-)μολῶ goes to ηὐ τομόλησα in

1836-438: The center of Greek scholarship, this division of people and language is quite similar to the results of modern archaeological-linguistic investigation. One standard formulation for the dialects is: West vs. non-West Greek is the strongest-marked and earliest division, with non-West in subsets of Ionic-Attic (or Attic-Ionic) and Aeolic vs. Arcadocypriot, or Aeolic and Arcado-Cypriot vs. Ionic-Attic. Often non-West

1890-615: The dialect of Sparta ), and Northern Peloponnesus Doric (including Corinthian ). All the groups were represented by colonies beyond Greece proper as well, and these colonies generally developed local characteristics, often under the influence of settlers or neighbors speaking different Greek dialects. After the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BC, a new international dialect known as Koine or Common Greek developed, largely based on Attic Greek , but with influence from other dialects. This dialect slowly replaced most of

1944-413: The equation is possible by way of the hypothetical form Tauriya." ‣ "A silver bowl whose hieroglyphic inscription mentions the name of Taruisa (ta-r-wi-za) might be evidence of the same Tudhaliya's campaign against Assuwa." Ancient Greek language Ancient Greek ( Ἑλληνῐκή , Hellēnikḗ ; [hellɛːnikɛ́ː] ) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and

1998-648: The existence of a common Luwian-speaking state circa 2000 BC, stretching from the central Anatolian plateau (modern Konya ) northward to the western bend of the Maraššantiya (where modern Ankara , Kırıkkale and Kırşehir provinces meet). The region was dominated by the kingdom of Purushanda , the etymology of which suggests a takeover of Hattic lands by Luwian elites and a kingdom made up of an eclectic mix of Luwian-speaking Luwians, Hattic-speaking Luwians, Luwian-speaking Hattians and Hattic-speaking Hattians. Archaeology at Acemhöyük (the presumed situs) has confirmed

2052-561: The historical Dorians . The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, who regarded themselves as descendants of the population displaced by or contending with the Dorians. The Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people – Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians (including Athenians), each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Allowing for their oversight of Arcadian, an obscure mountain dialect, and Cypriot, far from

2106-476: The historical circumstances of the times imply that the overall groups already existed in some form. Scholars assume that major Ancient Greek period dialect groups developed not later than 1120 BC, at the time of the Dorian invasions —and that their first appearances as precise alphabetic writing began in the 8th century BC. The invasion would not be "Dorian" unless the invaders had some cultural relationship to

2160-426: The kind allied to in a number of treaties which Hittite kings subsequently drew up with their immediate neighbors." By the 1430s BC the Hittites perceived a threat from this unfamiliar mixture of different political, social, cultural and linguistic groups amongst the small entities and independent polities in the land of Luwiya and launched a preemptive strike. The campaigns against the Assuwa coalition are listed after

2214-545: The list with bearing on the blanket term Assuwian League can positively be situated in the realm of Arzawa. " ‣ "Starke...connects...the Land of Assuwa...with classical Assos . ‣" ...not attested anywhere else ." ‣ ...not attested anywhere else ." ‣ "For the identification of Dura with classical Tyrrha and modern Tire(h) along the southern bank of the river late called Kaystros , see Freu (208)b... ‣ ...not attested anywhere else ." ‣" ...it can hardly be separated from

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2268-518: The main waterway.” Sargon the Great (of Akkadia) who likely destroyed Ebla soon afterward, is said in a much-later Hittite account to have invaded Anatolia to punish Nurdaggal, the king of Purushanda (in Anatolia), for mistreating the Akkadian and Assyrian merchant class in the karu there. However, no contemporary source mentions that to be the case. During the 2nd millennium BC, Anatolia

2322-605: The newly discovered iron and was forty times more valuable than silver. The most important Anatolian export was copper, and the Assyrian merchants sold tin and clothing to Anatolia. The name Karum is given to an upscale shopping mall in Çankaya district of modern-day Ankara , Turkey. It is a reference to the presence of karu in Asia Minor since the very early days of history. Another mall in Ankara's Bilkent district

2376-508: The older dialects, although the Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language , which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek . By about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosed into Medieval Greek . Phrygian is an extinct Indo-European language of West and Central Anatolia , which

2430-487: The perfect stem eilēpha (not * lelēpha ) because it was originally slambanō , with perfect seslēpha , becoming eilēpha through compensatory lengthening. Reduplication is also visible in the present tense stems of certain verbs. These stems add a syllable consisting of the root's initial consonant followed by i . A nasal stop appears after the reduplication in some verbs. The earliest extant examples of ancient Greek writing ( c.  1450 BC ) are in

2484-454: The remains of central Anatolian, Mesopotamian and north Syrian pottery - as well as traces of monumental structures - dated 2659 to 2157 BC, providing a plausible terminus a quo for the Luwian takeover of the region. In the eighteenth century BC the Hittites conquered the Assyrian karum at Kanesh and ultimately moved south to Purushanda, establishing Hittite rule over ikkuwaniya - the Lower land. By 1650 BC everything west of Purushanda

2538-517: The syllabic script Linear B . Beginning in the 8th century BC, however, the Greek alphabet became standard, albeit with some variation among dialects. Early texts are written in boustrophedon style, but left-to-right became standard during the classic period. Modern editions of ancient Greek texts are usually written with accents and breathing marks , interword spacing , modern punctuation , and sometimes mixed case , but these were all introduced later. The beginning of Homer 's Iliad exemplifies

2592-496: The town of Huwalusa, which is mentioned in another small fragment probably dating from the reign of Mursillis II ." ‣ "Many of the towns mentioned alongside [it] have convincingly been localized in western Phrygia by M. Forlanini." ‣Woudhuizen associated it with the town of Honaz near the ancient Lycus river in Phrygia. ‣" ...can only be the well attested country of Karkisa ... " ‣" ...was apparently situated close to

2646-471: The west" which was "not carried out with the aim to impose authority on the western border, but just to secure it." The annals detail the relocation of the defeated peoples to Hatti - including soldiers, charioteers and an Assuwan royal family - and a second rebellion after which "the coalition of Assuwa was destroyed". It is possible that Asuwiya ("our good land") was simply the native name for territory occupied by Luwic speakers. Linguistic models suggest

2700-480: Was Aeolic. For example, fragments of the works of the poet Sappho from the island of Lesbos are in Aeolian. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, or to an island. Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric (including Cretan Doric ), Southern Peloponnesus Doric (including Laconian ,

2754-475: Was likewise mentioned in a contemporary Egyptian poetical stela along with Keftiu as one of the lands to the west of Egypt . The earliest mention of a-šu-wi(ya) is from an Anatolian royal seal dating to the eighteenth/seventeenth centuries BC, contemporary to the first and only mention of the land of Luwiya of the Hittite texts. The name a-su-ja in Minoan Linear A texts of the sixteenth century BC

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2808-479: Was probably a mabartum .) However, after the establishment of the Hittite Empire , the karu disappeared from Anatolian history. In the 2nd millennium BC money was not yet in use, and Assyrian merchants used gold for wholesale trade and silver for retail trade. Gold was considered eight times more valuable than silver. However, another metal, amutum , was even more valuable than gold. It is thought to be

2862-469: Was regarded as the unconquered (and not worth conquering) land of Luwiya, "an Old Hittite ethno-linguistic term referring to the area where Luwian was spoken." While it is still an open question whether the border between the Hittites and the Luwians ever extended as far west as the Sangarious , in the 1600s BC that border was clearly the Maraššantiya. Within a generation "Arzawiya" is first mentioned in

2916-677: Was under the sovereignty of Hatti city-states and later the Hittites . By 1960 BC, Assyrian merchants had established the karu , small colonial settlements next to Anatolian cities, which paid taxes to the rulers of the cities. There were also smaller trade stations which were called mabartū (singular mabartum ). The number of karu and mabartu was probably around 20. Among them were Kültepe (Kanesh in antiquity) in modern Kayseri Province ; Alişar Hüyük (Ankuva (?) in antiquity) in modern Yozgat Province ; and Boğazköy ( Hattusa in antiquity) in modern Çorum Province . (However, Alişar Hüyük

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