Explanatory style is a psychological attribute that indicates how people explain to themselves why they experience a particular event, either positive or negative.
102-644: This aspect covers the degree to which a person attributes the cause of an event to internal or external sources. An optimist might attribute a bad experience to a stroke of bad luck whereas a pessimist might unreasonably assume it is their fault or punishment. A person might also attribute the responsibility of their actions to external forces in a maladaptive, unhealthy way (e.g. "I had no choice but to get violent.") This aspect covers characteristics considered stable versus unstable (across time). An optimist would tend to define his or her failures as unstable ("I just didn't study enough for this particular test") whereas
204-675: A drug use disorder . Diagnosis is based on a person's symptoms. While most women experience a brief period of worry or unhappiness after delivery, postpartum depression should be suspected when symptoms are severe and last over two weeks. Among those at risk, providing psychosocial support may be protective in preventing PPD. This may include community support such as food, household chores, mother care, and companionship. Treatment for PPD may include counseling or medications. Types of counseling that are effective include interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT), cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), and psychodynamic therapy . Tentative evidence supports
306-436: A characteristic way of attributing negative outcomes – to internal, stable and global causes – would be associated with depression in response to negative events happened to them. As a diathesis–stress model of depression, the model does not predict associations of attributional style with depression in the absence of objective negative events (stressors). A meta-analysis of 104 empirical studies of
408-428: A child is in infancy, these problems can include unusual amounts of crying (colic) and not having normal sleeping patterns. These problems can have a cyclical effect, meaning that they can further agitate the mother's postpartum depression and can even lead to the mother further developing postpartum depression. These cyclical effects can affect the way the mother maintains her relationship with her child. These can include
510-496: A child may spread those options even further. Low-income women are frequently trapped in a cycle of poverty, unable to advance, affecting their ability to access and receive quality healthcare to diagnose and treat postpartum depression. Studies in the US have also shown a correlation between a mother's race and postpartum depression. African American mothers have been shown to have the highest risk of PPD at 25%, while Asian mothers had
612-447: A five-point scale from "Strongly disagree" to "Strongly agree" and four filler items. Half of the coded items are phrased optimistically, the other half in a pessimistic way. Compared with its previous iteration, LOT-R offers good internal consistency over time despite item overlaps, making the correlation between the LOT and LOT-R extremely high. The Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ)
714-404: A good life. In his philosophical investigations, Socrates followed a model that did not merely focus on the intellect or reason but a balanced practice that also considered emotion as an important contributor to the richness of human experience. Distinct from a disposition to believe that things will work out, there is a philosophical idea that, perhaps in ways that may not be fully comprehended,
816-445: A healthy lifestyle. There is also the notion of " learned optimism " in positive psychology , which holds that joy is a talent that can be cultivated and can be achieved through specific actions such as challenging negative self talk or overcoming " learned helplessness ". However, criticism against positive psychology argues that it places too much importance on "upbeat thinking, while shunting challenging and difficult experiences to
918-635: A history of previous psychiatric hospital admissions, infanticide may occur. In the United States, postpartum depression is one of the leading causes of the annual reported infanticide incidence rate of about 8 per 100,000 births. According to research published in the American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology , children can experience the effects of postpartum depression. If a mother experiences postpartum depression that goes untreated, it can have adverse effects on her children. When
1020-404: A link between postpartum depression and anti-thyroid antibodies. The psychosocial risk factors for postpartum depression include severe life events, some forms of chronic strain, relationship quality, and support from partner and mother. There is a need for more research regarding the link between psychosocial risk factors and postpartum depression. Some psychosocial risk factors can be linked to
1122-582: A month after delivery. A study done at an inner-city mental health clinic has shown that 50% of postpartum depressive episodes began before delivery. Therefore, in the DSM-5 postpartum depression is diagnosed under "depressive disorder with peripartum onset", in which "peripartum onset" is defined as any time either during pregnancy or within the four weeks following delivery. The prevalence of postpartum depression differs across different months after childbirth . Studies done on postpartum depression amongst women in
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#17327731419371224-416: A more serious episode of depression later on. Postpartum psychosis is not a formal diagnosis, but is widely used to describe a psychiatric emergency that appears to occur in about 1 in 1000 pregnancies, in which symptoms of high mood and racing thoughts ( mania ), depression, severe confusion, loss of inhibition, paranoia, hallucinations, and delusions begin suddenly in the first two weeks after delivery;
1326-399: A more severe form of postpartum mood disorder, occurs in about 1 to 2 per 1,000 women following childbirth. Postpartum psychosis is one of the leading causes of the murder of children less than one year of age , which occurs in about 8 per 100,000 births in the United States. Symptoms of PPD can occur at any time in the first year postpartum. Typically, a diagnosis of postpartum depression
1428-427: A motivation to learn, while perfectionists are highly motivated by a need to prove themselves worthy consistently. Two additional facets of optimalism have been described: product optimalism and process optimalism. The former is described as an outlook that seeks to realize the best possible result, while the latter seeks maximization of the chances of achieving the best possible result. Some sources also distinguish
1530-708: A negative attributional style. Trust in interpersonal relationships is argued to build an optimistic explanatory style. Attributional style is typically assessed using questionnaires such as the Attributional Style Questionnaire or ASQ, which assesses attributions for six negative and six positive hypothetical events, the Expanded Attributional Style Questionnaire or EASQ, which assesses attributions for eighteen hypothetical negative events, and various scales that assess attributions for real events, such as
1632-466: A negative subjective experience of childbirth, maternal mental health (prenatal depression, perinatal anxiety, acute postpartum depression, and history of psychological problems), history of trauma, complications with delivery and baby (for example emergency cesarean section or NICU admittance), and a low level of social support. Childbirth-related PTSD has several negative health effects. Research suggests that childbirth-related PTSD may negatively affect
1734-407: A parent's diagnosis including mental illness. From the studies conducted thus far, although limited, it is evident that there is a much larger population that experiences depression associated with childbirth than just biological mothers. The cause of PPD is unknown. Hormonal and physical changes, personal and family history of depression, and the stress of caring for a new baby all may contribute to
1836-495: A pessimist might think, for example, "I'm never good at tests". This distinction covers global versus local and/or specific and the extent of the effect. A pessimist might, for example, think that "Everywhere there is misery" and an optimist think that, "I have had dealings mostly with honest people". People who generally tend to blame themselves for negative events, believe that such events will continue indefinitely, and let such events affect many aspects of their lives display what
1938-441: A prior history of mental illness, especially bipolar disorder, a history of prior episodes of postpartum psychosis, or a family history put some at a higher risk. Postpartum psychosis often requires hospitalization, where treatment is antipsychotic medications, mood stabilizers , and in cases of strong risk for suicide, electroconvulsive therapy . The most severe symptoms last from 2 to 12 weeks, and recovery takes 6 months to
2040-480: A result of a general well-being factor and family environment influences. Patients with high dispositional optimism appear to have stronger immune systems since optimism buffers against psychological stressors. Optimists appear to live longer. Explanatory style is distinct from dispositional theories of optimism. While related to life-orientation measures of optimism, attributional style theory suggests that dispositional optimism and pessimism are reflections of
2142-430: A wide range of possible responses to both positive and negative occurrences, rather than a black-white difference between optimism and pessimism. Also, an individual does not necessarily show a uniform explanatory style in all aspects of life, but may exhibit varying responses to different types of events. Attributional style emerged from research on depression , with Abramson , Seligman and Teasdale (1978) arguing that
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#17327731419372244-406: A year. Women who have been hospitalized for a psychiatric condition immediately after delivery are at a much higher risk of suicide during the first year after delivery. Childbirth-Related/Postpartum Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Parents may suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), or suffer post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms, following childbirth. While there has been debate in
2346-507: Is a chronic stressor, so depression may occur when someone is no longer able to respond to the violence. Postpartum depression in the DSM-5 is known as "depressive disorder with peripartum onset". Peripartum onset is defined as starting anytime during pregnancy or within the four weeks following delivery. There is no longer a distinction made between depressive episodes that occur during pregnancy or those that occur after delivery. Nevertheless,
2448-401: Is a transient postpartum mood disorder characterized by milder depressive symptoms than postpartum depression. This type of depression can occur in up to 80% of all mothers following delivery. Symptoms typically resolve within two weeks. Symptoms lasting longer than two weeks are a sign of a more serious type of depression. Women who experience "baby blues" may have a higher risk of experiencing
2550-509: Is an attitude reflecting a belief or hope that the outcome of some specific endeavor, or outcomes in general, will be positive, favorable, and desirable. A common idiom used to illustrate optimism versus pessimism is a glass filled with water to the halfway point : an optimist is said to see the glass as half full, while a pessimist sees the glass as half empty. The term derives from the Latin optimum , meaning "best". To be optimistic, in
2652-456: Is based on the explanatory style model of optimism. Subjects read a list of six positive and negative events (e.g. " you have been looking for a job unsuccessfully for some time "), and are asked to record a possible cause for the event. They then rate whether this is internal or external, stable or changeable, and global or local to the event. There are several modified versions of the ASQ including
2754-462: Is called a pessimistic explanatory style . Conversely, people who generally tend to blame outside forces for negative events, believe that such events will end soon, and do not let such events affect too many aspects of their lives display what is called an optimistic explanatory style . Some research has suggested a pessimistic explanatory style may be correlated with depression and physical illness . The concept of explanatory style encompasses
2856-621: Is concerned with expectancies about the future while attribution style is concerned with attributions for the past. Whereas locus of control cuts across both positive and negative outcomes, authors in the attributional style field have distinguished between a Pessimistic Explanatory Style, in which failures are attributed to internal, stable, and global factors and successes to external, unstable, and specific causes, and an Optimistic Explanatory Style, in which successes are attributed to internal, stable, and global factors and failures to external, unstable, and specific causes. Optimism Optimism
2958-440: Is considered after signs and symptoms persist for at least two weeks. fMRI studies indicate differences in brain activity between mothers with postpartum depression and those without. Mothers diagnosed with PPD tend to have less activity in the left frontal lobe and increased activity in the right frontal lobe when compared with healthy controls. They also exhibit decreased connectivity between vital brain structures, including
3060-725: Is critical as up to 50% of cases go undiagnosed in the US, emphasizing the significance of comprehensive screening measures. In the US, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists suggests healthcare providers consider depression screening for perinatal women. Additionally, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends pediatricians screen mothers for PPD at 1-month, 2-month, and 4-month visits. However, many providers do not consistently provide screening and appropriate follow-up. For example, in Canada, Alberta
3162-994: Is most likely to occur 3–6 months after delivery and is correlated with maternal depression, meaning that if the mother is experiencing postpartum depression, then the father is at a higher risk of developing the illness as well. Postpartum depression in men leads to an increased risk of suicide, while also limiting healthy infant-father attachment. Men who experience PPD can exhibit poor parenting behaviors, and distress, and reduce infant interaction. Reduced paternal interaction can later lead to cognitive and behavioral problems in children. Children as young as 3.5 years old may experience problems with internalizing and externalizing behaviors, indicating that paternal postpartum depression can have long-term consequences. Furthermore, if children as young as two are not frequently read to, this negative parent-child interaction can harm their expressive vocabulary. A study focusing on low-incom e fathers found that increased involvement in their child's first year
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3264-531: Is no necessity to seeing optimalism realization as divinely instituted because it is a naturalistic theory in principle. Psychological optimalism, as defined by the positive psychologist Tal Ben-Shahar , means willingness to accept failure while remaining confident that success will follow, a positive attitude he contrasts with negative perfectionism . Perfectionism can be defined as a persistent compulsive drive toward unattainable goals and valuation based solely in terms of accomplishment. Perfectionists reject
3366-606: Is positively correlated with life satisfaction , happiness, and psychological and physical well-being, and negatively correlated with depression and anxiety. Seeking to explain the correlation, researchers find that optimists choose healthier lifestyles. For example, optimists smoke less, are more physically active, consume more fruit, vegetables, and whole-grain bread, and are more moderate in alcohol consumption. Research to date has demonstrated that optimists are less likely to have certain diseases or develop certain diseases over time. Research has not yet been able to demonstrate
3468-563: Is simply the lay-term for what researchers know as explanatory style. More commonly, it is found that explanatory style is distinct from dispositional optimism, so the two should not be used interchangeably as they are marginally correlated at best. More research is required to "bridge" or further differentiate these concepts. As with all psychological traits , differences in both dispositional optimism and pessimism and in attributional style are heritable . Both optimism and pessimism are strongly influenced by environmental factors , including
3570-442: Is the opposite end of a single dimension with pessimism, with any distinction between them reflecting factors such as social desirability . Confirmatory modelling , however, supports a two-dimensional model and the two dimensions predict different outcomes . Genetic modelling confirms this independence, showing that pessimism and optimism are inherited as independent traits, with the typical correlation between them emerging as
3672-770: Is typically defined as "an episode of major depressive disorder (MDD) occurring soon after the birth of a child". There are no set criteria for men to have postpartum depression. The cause may be distinct in males. Causes of paternal postpartum depression include hormonal changes during pregnancy, which can be indicative of father-child relationships. For instance, male depressive symptoms have been associated with low testosterone levels in men. Low prolactin, estrogen, and vasopressin levels have been associated with struggles with father-infant attachment, which can lead to depression in first-time fathers. Symptoms of postpartum depression in men are extreme sadness, fatigue, anxiety, irritability, and suicidal thoughts. Postpartum depression in men
3774-590: The LGBTQ community may be more susceptible to prenatal depression and anxiety than cisgender and heterosexual people. According to two other studies, LGBTQ people were discouraged from accessing postpartum mental health services due to societal stigma adding a social barrier that heteronormative mothers do not have. Lesbian participants expressed apprehension about receiving a mental health diagnosis because of worries about social stigma and employment opportunities. Concerns were also raised about possible child removal and
3876-933: The Middle East show that the prevalence in the first three months of postpartum was 31%, while the prevalence from the fourth to twelfth months of postpartum was 19%. PPD may last several months or even a year. Postpartum depression can also occur in women who have suffered a miscarriage. For fathers, several studies show that men experience the highest levels of postpartum depression between 3–6 months postpartum. Postpartum depression can interfere with normal maternal-infant bonding and adversely affect acute and long-term child development. Postpartum depression may lead mothers to be inconsistent with childcare . These childcare inconsistencies may include feeding routines, sleep routines, and health maintenance. In rare cases, or about 1 to 2 per 1,000, postpartum depression appears as postpartum psychosis . In these, or among women with
3978-527: The Middle East . Studies in Qatar have found a correlation between lower education levels and higher PPD prevalence. According to research done in Egypt and Lebanon , rural residential living is linked to an increased risk. It was found that rural Lebanese women who had Caesarean births had greater PPD rates. On the other hand, Lebanese women in urban areas showed an opposite pattern. Research conducted in
4080-475: The anterior cingulate cortex , dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex , amygdala , and hippocampus . Brain activation differences between depressed and nondepressed mothers are more pronounced when stimulated by non-infant emotional cues. Depressed mothers show greater neural activity in the right amygdala toward non-infant emotional cues as well as reduced connectivity between the amygdala and right insular cortex. Recent findings have also identified blunted activity in
4182-493: The best of all possible worlds ( le meilleur des mondes possibles ) , or that God created a physical universe that applies the laws of physics. The concept was also reflected in an aspect of Voltaire 's early philosophy, one that was based on Isaac Newton 's view that described a divinely ordered human condition. This philosophy would also later emerge in Alexander Pope 's Essay on Man . Leibniz proposed that it
Explanatory style - Misplaced Pages Continue
4284-414: The infant are also frequently hypothesized to cause PPD. However, little evidence supports this hypothesis. Mothers who have had several previous children without experiencing PPD can nonetheless experience it with their latest child. Despite the biological and psychosocial changes that may accompany pregnancy and the postpartum period, most women are not diagnosed with PPD. Many mothers are unable to get
4386-607: The social determinants of health . Women with fewer resources indicate a higher level of postpartum depression and stress than those women with more resources, such as financial. Rates of PPD have been shown to decrease as income increases. Women with fewer resources may be more likely to have an unintended or unwanted pregnancy, increasing the risk of PPD. Women with fewer resources may also include single mothers of low income. Single mothers of low income may have more limited access to resources while transitioning into motherhood. These women already have fewer spending options, and having
4488-646: The Attributional Style Assessment Test, Anderson and colleagues found some evidence for domain-specificity of style, for instance work-related attributions vs interpersonal attributions. Modelling of the items of the ASQ suggests that the positive and negative event information (e.g. getting a promotion, losing a job) and the causal nature of attributions – whether events are seen as global or local in scope, or as temporally stable or unstable, for instance – assess distinct factors. A global focus tends to emerge, for instance, independent of
4590-1036: The Expanded Attributional Style Questionnaire (EASQ), the Content Analysis of Verbatim Explanations (CAVE), and the ASQ designed for testing the optimism of children. Optimism and health are correlated moderately. Optimism explains between 5–10% of the variation in the likelihood of developing some health conditions ( correlation coefficients between .20 and .30), notably including cardiovascular disease , stroke , and depression . The relationship between optimism and health has also been studied with regard to physical symptoms, coping strategies, and negative effects for those suffering from rheumatoid arthritis , asthma , and fibromyalgia . Among individuals with these diseases, optimists are not more likely than pessimists to report pain alleviation due to coping strategies, despite differences in psychological well-being between
4692-568: The Life Orientation Test for the original dispositional definition of optimism and the Attributional Style Questionnaire designed to test optimism in terms of explanatory style. Variation in optimism between people is somewhat heritable and reflects biological trait systems to some degree. A person's optimism is also influenced by environmental factors , including family environment, and may be learnable. Optimism may also be related to health . Researchers operationalize
4794-521: The Middle East has demonstrated a link between PPD risk and mothers who were not informed and who are not given due consideration when decisions are made during childbirth. There is a call to integrate both a consideration of biological and psychosocial risk factors for PPD when treating and researching the illness. A meta-analysis reviewing research on the association of violence and postpartum depression showed that violence against women increases
4896-855: The Real Events Attributional Style Questionnaire or the Attributions Questionnaire. Although these scales provide empirical methodology for study of attributional style, and considerable empirical data support the Abramson–Seligman–Teasdale model of depression, there has been dispute about whether this concept really exists. Cutrona, Russell and Jones, for example, found evidence for considerable cross-situational variation and temporal change of attributional style in women suffering from post-partum depression . Xenikou notes, however, that Cutrona, Russell and Jones found more evidence for
4998-538: The ability to change an individual's level of optimism through psychological interventions , and thereby perhaps alter the course of disease or likelihood for development of disease. An article by Mayo Clinic argues that steps to change self-talk from negative to positive may shift individuals from a negative to a more positive/optimistic outlook. Strategies claimed to be of value include surrounding oneself with positive people, identifying areas of change, practicing positive self-talk, being open to humor, and following
5100-591: The administration of oxytocin to induce labor. Chronic illnesses such as diabetes, or Addison's disease, as well as issues with hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal dysregulation (which controls hormonal responses), inflammatory processes like asthma or celiac disease , and genetic vulnerabilities such as a family history of depression or PPD. Chronic illnesses caused by neuroendocrine irregularities including irritable bowel syndrome and fibromyalgia typically put individuals at risk for further health complications. However, it has been found that these diseases do not increase
5202-434: The anterior cingulate cortex, striatum , orbitofrontal cortex , and insula in mothers with PPD when viewing images of their infants. More robust studies on neural activation regarding PPD have been conducted with rodents than humans. These studies have allowed for greater isolation of specific brain regions, neurotransmitters , hormones , and steroids . Postpartum depression onset usually begins between two weeks to
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#17327731419375304-430: The atrocities committed by the pre-revolutionary France against its people. As defined by Nicholas Rescher , philosophical optimalism holds that this universe exists because it is better than the alternatives. While this philosophy does not exclude the possibility of a deity , it also does not require one, and is compatible with atheism . Rescher explained that the concept can stand on its own feet, arguing that there
5406-668: The baby or anything that reminds one of birth, aggression, irritability, and panic attacks. Real or perceived trauma before, during, or after childbirth is a crucial element in diagnosing childbirth-related PTSD. Currently, there are no widely recognized assessments that measure postpartum post-traumatic stress disorder in medical settings. Existing PTSD assessments (such as the DSM-IV) have been used to measure childbirth-related PTSD. Some surveys exist to measure childbirth-related PTSD specifically, however, these are not widely used outside of research settings. Approximately 3-6% of mothers in
5508-498: The cell's microenvironment might be important in conferring biological risk. The use of synthetic oxytocin , a birth-inducing drug, has been linked to increased rates of postpartum depression and anxiety. Estradiol , which helps the uterus thicken and grow, is thought to contribute to the development of PPD. This is due to its relationship with serotonin . Estradiol levels increase during pregnancy, then drastically decrease following childbirth. When estradiol levels drop postpartum,
5610-486: The concept from optimism since it does not focus on how things are going well but on whether things are going as well as possible. Post-partum depression Postpartum depression ( PPD ), also called postnatal depression , is a mood disorder experienced after childbirth , which can affect women. Symptoms may include extreme sadness, low energy , anxiety , crying episodes, irritability, and changes in sleeping or eating patterns. PPD can also negatively affect
5712-413: The cross-situational consistency of stability and globalism than of internalization. More data in support of long-term stability of attributional style has come from a diary study by Burns and Seligman. Using a technique called Content Analysis of Verbatim Explanation (CAVE), these authors found stable patterns of attributional style over a long time period. Attributional style may be domain-specific. Using
5814-528: The development of postpartum depression. Evidence suggests that hormonal changes may play a role. Understanding the neuroendocrinology characteristic of PPD has proven to be particularly challenging given the erratic changes to the brain and biological systems during pregnancy and postpartum. A review of exploratory studies in PPD has observed that women with PPD have more dramatic changes in HPA axis activity, however,
5916-752: The dimensions of stability and globality rather than internality, and suggests that stable and global attributions (rather than internal cause attributions) are associated with hopelessness depression. Hopelessness theory also highlights perceived importance and consequences of a negative outcome in addition to causal attributions as factors in clinical depression. Developmentally, it has been suggested that attributional style originates in experiences of trust or lack of trust in events Along with evidence from twin studies for some heredity basis to attributional style., Eisner argues that repeated exposure to controllable events may foster an optimistic explanatory style, whereas repeated exposure to uncontrollable events may foster
6018-541: The directionality of specific hormone increases or decreases remain mixed. Hormones that have been studied include estrogen , progesterone , thyroid hormone , testosterone , corticotropin releasing hormone , endorphins, and cortisol . Estrogen and progesterone levels drop back to pre-pregnancy levels within 24 hours of giving birth, and that sudden change may cause it. Aberrant steroid hormone-dependent regulation of neuronal calcium influx via extracellular matrix proteins and membrane receptors involved in responding to
6120-404: The earliest forms of philosophical optimism was Socrates' theory of moral intellectualism, which formed part of his model of enlightenment through the process of self-improvement. According to the philosopher, it is possible to live a virtuous life by attaining moral perfection through philosophical self-examination. He maintained that knowledge of moral truth is necessary and sufficient for leading
6222-459: The emotional attachment between mother and child. However, maternal depression or other factors may also explain this negative effect. Childbirth-related PTSD in the postpartum period may also lead to issues with the child's social-emotional development. Current research suggests childbirth-related PTSD results in lower breastfeeding rates and may prevent parents from breastfeeding for the desired amount of time. Screening for postpartum depression
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#17327731419376324-454: The family environment. Optimism may be indirectly inherited as a reflection of underlying heritable traits such as intelligence , temperament , and alcoholism . Evidence from twin studies shows that the inherited component of the dispositional optimism is about 25 percent, making this trait a stable personality dimension and a predictor of life outcomes. Its genetic origin interacts with environmental influences and other risks, to determine
6426-544: The gender of the infant and polygamy . According to three studies conducted in Egypt and one in Jordan , mothers of female babies had a two-to-four-fold increased risk of postpartum depression (PPD) compared to mothers of male babies. Four studies found that conflicts with the mother-in-law are associated with PPD, with risk ratios of 1.8 and 2.7. Studies have also shown a correlation between postpartum depression in mothers living within areas of conflicts, crises, and wars in
6528-439: The global explanations do so for all types of events, and the styles correlate among each other. In addition, individuals vary in how optimistic their attributions are for good events and on how pessimistic their attributions are for bad events. Still, these two traits of optimism and pessimism are un-correlated. There is much debate about the relationship between explanatory style and optimism. Some researchers argue that optimism
6630-746: The heterosexual women in the sample. Postpartum depression is more common among lesbian women than heterosexual women, which can be attributed to lesbian women's higher depression prevalence. Lesbian women have a higher risk of depression because they are more likely to have been treated for depression and to have attempted or contemplated suicide than heterosexual women. These higher rates of PPD in lesbian/bisexual mothers may reflect less social support, particularly from their families of origin, and additional stress due to homophobic discrimination in society. Different risk variables linked to postpartum depression (PPD) among Arabic women emphasize regional influences. Risk factors that have been identified include
6732-503: The incidence of postpartum depression. About one-third of women throughout the world will experience physical or sexual violence at some point in their lives. Violence against women occurs in conflict, post-conflict, and non-conflict areas. The research reviewed only looked at violence experienced by women from male perpetrators. Studies from the Middle East suggest that individuals who have experienced family violence are 2.5 times more likely to develop PPD. Further, violence against women
6834-490: The levels of serotonin decline as well. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that helps regulate mood. Low serotonin levels cause feelings of depression and anxiety. Thus, when estradiol levels are low, serotonin can be low, suggesting that estradiol plays a role in the development of PPD. Fathers, who are not undergoing profound hormonal changes, can also have postpartum depression. The cause may be distinct in males. Profound lifestyle changes that are brought about by caring for
6936-460: The lowest at 11.5%, after controlling for social factors such as age, income, education, marital status, and baby's health. The PPD rates for First Nations, Caucasian, and Hispanic women fell in between. Migration away from a cultural community of support can be a factor in PPD. Traditional cultures around the world prioritize organized support during postpartum care to ensure the mother's mental and physical health, well-being, and recovery. One of
7038-462: The majority of experts continue to diagnose postpartum depression as depression with onset anytime within the first year after delivery. The criteria required for the diagnosis of postpartum depression are the same as those required to make a diagnosis of non-childbirth-related major depression or minor depression . The criteria include at least five of the following nine symptoms, within two weeks: Postpartum blues, commonly known as "baby blues,"
7140-443: The measures distinguish attributions for positive and negative events. Optimistic people attribute internal, stable, and global explanations to good things. Pessimistic explanations attribute these traits of stability, globality, and internality to negative events, such as relationship difficulty. Models of optimistic and pessimistic attributions show that attributions themselves are a cognitive style – individuals who tend to focus on
7242-804: The medical community as to whether childbirth should be considered a traumatic event, the current consensus is childbirth can be a traumatic event. The DSM-IV and DSM-5 (standard classifications of mental disorders used by medical professionals) do not explicitly recognize childbirth-related PTSD, but both allow childbirth to be considered as a potential cause of PTSD. Childbirth-related PTSD is closely related to postpartum depression. Research indicates mothers who have childbirth-related PTSD also commonly have postpartum depression. Childbirth-related PTSD and postpartum depression have some common symptoms. Although both diagnoses overlap in their signs and symptoms, some symptoms specific to postpartum PTSD include being easily startled, recurring nightmares and flashbacks, avoiding
7344-419: The model, possibly because these studies are more likely to have controlled for event severity. The " learned helplessness " model formed the theoretical basis of the original Abramson, Seligman, and Teasdale statement on attributional style. More recently, Abramson, Metalsky and Alloy proposed a modified "hopelessness theory". This distinguished hopeless depression and more circumscribed pessimism. It emphasizes
7446-429: The newborn child. While the exact cause of PPD is unclear, the cause is believed to be a combination of physical, emotional, genetic, and social factors. These may include factors such as hormonal changes and sleep deprivation . Risk factors include prior episodes of postpartum depression, bipolar disorder , a family history of depression , psychological stress , complications of childbirth , lack of support, or
7548-410: The other personality factors. Over time, the more optimistic students were less stressed, less lonely, and less depressed than their pessimistic counterparts. This study suggests a strong link between optimism and psychological well-being. Low optimism may help explain the association between caregivers' anger and reduced sense of vitality . A meta-analysis of optimism supported findings that optimism
7650-775: The overall optimism and longevity of cohorts of men from the Veterans Affairs Normative Aging Study and women from the Nurses' Health Study . The study found a positive correlation between higher levels of optimism and exceptional longevity, defined as a lifespan exceeding 85 years. Another study conducted by Aspinwall and Taylor (1990) assessed incoming freshmen on a range of personality factors such as optimism, self-esteem, locus of self-control, etc. Freshmen who scored high on optimism before entering college had lower levels of psychological distress than their more pessimistic peers while controlling for
7752-432: The pessimistic position that, since this is the best of all possible worlds, it is impossible for anything to get any better. Conversely, philosophical pessimism might be associated with an optimistic long-term view because it implies that no change for the worse is possible. Voltaire found it difficult to reconcile Leibniz's optimism with human suffering as demonstrated by the earthquake that devastated Lisbon in 1755 and
7854-402: The postpartum period have childbirth-related PTSD. The percentage of individuals with childbirth-related PTSD is approximately 15-18% in high-risk samples (women who experience severe birth complications, have a history of sexual/physical violence, or have other risk factors). Research has identified several factors that increase the chance of developing childbirth-related PTSD. These include
7956-414: The postpartum period, similar to biological mothers. This , may raise their chance of developing depressive symptoms and anxious tendencies. Postpartum depression presents in adoptive mothers via sleep deprivation similar to birth mothers, but adoptive parents have added risk factors such as a history of infertility. Additionally, preliminary research has shown that childbearing individuals who are part of
8058-401: The present moment is in an optimum state. This view that all of nature—past, present, and future—operates by laws of optimization along the lines of Hamilton's principle in the realm of physics is countered by views such as idealism , realism , and philosophical pessimism . Philosophers often link the concept of optimism with the name of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz , who held that we live in
8160-400: The realities and constraints of human ability. They cannot accept failures, delaying any ambitious and productive behavior in fear of failing again. This neuroticism can even lead to clinical depression and low productivity. As an alternative to negative perfectionism, Ben-Shahar suggests the adoption of optimalism. Optimalism allows for failure in pursuit of a goal, and expects that while
8262-554: The recovery process for a number of patients that had undergone surgery. The study showed that optimism was a strong predictor of the rate of recovery. Optimists achieved faster results in "behavioral milestones" such as sitting in bed, walking around, etc. They also were rated by staff as having a more favorable physical recovery. At a six-month follow-up, optimists were quicker to resume normal activities. A number of studies have been done on optimism and psychological well-being. One 30-year study undertaken by Lee et al . (2019) assessed
8364-540: The rest they need to fully recover from giving birth. Sleep deprivation can lead to physical discomfort and exhaustion, which can contribute to the symptoms of postpartum depression. While the causes of PPD are not understood, several factors have been suggested to increase the risk. These risks can be broken down into two categories, biological and psychosocial: The risk factors for postpartum depression can be broken down into two categories as listed above, biological and psychosocial. Certain biological risk factors include
8466-441: The risk for postpartum depression, these factors are known to correlate with PPD. This correlation does not mean these factors are causal. Cigarette smoking has been known to have additive effects. Some studies have found a link between PPD and low levels of DHA (an omega-3 fatty acid) in the mother. A correlation between postpartum thyroiditis and postpartum depression has been proposed but remains controversial. There may also be
8568-418: The side"—threatening to become toxic positivity . A study involving twins found that optimism is largely inherited at birth. Along with the recognition that childhood experiences determine an individual's outlook, such studies demonstrate the genetic basis for optimism reinforces the recognized difficulty in changing or manipulating the direction of an adult's disposition from pessimist to optimist. One of
8670-685: The stopping of breastfeeding, as well as negative emotions such as withdrawal, disengagement, and even hostility. If a mother develops a hostile relationship, it can lead to extreme outcomes such as infanticide. As the child grows older, postpartum depression can lead to the child experiencing irregularities in cognitive processes, behaviors, and emotions. In addition to these abnormalities, children who grew up around postpartum depression are also susceptible to developing violent tendencies. Paternal postpartum depression has not been studied as much as its maternal counterpart. However, postpartum depression affects 8 to 10% of fathers. In men, postpartum depression
8772-510: The strongest predictors of paternal PPD is having a partner who has PPD, with fathers developing PPD 50% of the time when their female partner has PPD. Sexual orientation has also been studied as a risk factor for PPD. In a 2007 study conducted by Ross and colleagues, lesbian and bisexual mothers were tested for PPD and then compared with a heterosexual sample group. It was found that lesbian and bisexual biological mothers had significantly higher Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale scores than
8874-426: The symptoms vary and can change quickly. It is different from postpartum depression and maternity blues . It may be a form of bipolar disorder . It is important not to confuse psychosis with other symptoms that may occur after delivery, such as delirium. Delirium typically includes a loss of awareness or inability to pay attention. About half of women who experience postpartum psychosis have no risk factors; but
8976-743: The tasks of processing and incorporating beliefs regarding good and bad information respectively. The Life Orientation Test (LOT) was designed by Scheier and Carver (1985) to assess dispositional optimism – expecting positive or negative outcomes. It is one of the more popular tests of optimism and pessimism. It was often used in early studies examining these dispositions' effects in health-related domains. Scheier and Carver's initial research, which surveyed college students, found that optimistic participants were less likely to show an increase in symptoms like dizziness, muscle soreness, fatigue, blurred vision, and other physical complaints than pessimistic respondents. There are eight items and four filler items in
9078-866: The term "optimism" differently depending on their research. As with any trait characteristic, there are several ways to evaluate optimism, such as the Life Orientation Test (LOT), an eight-item scale developed in 1985 by Michael Scheier and Charles Carver. Dispositional optimism and pessimism are typically assessed by asking people whether they expect future outcomes to be beneficial or negative (see below). The LOT returns separate optimism and pessimism scores for each individual. Behaviourally, these two scores correlate around r =0.5. Optimistic scores on this scale predict better outcomes in relationships, higher social status , and reduced loss of well-being following adversity. Health-preserving behaviors are associated with optimism while health-damaging behaviors are associated with pessimism. Some have argued that optimism
9180-497: The test. Four are positive items (e.g. "In uncertain times, I usually expect the best") and four are negative items e.g. "If something can go wrong for me, it will." The LOT has been revised twice—once by the original creators (LOT-R) and also by Chang, Maydeu-Olivares, and D'Zurilla as the Extended Life Orientation Test (ELOT). The Revised Life Orientation Test (LOT-R) consists of six items, each scored on
9282-580: The theory indicates that the predictions are supported. Data have, however, been ambiguous, and some researchers believe that the theory is well-supported, some believe that it has not had impressive empirical support and some believe that, at least in the early days of the theory, the theory was never adequately tested. One factor accounting for ambiguity in research into the model is whether researchers have assessed attributions for hypothetical events or for real events. Those studies that have looked at attributions for hypothetical events have been more supportive of
9384-446: The trend of activity is towards the positive, it is not necessary always to succeed while striving towards goals. This basis in reality, prevents the optimalist from being overwhelmed in the face of failure. Optimalists accept failures and learn from them, encouraging further pursuit of achievement. Ben-Shahar believes that optimalists and perfectionists show distinct motives. Optimalists tend to have more intrinsic, inward desires, with
9486-692: The two groups. A meta-analysis confirmed the assumption that optimism is related to psychological well-being: "Put simply, optimists emerge from difficult circumstances with less distress than do pessimists." Furthermore, the correlation appears to be attributable to coping style: "That is, optimists seem intent on facing problems head-on, taking active and constructive steps to solve their problems; pessimists are more likely to abandon their effort to attain their goals." Optimists may respond better to stress: pessimists have shown higher levels of cortisol (the "stress hormone") and trouble regulating cortisol in response to stressors. Another study by Scheier examined
9588-509: The typical sense of the word, is to expect the best possible outcome from any given situation. This is usually referred to in psychology as dispositional optimism. It reflects a belief that future conditions will work out for the best. As a trait , it fosters resilience in the face of stress . Theories of optimism include dispositional models and models of explanatory style . Methods to measure optimism have been developed within both of these theoretical approaches, such as various forms of
9690-442: The use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Postpartum depression affects roughly 8.9 to 10.1% of women in high-income countries and 17.8 to 19.7% of women in low and middle-income countries. Postpartum depression commonly affects mothers who have experienced stillbirth, live in urban areas and adolescent mothers. Moreover, this mood disorder is estimated to affect 1% to 26% of new fathers. Postpartum psychosis ,
9792-416: The valence of an event. Such effects are found more broadly in cognition, where they are referred to as Global versus local precedence . Optimistic and Pessimistic attributions emerged as independent of each other, supporting models in which these styles have distinct genetic and environmental origins. Attributional style is, at least superficially, similar to locus of control . However, the locus of control
9894-405: The vulnerability to depression across the lifespan. Many theories assume optimism can be learned , and research supports a modest role of family-environment acting to raise (or lower) optimism and lower (or raise) neuroticism and pessimism. Work utilising brain imaging and biochemistry suggests that at a biological trait level, optimism and pessimism reflect brain systems specialised for
9996-525: The ways people explain events, i.e., that attributions cause these dispositions. An optimist would view defeat as temporary, as something that does not apply to other cases, and as something that is not their fault. Measures of attributional style distinguish three dimensions among explanations for events: Whether these explanations draw on internal versus external causes; whether the causes are viewed as stable versus unstable; and whether explanations apply globally versus being situationally specific. In addition,
10098-438: Was defined as "any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual, or psychological harm or suffering to women". Psychological and cultural factors associated with increased incidence of postpartum depression include family history of depression, stressful life events during early puberty or pregnancy, anxiety or depression during pregnancy, and low social support. Violence against women
10200-408: Was linked to lower rates of postpartum depression. Postpartum depression is not limited to biological mothers and is not unique to them specifically. While not much research has been done regarding post-adoption depression, difficulties associated with parenting post-partum are similar between biological and adoptive parents. Women who adopt children undergo significant stress and life changes during
10302-440: Was mocked by Voltaire in his satirical novel Candide as baseless optimism of the sort exemplified by the beliefs of one of its characters, Dr. Pangloss , which are the opposite of his fellow traveller Martin 's pessimism and emphasis on free will . The optimistic position is also called Panglossianism which became an term for excessive, even stupendous, optimism. The phrase "panglossian pessimism" has been used to describe
10404-433: Was not God's power to create a perfect world, but he created the best among possible worlds. In one of his writings, he responded to Blaise Pascal 's philosophy of awe and desperation in the face of the infinite by claiming that infinity should be celebrated. While Pascal advocated for making man's rational aspirations more humble, Leibniz was optimistic about the capacity of human reason to extend itself further. This idea
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