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124-477: Some 10 towns and 156 villages of three provinces are located around the Atatürk Reservoir. The reservoir has changed the climate and vegetation of the region. The lake provides a fisheries and recreation site. For transportation purposes, several ferries have been operated in the reservoir. The reservoir lake is called "sea" by local people. Nearly 4,760 km (1,840 sq mi) of arable land in

248-675: A sahabi and commander during the Muslim conquests , was buried in Samosata. In the tenth century, the town, which was the second biggest in the region after Melitene , was recaptured by the Byzantines. In June 966, Samosata was the venue of an exchange of prisoners between the Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas and his Muslim foe Sayf al-Dawla . After the collapse of Byzantine authority in

372-520: A battle against the Turks in the year prior, motivating the abandonment, whereas another states that the Mongols themselves caused the damage during the abandonment. The Mongols are also variously stated to either have simply walled up the gates but otherwise left what remained intact or to have pillaged the city for building materials before burning down the remnants. One major reason for the abandonment

496-522: A blend of ancient Mesopotamian religion and Neoplatonism and Harran remained notorious for its strong pagan traditions long into the Islamic period. The city retained a highly heterogenous population that practiced many different religions. Some adopted syncretistic faiths tolerable by the Muslims, others continued to honor the old deities of ancient Mesopotamia and Syria, and some primarily worshipped

620-514: A capital under the succeeding Abbasid Caliphate , though the city enjoyed some special privileges. When Al-Mansur ( r.  754–775 ) ordered the destruction of the walls of all cities in northern Mesopotamia, Harran was a notable exception. The Harran University underwent its golden age in the 8th century, particularly under the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid ( r.  786–809 ). Many prominent scholars of this time were educated at

744-593: A crushing defeat against the Sasanian king Narseh . In the writings of Ammianus Marcellinus (359), it is noted that the walls of Harran were in poor condition. This issue was not rectified until repairs conducted in the reign of Justinian I ( r.  527–565 ). From the time of the Christianization of Mesopotamia and Syria until long into the Middle Ages, Harran developed a rivalry with

868-541: A few years as a major urban center. Mongol control of Harran was immediately contested by the Sultanate of Rum and the Mamluk Sultanate . The Mongols decided to abandon Harran in 1271, deporting the population to the nearby cities of Mardin and Mosul . Accounts differ concerning the reason for the abandonment and the state in which the city was left. One account states that the city had been damaged in

992-504: A fortified garrison town. In 217, the Roman emperor Caracalla was murdered in Harran while visiting the temple of Sin. Harran, along with the nearby cities of Nisibis and Hatra , were captured by the Sasanian king Ardashir I in 238–240 but was swiftly retaken by Emperor Gordian III . Later in 296, Harran was also the site of a battle where the future emperor Galerius suffered

1116-594: A list of twenty-eight Syrian Miaphysite bishops. The Syrian bishopric probably lapsed in the 12th century. Samosata is included in the Catholic Church 's list of titular sees , but no further titular bishops have been appointed for that eastern see since the Second Vatican Council . Samsat Höyük is a tell located just north of the Samsat district of Adıyaman. Archaeological research on

1240-670: A now lost work by Hammad al-Harrani made the claim that Harran had been the first city founded after the great flood . Despite the threat of water scarcity , Harran continued to be an important town under the rule of the Ayyubid Sultanate , which followed the Zengids. Saladin ( r.  1174–1193 ) at some point enlarged Harran's Grand Mosque  [ tr ] and thereafter granted Harran to his brother Al-Adil I (later sultan 1200–1218). Al-Adil later gave Harran to his son Al-Kamil (later sultan 1218–1238). Harran

1364-534: A population of 96,072. The Harran district ranks 857th among 872 districts in Turkey, and last among the districts of the Şanlıurfa Province , by socioeconomic development. As of 2009, Harran has a low unemployment rate (2.73%; 753rd among all districts), a low literacy rate (55.16%; 865th among all districts) and a high population increase rate (64.23%; 7th among all districts). Harran's possibilities for development are subject to several limiting factors, including

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1488-477: A sacred city of the moon. The Ekhulkhul ("Temple of Rejoicing"), Harran's great moon temple, was already present in the city by c. 2000 BC. Sin was a major deity in Ur, which also housed his main temple, but Harran's devotion to the moon can perhaps also be explained by its geography and climate. According to Donald Frew, the sun was a natural enemy in the hot and desolate landscape surrounding Harran whereas

1612-484: A share in pollution. In order to open the region to tourism, to introduce modern sports to the local people and to integrate the social and economic progress taking place in the region with sports as a drive, a water sports festival was established in 1994, which takes place each year in September. The young people in the region developed an interest in water sports and started to take part in international contests in

1736-475: A small realm with Harran as its capital from 990 to 1081. The toleration of paganism at Harran was at last revoked for the final time in the 11th century and the last moon temples were closed and destroyed. The precise date when this happened and the events surrounding it are unknown, perhaps coinciding with the city falling under the control of the Fatimid Caliphate in 1038 through the submission of

1860-467: A target for raids. In the 19th century BC, the lands surrounding Harran were occupied by confederations of semi-nomadic tribes. In the following century the Amorite king Shamshi-Adad I ( r.  1808–1776  BC) is recorded to have launched an expedition to conquer the region around Harran and secure the trade routes there from hostile forces. After the fall of Shamshi-Adad I 's kingdom in

1984-490: A temporary settlement by local nomadic societies. One of the major semi-nomadic tribes that have continuously lived in and around Harran since the Middle Ages and still today are the Nmēr , descendants of the medieval Numayrid lords of the city. By the 1840s, Harran had once more become a semi-permanent village settlement, although the inhabitants spent the summer months encamped outside the village to avoid vermin in their houses. By

2108-481: A vassal state of the Parthian Empire . Abgarid rule may have encouraged the local moon cult; the moon was important in both the ancient Bedouin and Nabatean Arab religions. From the first century BC until the end of antiquity, Harran was typically located near or on the border of the Roman (later Byzantine) and Parthian (later Sasanian ) empires. Harran frequently changed hands between the two empires but

2232-512: Is expected to in the future once more transform Harran into an important local center. Economic issues caused by the Syrian civil war across the nearby Syrian border has recently caused many Harranian families to migrate elsewhere for work, such as to the cities Urfa (ancient Edessa), Adıyaman and Gaziantep . The Harran Castle is a large brick fortress of unknown date, though ancient Greek inscriptions found at one of its gates suggest that it

2356-431: Is its ancient burial mound , spread over a large area and partially surviving intact at the center of the city's archaeological site. The burial mound preserves inscriptions and architectural elements from several different cultures and appears to have been in continuous use from the 3rd century BC to the 13th century AD. The burial mound may be older than Harran itself since ceramic dated to c. 5000 BC has been found at

2480-505: Is located in the Southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey, approximately 40 kilometres (25 miles) southeast of Urfa. Harran is situated 360 metres (1,180 feet) above sea level, which is the lowest point in the surrounding lowland region. Harran has a hot and dry climate. The precipitation rate is rarely more than 40 centimetres. During the summer, Harran experiences significant temperature differences between

2604-536: Is meant by the sources is not clear. The religious authorities of Harran, speaking on behalf of Sin, were considered suitable guarantors and signatories in political treaties. Already c. 2000 BC, a peace treaty was sealed in the Ekhulkhul between Mari and the Yaminites , an Amorite tribe. Further treaties signed that invoke Sin of Harran include a 14th-century BC treaty between Šuppiluliuma I of

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2728-826: Is mentioned in early cuneiform records of the Sumerians and Hittites as 𒌷𒊮𒆜 ( URU.ŠÀ.KASKAL ), sometimes shortened to 𒆜 ( KASKAL ), transliterated as Ḫarrānu ( m ). Ḫarrānu literally means "journey", "caravan" or "crossroad". It is often interpreted as "caravan path" or "intersection of routes and travel". Harran is rendered as ܚܳܪܳܢ ( hrn ) in Aramaic , חָרָן ( Ḥaran ) in Hebrew , حَرَّان ( Ḥarrân ) in Arabic , حران ( Harrān ) in Ottoman Turkish , and Harran in modern Turkish . The ancient Assyrians called

2852-534: Is not seen elsewhere in Turkey and is rare in the rest of the world. Houses similar to the modern beehive houses have long been present in Harran; the earliest known buildings from Harran appear to have been circular and Assyrian reliefs from the 7th century BC depict domed buildings architecturally similar to the present beehive houses. They have not been consistently present on the site, instead being built, ruined, forgotten and rebuilt multiple times throughout Harran's history. Beehive houses were recorded at Harran by

2976-578: Is populated by Kurds of the Bezikan tribe. Halil Fırat from the Justice and Development Party (AKP) was elected mayor in the local elections in March 2019. The current Kaymakam is Halid Yıldız. Samsat was the ancient capital of Kingdom of Commagene . The current site of Samsat is comparatively new, however, being rebuilt in 1989 when the old town of Samosata was flooded during the construction of

3100-587: Is therefore typically regarded as the short-lived final capital of ancient Assyria. Aššur-uballiṭ II underwent a coronation ceremony at Harran, being invested with rulership by Sin. After a long siege lasting from the winter of 610 BC to early 609 BC, Harran was captured by the Babylonians and Medes, ending the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Ekhulkhul was destroyed by the Medes at this time and

3224-462: Is very rich. Other finds include oil lamps, ivory comb, fragrance bottle, terracotta lamps, bone spoons, leaf-shaped marble sconces and coins. The walls of the Seljuk Period, built on a solid Byzantine fortress, were preserved intact. The inscription on the limestone of this fortification was studied by a master calligrapher. The landfill belonged to Diyarbekr Şah Karaaslan. The centre of

3348-528: The Atatürk Dam . As of 2018, reconstruction process had not yet been fully completed. An ancient tell nearby dating back to Paleolithic times has survived to the current day. Its population was 3,790 in 2022, up from 3,520 in 2017. The city of Samosata was founded sometime before 245 BC on the previous Neo-Hittite site of Kummuh by the Orontid king of Sophene , Sames I . He may have founded

3472-586: The Battle of Carrhae , one of the worst military defeats in Roman history. The Harranian moon cult of Sin proved to be enduring and lasted long into the Middle Ages , known to have existed as late as the 11th century AD. Harran was captured by the Rashidun Caliphate in 640 and remained an important city in the Islamic period. It flourished as a center of science and learning and was the site of both

3596-470: The Sasanian Empire (224–651) from attacking it. In 260, it was the first city that was sacked by the Sasanian emperor Shapur I ( r.  240–270 ) following his capture of the Roman emperor Valerian ( r.  253–260 ). Shapur I is known to have had coins minted in the same fashion as the Roman antoninianus , which he may have taken from the material used in the mint of Samosata. It

3720-482: The Syrian border crossing at Akçakale . Harran was founded at some point between the 25th and 20th centuries BC, possibly as a merchant colony by Sumerian traders from Ur . Over the course of its early history, Harran rapidly grew into a major Mesopotamian cultural, commercial and religious center. It was made a religiously and politically influential city through its association with the moon-god Sin ; many prominent Mesopotamian rulers consulted with and renovated

3844-687: The county of Edessa . Warfare in the 13th century devastated Samosata. Rukn ad-Din Sulayman Shah II of the Anatolian Seljuks captured Samosata in 1203. The Anushtegins conquered and looted the town in 1237. The Mongol Emperor Hülagü Khan conquered Samosata in 1240 and the Beylik of Dulkadir conquered the town as well. Samosata was temporarily absorbed into the Ottoman Empire by Bayazid I in 1392, and in 1401 it

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3968-442: The Şanlıurfa - Harran and Mardin - Ceylanpınar plains in upper Mesopotamia is being irrigated via gravity-flow with water diverted from the Atatürk Reservoir through the Şanlıurfa Tunnels system, which consists of two parallel tunnels, each 26.4 km (16.4 mi) long and 7.62 m (25.0 ft) in diameter. The flow rate of water through the tunnels is about 328 m/s (11,600 cu ft/s), which makes one-third of

4092-680: The "joy of" or "happiness of" was an Orontid (and later Artaxiad ) practice that recalled the Achaemenid royal discourse. Samosata served as one of the most important royal residences of the Orontid kings of Sophene. Like other early-Orontid royal residences, Samosata experienced a sudden shift in its architectural style under the Orontids of Commagene due to their close involvement in the Greco-Roman world . During this period, Samosata

4216-462: The 1100s BC, before which it was often occupied by Arameans . Under Assyria, Harran grew into a fortified provincial capital second in importance only to the capital of Assur itself. In the 10th century, Harran was one of the few cities, along with Assur, to be exempt from needing to pay tribute to the Assyrian king and in the 9th and 8th centuries BC, Harran was made the seat of the turtanu ,

4340-403: The 1180s, Harran was fully devoted to Islam with little to no traces of its former moon cult. In the late 11th and early 12th century, political control in northern Mesopotamia and Syria was fragmented. Harran was an important city to the various local Muslim rulers as a counterweight to the nearby crusader states . Numayrid control of Harran came to an end in 1081 when the city was captured by

4464-650: The 11–13th centuries when the region surrounding Harran experienced considerable political turmoil. The castle has recently been partially excavated and reconstructed with the support of the Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism . Harran was the site of the oldest mosque built in Anatolia, known as the Grand Mosque or Paradise Mosque. The mosque was built by the Umayyad caliph Marwan II in 744–750, at

4588-504: The 1270s. The Mamluks repaired the castle at some point, most likely in the 1330s or 1340s, and it became the seat of a local military governor, but there was otherwise little effort spent on trying to revive the city. By this point Harran was no longer on any of the major trade routes. A small village-sized settlement sprung up at the site, probably in the immediate vicinity of the castle. The space within Harran's city walls gradually filled up with dirt and sand through natural means. Over

4712-428: The 12th-century explorer Ibn Jubayr but not by the 17th-century explorer Evliya Çelebi . The majority of the present beehive houses in Harran date to the early twentieth century and none have been standing for longer than since the mid-19th century. The architecture of the beehive houses has subtly changed since the twentieth century; photographs from that time show the houses erected on the grounds like tents whereas

4836-553: The Assyrian commander-in-chief. Since Harran was the sacred city of the moon-god, many Mesopotamian kings travelled there to receive the blessing and confirmation of their rule from the city's religious officials and in turn renovated and expanded Harran and its temples. The Ekhulkhul was renovated twice in the Neo-Assyrian period by the kings Shalmaneser III ( r.  859–824 BC) and Ashurbanipal ( r.  669–631  BC). Prophecies made by prophets and oracles of

4960-587: The Byzantine Empire and intended to destroy the city due to its large pagan population. Al-Ma'mun asked the populace if they were Muslims, Christians or Jews (" people of the book " protected under Islamic law). Unable to claim that they were, the people of Harran instead claimed that they were " Sabians ", a mysterious religious group also protected according to the Quran but who no one at the time knew who they were. Upon being inquired who their prophet was,

5084-539: The Halaf Period to the Ottoman Period. The following year, the excavations started in 1978, except for 1980, until 1987, under Ankara University, Faculty of Language and History-Geography It was conducted by the team led by Nimet Özgüç. These excavations were carried out on a very wide area, including the lower city and surrounding walls. Coins belonging to the 12th - 13th centuries AD were identified during

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5208-544: The Harran Castle preserves remnants of a Christian chapel with distinct crusader architecture, perhaps suggesting a peaceful crusader presence. The growth of Edessa under Christian rule contributed to the decline of Harran. Edessa is higher up the water table than Harran and as more wells were constructed in Edessa, those in Harran gradually dried up. Harran was in the 12th century still renowned for its ancient origins;

5332-505: The Harran Plain in the spring of 1995. Approximately 900,000 hectares of land in the Harran Plain is irrigated. The impact of the irrigation on the economy of the region is significant. In ninety percent of the irrigated area, cotton is planted. Irrigation expansion within the Harran plains also increased Southeastern Anatolia's cotton production from 164,000 to 400,000 metric tons in 2001, or nearly sixty percent. With almost 50% share of

5456-521: The Harranians claimed that their prophet was the legendary Hellenistic figure Hermes Trismegistus . There were many Islamic writers who saw through the claims of Harranians and still considered them to be pagans and not Sabians, and thus lacking any special right to toleration or protection. In 933, the Harranian pagans were ordered through a decree to convert to Islam, but a visitor to the city in

5580-507: The Hittites and Shattiwaza of Mitanni , and an 8th-century BC treaty between the Assyrian king Ashur-nirari V and Mati'ilu of Arpad . Harran grew into a major Mesopotamian cultural, commercial and religious center. In addition to its religious importance, Harran was also important due to its strategic placement on an intersection of trade routes. Because Harran had an abundance of goods that passed through its region, it often became

5704-638: The Numayrid ruler Shabīb ibn Waththāb , or more likely with a failed anti-Uqaylid rebellion in 1083. Izz al-Din ibn Shaddad reported that a Sabian temple was destroyed by the Uqaylid dynasty governor Yahya ibn as-Shatir, who conquered Harran in 1081. In 1059, the Harran Castle , presumably constructed in Byzantine times, was rebuilt and strengthened by the Numayrid ruler Manīʿ ibn Shabīb . By

5828-735: The Seleucids, Harran largely functioned as a military colony and from the time of the Macedonian conquest onwards, many Greeks settled in Harran. Under the centuries of Hellenic control, Harran gradually underwent some Hellenization of its culture. After the collapse of the Seleucid Empire, Harran became part of the Kingdom of Osroene in 132 BC, ruled by the Nabatean Arab Abgarid dynasty and most frequently

5952-705: The Uqaylid dynasty. It was then under the control of various Turkish princes; first Jikirmish of Mosul (1102–1106), then the Artuqids of Mardin (1106–1127) and then the Zengid dynasty , which captured Harran under Imad al-Din Zengi in 1127. In the 12th century, Harran at times fell under the influence of the County of Edessa , a short-lived crusader state . There is no record of the crusaders ever conquering Harran but

6076-431: The aim of utilizing the fishing potential and creating jobs for the lakeside populations, the reservoir is zoned to 21 fishing sectors, each one having a water products cooperative. Considering all aspects of fishery activities, the reservoir contributes in total US$ 15 million to GNP and generates employment for 1,600 people. With the completion of Nissibi Bridge in 2015, a highway connection has been established between

6200-414: The amount of productive land and the relatively limited area reserved for urban development. In his seyahatnâme from the 17th century, Evliya Çelebi mentioned that the vicinity of Harran was inhabited by Bedouins of Qays and Mawali tribes. The local culture is predominantly Arabic in terms of lifestyle, clothing and food. Harran has close social, cultural, commercial and urban relations with Urfa,

6324-411: The ancient ruins since the 1950s, newer houses constructed in Harran are mostly concrete structures with no architectural relation to the beehive houses. Concrete houses have been built both alongside beehive houses and outside the ancient city walls. The majority of the population of Harran today live in a more newly constructed village about 2 kilometres (1.2 miles) from the old city center. Harran

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6448-419: The ancient walls they only produced brackish water and were thus only useful for providing water to animals. The water at Harran had perhaps been contaminated from seeping saltpeter from its ancient ruins. Since the middle of the 20th century, Harran has re-transitioned into a permanently inhabited settlement due to local advancements in irrigation and agriculture. Particularly important in this development

6572-474: The branches of sailing, rowing-canoeing, swimming and diving on the Atatürk Reservoir. Furthermore, International Atatürk Dam Sailing Competition takes place every year in October on the lake. With the forming of the reservoir lake, more than a hundred hamlets and villages were inundated and about 55,000 people were forced to relocate, many of them resettling in nearby communities. According to other sources,

6696-459: The capital of the Şanlıurfa Province . The majority of the district's population is composed of tribal Arabs. Samosata Samsat ( Kurdish : Samîsad , Ottoman Turkish صمصاد Semisat ), formerly Samosata ( Ancient Greek : Σαμόσατα ) is a small town in the Adıyaman Province of Turkey , situated on the upper Euphrates river. It is the seat of Samsat District . The town

6820-448: The centuries, few structures remained above the soil; the castle survived owing to its position on a hill and its continued usage. The remnants of the mosque were also kept clear due to its religious and historical significance. Under the Ottoman Empire , which captured the region in the early 16th century, Harran was the capital of a nahiyah (a local administrative unit composed of a group of villages). The demolished Harran University

6944-585: The city Huzirina . Ḫarrānu was Hellenised to Kárrhai (Kάρραι) in the Hellenistic period . The Romans later Latinised the Greek name into Carrhae . Due to the prominence of both Harran and Carrhae in historical literary sources, some scholars use the compound name "Carrhae-Harran" for the ancient city. Under the Byzantine Empire , the city continued to be called Carrhae (Kάρραι) but

7068-592: The city and instead lived in Edessa. Despite its paganism, Harran was a site of interest to Christians since the city is mentioned in the Book of Genesis as the town where Abraham and his family stopped on their way from Ur of the Chaldees to Canaan . The last pagan Roman emperor, Julian ( r.  361–363 ) intentionally avoided the Christian Edessa and instead stopped at Harran in 363 to consult

7192-467: The city in order to assert his claim over the area, a common practice amongst Iranian and Hellenistic dynasties, such as Cappadocia , Pontus , Parthia and Armenia . The city was built in a "sub- Achaemenid " Persian architectural form , similar to the rest of Orontid buildings in Greater Armenia . Naming cities such as Samosata ( Middle Persian *Sāmašād ; Old Persian *Sāmašiyāti- )

7316-533: The construction of the dam resulted in involuntary resettlement of between 45,000 to 53,500 people. In 1989, the old town of Samosata (Samsat), capital of the ancient Commagene kingdom located in Adıyaman Province was flooded behind the Atatürk Dam. A new town with the same name, Samsat , was founded for the 2,000 people dislocated. The birthplace of the Ancient Greek poet Lucian was lost when

7440-429: The control of the Sumerians and Hittites before being occupied by ancient Semitic-speaking people around 2750 BC. The earliest written records concerning Harran suggest that the city itself was founded c. 2500 –2000 BC as a merchant outpost by traders from the Sumerian city of Ur . Harran was from early on associated with the Mesopotamian moon-god Nanna (later known as Sin) and soon became regarded as

7564-414: The converted moon temple. The castle being on the site of the ancient temple is further supported by its higher elevation whereas the mosque is further supported by the finds of Babylonian inscriptions and four stelae of Nabonidus among its ruins. These inscriptions and stelae directly mention the Elkhulkhul. Additionally, the remains of an ancient altar with moon iconography have also been recovered from

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7688-528: The country's cotton production, the region developed to the leader in Turkey. With the Suruç Tunnel, which was completed in 2014, irrigation is carried out in the Suruç Plain with the water of the reservoir. In addition, the reservoir provides drinking and utility water to Şanlıurfa . Atatürk Reservoir is an abundant source of food for local people and also provides opportunities for recreational fishing. In 1992, around 200,000 young fish (fingerlings), propagated in DSI's Atatürk Fish Hatchery, were introduced into

7812-407: The dam was created. Since the entire GAP area was home to early civilization of the Hittites and the site of Nevalı Çori , and therefore rich in terms of historical remains, the cultural heritage of the region was a concern. The subject of salvaging cultural heritages gained importance, particularly after the inundation of Samsat. The early Neolithic settlement of Nevalı Çori , site of some of

7936-502: The days and nights. There are 136 neighbourhoods in Harran District: In its most prosperous periods in ancient and medieval history Harran was probably home to around 10,000–20,000 residents. As a result of Harran's retransition into a permanent settlement over the course of the late 20th century and early 21st century, the city and surrounding district has experienced a rapid population increase. Despite this, Harran retains predominantly rural characteristics. As of 2022, Harran had

8060-419: The deities worshipped by the pagans of Harran in late antiquity included Sin, Bat-Nikkal (consort of Sin; a different name from his ancient consort Ningal ), the "lord with his dogs" (identified as a localised version of the god Nergal ), Tar'atha (identified with the Syrian goddess Atargatis ), Gadlat (an Arabian goddess), and perhaps Shamash. Though Sin had in the past been the only major deity in Harran, he

8184-498: The early 18th century BC, Harran was an independent city-state for a time; archives from Mari from the time of Zimri-Lim ( r.  1775–1761 ) record that Harran in his time was ruled by a king named Asdi-Takim . Harran was later incorporated into the Mitanni kingdom in the 16th century BC. Harran was conquered from Mitanni by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari I ( r.  1305–1274  BC). The city would not be firmly incorporated into Middle Assyrian Empire until

8308-403: The excavations in the layers dating to the late phases of the Middle Ages. Of these Seljuk sultans I. Gıyaseddin Keyhusrev (1192–1195), Ala al-Din Keykubbad, (1219-1236), II. Gıyaseddin Keyhusrev (1236-1246), IV. Rükn el-Din The coins of Kılıç Arslan (1257–1264), as well as the coins of Saladin (1170-1193) printed in Harran, were uncovered. The collection of glassware with cups, glasses and bowls

8432-404: The fall of Assyria and experienced varying degrees of foreign cultural influence during its time under the Neo-Babylonian (609–539 BC), Achaemenid (539–330 BC), Macedonian (330–312 BC) and Seleucid (312–132 BC) empires. During classical antiquity Harran was often contested between the Roman and Parthian (later Sasanian ) empires. In 53 BC Harran was the site of

8556-434: The first Islamic university (the Harran University ) and the oldest mosque in Anatolia (the Harran Grand Mosque  [ tr ] ). Harran twice served as a capital city in the Middle Ages, first briefly under the Umayyad Caliphate (744–750) and later under the Numayrid Emirate (990–1081). The city was conquered by the Mongol Empire in 1260 but was largely destroyed and left abandoned in 1271. Although Harran

8680-430: The following year found that there were still pagan religious leaders operating a remaining public temple. Toleration of the pagans at Harran appears to have been renewed in the late 10th century. The power of the Abbasid Caliphate and its vassals in the region around Harran (the Hamdanid dynasty ) declined at the end of the 10th century. A new local Arab dynasty emerged during this time, the Numayrid dynasty , who ruled

8804-424: The hill of Şehremuz in Samsat has uncovered relics from the 7000 BC Paleolithic era; the 5000 BC Neolithic, 3000 BC Chalcolithic and 3000 to 1200 BC Bronze Ages. The ancient city of Ḫaḫḫum ( Hittite : Ḫaḫḫa ) was located nearby; it is recorded as a source of gold for ancient Sumeria . The first excavations were conducted in 1964 and 1967 under the direction of the American archeologist Theresa Goell . In fact,

8928-534: The many cultures that have inhabited Harran constructed them is not known. The walls were most likely constructed under either Roman or Byzantine rule. Inscriptions in both Greek and Syriac have been discovered during excavations of parts of the walls. The walls of Harran resemble those of the nearby Edessa, though are slightly smaller. They are vaguely elliptical in layout, normally around 3 metres (9.8 feet) thick and approximately 4.5 kilometres (2.8 miles) long and 5 metres (16 feet) high. Before they fell into ruin,

9052-449: The middle of the 20th century, Harran comprised about a hundred houses, inhabited by semi-settled nomadic Arabs, most of whom still did not stay at the site for the duration of the entire year. The city's ancient water systems had long fallen into disrepair and Harran in the 20th century had only a single source of drinking water, Jacob's Well, about 1.6 kilometres (0.99 miles) west of its walls. Although six wells were still operational within

9176-455: The moon cult of Harran were held in high regard; in the 670s BC the Harranians correctly prophesied that Esarhaddon ( r.  681–669  BC) would conquer Egypt and Sasi , a usurper proclaimed king by the Oracle of Nusku from Harran, managed to rally widespread support in the empire before he was defeated. The reign of Esarhaddon in particular marked the rise of the Ekhulkhul into one of

9300-556: The moon-temple of Ekhulkhul in Harran. Harran came under Assyrian rule under Adad-nirari I ( r.  1305–1274  BC) and became a provincial capital often second in importance only to the Assyrian capital of Assur itself. During the collapse of the Assyrian Empire, Harran briefly served as the final capital of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (612–609 BC). The city continued to be prominent after

9424-541: The most important settlements in the Diyar Mudar district. In 657, Caliph Ali asked the Harranians to aid him against Mu'awiya I , the first Umayyad caliph, but the Harranians instead sided with Mu'awiya at the Battle of Siffin in the same year. In response, it is said that Ali enacted a brutal massacre in Harran, exterminating most of the inhabitants. Under the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), Harran

9548-460: The most prominent religious sanctuaries in the ancient Near East , a position it would retain for centuries. The Neo-Assyrian Empire was defeated in the late seventh century BC by the newly established Neo-Babylonian Empire and the Medes . The Assyrian capital of Nineveh fell in 612 BC but the remnants of the Assyrian army, led by Crown Prince Aššur-uballiṭ II , rallied at Harran. Harran

9672-399: The nearby city of Edessa due to the cities having polarised attitudes concerning Christianity. Whereas Edessa adopted the new religion very early, Harran remained a pagan stronghold for centuries and became the largest center of pagan cults in eastern Syria. Harran was still overwhelmingly pagan in the 4th century, to the degree that the bishop appointed to Harran in 361 refused to reside in

9796-459: The night (and thus the moon) were more comforting. The sun-god Shamash is however also thought to have had a temple in Harran. Another prominent deity in the city was Sin's son Nusku , the god of light. Although next to nothing is known of the architecture and layout of Harran prior to the Middle Ages, the city is believed to have been designed according to a vaguely moon-shaped plan since Medieval sources allude to this. What kind of moon shape

9920-466: The nomadic lifestyle of the locals since they can be built and dismantled rapidly, like a tent, but also efficiently resist both heat and cold. Because of the weak materials used for plastering the beehive houses require repair every 1–3 years. Their walls are usually 50–60 centimetres thick and their domes are about 20–30 centimetres thick. The domes have an opening at the top which provides natural air circulation and ventilation. This feature, combined with

10044-567: The old settlement on 5 March 1988 due to the construction of the Atatürk Dam . A new location for the settlement was announced through Law No. 3433 on 21 April 1988. The historical Samsat was submerged in 1989 as the dam created the Atatürk Reservoir . The new town was built beside the new waterline by the Turkish government to house the displaced residents. The new town of Samsat was destroyed by an earthquake on 2 March 2017. The city

10168-615: The oldest extant buildings in Harran is a beehive complex that today serves as the Harran Culture House ( Harran Kültür Evi ), a local museum and restaurant. The Culture House building was originally built c. 1800 but fell into ruins at some point and was rebuilt for tourism purposes in 1999. The museum showcases artefacts as well as traditional jewelry and clothes from the region surrounding Harran. Since prohibitions relating to conservation of historical monuments has hindered locals from gathering building materials from

10292-512: The oracles of the moon temple on his upcoming Persian campaign . Although it is known that Sin was still worshipped at Harran in this time Julian is curiously stated to have consulted the female moon deity Luna . The oracles warned the emperor of impending disaster but Julian proceeded anyway and was killed in the war. Harran was the only city in the Roman Empire to declare citywide mourning after Julian's death. Later sources indicate that

10416-402: The pagan community and Harran remained a largely pagan city. When the armies of the Rashidun Caliphate , led by the general Iyad ibn Ghanm , besieged Harran in the winter of 639–640 it was the pagans of the city who negotiated its peaceful surrender. Ibn Ghanm is recorded to have given the pagans of Harran a new moon temple after the capture of the city. Harran under Islamic rule became one of

10540-558: The palace, which is thought to be the central courtyard, is 14,65 X 20,55 meters and it has a mosaic corner. The skeletons of five people thrown into a 1.8 meter diameter well of the Islamic Period were found. At the bottom with the skeletons, five gold coins and silver coins from the Abbasid Period were found. One of the gold coins belongs to Harun al-Rashid (766 - 709) and the others to Mutawakkil (822 - 861). Today

10664-472: The precise timing is not clear. It might have been brought to Harran by the scholar Thābit ibn Qurra in the late 9th century, who could have learnt Neoplatonism in Baghdad. Alternatively, Neoplatonism might have been brought to Harran as early as the 6th century by Neoplatonists such as Simplicius of Cilicia , who fled persecution in the Byzantine Empire. The local Harranian religion continued to develop as

10788-467: The present conical domes are built on larger cubical bases. Since wood is rare in the region around Harran owing to its climate, locals have traditionally built houses from materials they could easily gather such as stone, brick and mud. The modern beehive houses were constructed by locals who learnt how to build them by examining excavated ancient buildings and used bricks gathered from the ruins as building material. The beehive houses were compatible with

10912-601: The region, the town fell into the domain of the Armenian Philaretos Brachamios . At some point after that it fell into the hands of a certain Baluk, on of Amīr Ghāzī, who is mentioned among the army of Ridwan of Aleppo which besieged Edessa in 1095. While he managed to fend off an expedition in 1098 under Baldwin of Boulogne send by the ruler of Edessa, Thoros , he later had to sell the town to Baldwin for 10,000 gold coins upon which it belonged to

11036-521: The region. In 590, Emperor Maurice ( r.  582–602 ) ordered the Bishop of Harran, Stephen, to persecute the pagans of Harran. Many who refused to convert to Christianity, including the governor Acindynus , were executed. By this time, the Christians and pagans of Harran lived in separate quarters of the city. Maurice's persecution of the pagans of Harran had little effect on the strength of

11160-423: The reservoir. Since then, the figure of fingerlings stocked into the lake reached around 33 million. Commercially fishing in the reservoir developed to a catch of around annually 1,000 tons of some fish species with a market value of US$ 1.26 million. 8 of the 12 fish species being caught are economically valuable. In addition, the lake has a potential for cage culture of 7,000 tons/year worth of US$ 14 million. With

11284-590: The rest of Commagene was incorporated into the Roman Empire . It may have been during this event that the Syriac letter of Mara bar Serapion was composed. The letter makes mention of an Aramaic -speaking elite in Samosata that studied Greek literature and Stoic philosophy . Under the Roman emperor Hadrian ( r.  117–138 ), Samosata was given metropolis status along with Damascus and Tyre . Roman legions were later placed in Samosata to discourage

11408-418: The ruins of the mosque. As a result, the mosque enjoys more scholarly support as the most likely site of the ancient temple. The old town of Harran is still largely surrounded by Harran's ancient city walls. Though they are in generally poor condition, some stretches are well-preserved in good condition and give an idea of how the settlement once looked. The exact date of the current walls and which of

11532-465: The settlement is under the Euphrates, but before inundation it was 37–40 meters above the plain level and had an area of 500 x 350 meters. The steepest slope is the eastern slope and the lowest slope is the southwest-facing slope. The mound consists of a terrace and a ruined town covered with sediment. Samsat Höyük as an archaeological site is considered to be no longer accessible while it is covered by

11656-503: The settlement was known and famous before these excavations. Then, in 1977, under the Lower Euphrates Project, plans were put together aimed at identifying and saving the archaeological settlements that were to be inundated by the reservoir of Karakaya and Atatürk Dams. Surface surveys were conducted under the direction of Mehmet Özdoğan. In these studies, it was concluded that the settlement was permanently inhabited from

11780-471: The site. The precise location of the ancient great Ekhulkhul temple is unknown and no certain archaeological evidence of it has yet been found. It is likely that one of the major medieval buildings of Harran displaced the Elkhulkhul and were constructed on top of it, either the Harran Castle or the Grand Mosque. Writings from the Islamic period contradictingly claim that the castle or the mosque were

11904-430: The stars and planets. The Harranian pagans considered themselves the heirs of ancient star-worshipping civilizations such as Babylonia, Greece, India, Persia and Egypt. In addition to pagans, Harran was also home to Muslims, Christians, Jews, Samaritans , Zoroastrians , Manicheans , and other groups. In 830, Harun al-Rashid's son Al-Ma'mun ( r.  813–833 ) arrived at Harran with an army on his way to raid in

12028-427: The thick walls, provide relatively good indoor conditions throughout the year, even in the extreme summer heat. As of a count conducted in 2002, Harran had 2,760 beehive houses though the number in the old town has since declined to a few dozen. Some of the beehive houses remained inhabited until the 1980s but they are today mainly used as store houses and barns and have been under conservation since 1979. One of

12152-467: The time the city was his capital. The masonry of the mosque indicates that it was restored several times throughout its history. Measuring 104 by 107 metres (341 ft × 351 ft) at its height, the mosque has fallen into ruin over the centuries and little of it remains standing today. Remaining portions include the eastern wall, the mihrab , a fountain, and the 33.3-metre (109-foot) tall minaret . Another important historical monument in Harran

12276-520: The titular of Amida bore only this title, meaning the union took place between the 7th and the 9th centuries. Earlier bishops included Peperius, who attended the Council of Nicaea (325); Saint Eusebius of Samosata , a great opponent of the Arians , killed by an Arian woman (c. 380), honoured on 22 June; Andrew, a vigorous opponent of Cyril of Alexandria and of the Council of Ephesus . Chabot gives

12400-452: The total flow of the Euphrates. The tunnels are the largest in the world, in terms of length and flow rate, built for irrigation purposes. The first tunnel was completed in 1995 and the other in 1996. The reservoir will irrigate another 406,000 ha by pumping for a total of 882,000 ha. The Atatürk Dam and the Şanlıurfa Tunnel system are two major components of the GAP project. Irrigation started in

12524-537: The troublesome eastern provinces of the caliphate or due to the anti-Christian sentiment of the city's pagan population, who had never been disloyal to the Umayyads. The move of the capital to Harran caused some outrage; the Banu Kalb tribe saw it as an abandonment of Syria and under Yazid ibn Khalid al-Qasri besieged the former capital of Damascus before being suppressed. Harran did not continue to function as

12648-402: The two sides of the lake. Before 2015, transportation between Kahta and Siverek was carried out by ferry. Ferry services have been organized between Çermik and Gerger since 2012. The increase in the population living around the Atatürk Reservoir causes pollution of the lake. Adıyaman 's wastewater is discharged into the lake without being treated. Fishing activities in the lake also have

12772-501: The university in subjects such as mathematics, philosophy, medicine and astrology. The university was also an important site for translations of documents from Syriac and Greek into Arabic and Harran flourished as a center of science and learning. Al-Rashid furthermore supplied Harran with a new water supply, constructing a canal from the Balikh River . At some point, Neoplatonism was introduced to Harranian intellectuals, though

12896-480: The walls had 187 bastions and 6–8 gates, most of which are in ruined condition today. Only one of the medieval gates of Harran, the Aleppo Gate, remain standing today. The walls were once surrounded by a great moat filled with water. Harran mainly attracts attention today due to the distinctive vernacular architecture of the houses in its old town, known as beehive houses ( kümbets ). This building type

13020-447: The world's most ancient known temples and monumental sculpture , was discovered during rescue excavations before the dam was completed. Nevalı Çori was inundated by Atatürk Reservoir. Harran Harran is a municipality and district of Şanlıurfa Province , Turkey . Its area is 904 km , and its population is 96,072 (2022). It is approximately 40 kilometres (25 miles) southeast of Urfa and 20 kilometres (12 miles) from

13144-597: Was also sometimes referred to as Hellenopolis (Eλληνóπoλις), "city of the pagan Greeks", in reference to the strong pagan traditions there. Harran is situated at an important geographical crossroad, both between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and at the border between the ancient Mesopotamian and Anatolian cultures. The earliest known settlements in the region surrounding Harran date to 10000–8000 BC and settlements in its close vicinity are known to have existed by 6000 BC. The region initially shifted between

13268-468: Was at Samosata that Julian II had ships made in his expedition against Shapur II , and it was a natural crossing-place in the struggle between Heraclius and Chosroes in the 7th century. Samosata was the birthplace of several renowned people from antiquity such as Lucian ( c. 120-192) and Paul of Samosata (fl. 260). The Arabs conquered Commagene from the Byzantines in 640. Safwan bin Muattal ,

13392-607: Was born in a village near Samosata; Saint Rabbulas , venerated on 19 February, who lived in the 6th century at Constantinople , was also a native of Samosata. A Notitia Episcopatuum of Antioch in the 6th century mentions Samosata as an autocephalous metropolis ( Échos d'Orient , X, 144); at the synod that reinstated Patriarch Photius I of Constantinople (the Photian Council) of 879, the See of Samosata had already been united to that of Amida , present-day Diyarbakır. By 586,

13516-489: Was briefly captured by the Sasanian king Khosrow I in 549, who exempted the city from paying the tribute he demanded from Edessa on account of Harran not being Christian like his enemies but rather a stronghold of the "old religion". The endurance of paganism at Harran in the Christian late Roman Empire is likely only explainable through the pagans there offering regular bribes to church officials and civil administrators in

13640-593: Was by this point only the most important of several different ancient gods. The pagans of Harran became an issue in the increasingly Christianised late Roman Empire. As late as the early 5th century, the theologian Theodoret wrote that Harran was "a barbarous place, full of the thorns of paganism". At the Second Council of Ephesus (449), the Bishop of Harran , Stephen, was accused of accepting bribes from pagans to let them practice their rituals in peace. Harran

13764-599: Was destroyed by Timur . In 1516, the Ottoman Sultan Selim I recaptured it for the Ottomans who renamed it Samsat. It lost its old importance in the Ottoman administration and became the centre of a sanjak . During Turkey's republican period , the population of the town decreased. In 1960, Samsat was made a district center and connected to the province of Adıyaman . The city of Samsat was evacuated from

13888-542: Was downgraded to a sub-district of the Akçakale district. It regained its status as a district in 1987. Today, it is a major local tourist spot. The town is particularly famous for its unique beehive houses , which are reminiscent of buildings that were already present at Harran in ancient Mesopotamian times. The name Harran is recorded for the city from the earliest documents mentioning it and has remained in continuous use and largely unchanged since ancient times. Harran

14012-428: Was founded at some point during Byzantine rule (4th–7th centuries). It is also possible that it was built under Muslim rule in the 9th century. If it was not built in the 9th century, it is likely to at least have been expanded in the early Islamic period. Before its fall into ruin, the castle was a three-story structure. It was probably initially a palace but was converted into a more castle-like militaristic building in

14136-677: Was in practice often more or less independent. In 53 BC, the city was the site of the Battle of Carrhae between the Romans and Parthians, in which the Parthian general Surena defeated and killed the Roman triumvir Marcus Licinius Crassus , one of the worst military defeats in Roman history. Osroene (and thus also Harran) first came under Roman control as a result of the wars of Lucius Verus and Avidius Cassius in 162–166 AD. Harran gained colonial status under Emperor Septimius Severus in 195. Sources from Roman times describe Harran as

14260-409: Was kept as a military outpost under some later regimes, it has over the last five centuries mainly been used as a temporary settlement by local nomadic societies. Harran transitioned back into a semi-permanent village settlement in the 1840s, but has only recently grown into a permanent town through advancements in local irrigation and agriculture. Harran was a Turkish district until 1946, after when it

14384-599: Was largely rebuilt afterwards. In the Christian martyrology , seven Christian martyrs were crucified in 297 in Samosata for refusing to perform a pagan rite in celebration of the victory of Maximian over the Sassanids : Abibus, Hipparchus, James, Lollian, Paragnus, Philotheus, and Romanus. Paul the Dynamic Monarchian Bishop of Antioch was born in Samosata in 200; Saint Daniel the Stylite

14508-607: Was later regained from the Khwarazmians by the Ayyubids in 1240 by An-Nasir Yusuf of Aleppo. Harran was captured by the Mongol Empire under Hulagu Khan in 1259 or 1260 through the peaceful surrender of its governor. The Harran Castle, as was traditional placed under a different governor, continued to resist for some time until one of the towers were breached. Under the Mongols, Harran continued to flourish for

14632-419: Was likely the decreasing water supply. It was impossible to sustain the population size of Harran with its water storage systems in disrepair and its wells no longer producing enough water. Another possible reason for the abandonment was the difficulty to retain and defend Harran and the little strategic value offered by the city in return. Harran was regained from the Mongols by the Mamluk Sultanate later in

14756-401: Was most likely populated by a variety of peoples, descended from Syrians / Arameans / Assyrians , Neo-Hittites , Armenians , and Persians . Samosata was amongst the places where its ruler Antiochus I Theos ( r.  70–31 BC ) founded sanctuaries that contained inscriptions about his cult as well as reliefs of his dexiosis with Apollo - Mithras . In 73 AD, Samosata as well as

14880-692: Was neglected for many years but was eventually restored by the Neo-Babylonian king Nabonidus ( r.  556–539 BC), who was from Harran. The city itself was also significantly revitalised in Nabonidus's reign. After the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC, Harran was successively under the control of the Achaemenid (539–330 BC), Macedonian (330–312 BC) and Seleucid (312–132 BC) empires. Under

15004-437: Was renovated and prospered once more. In 717, Caliph Umar II founded the first Muslim university at Harran, bringing many scholars from other cities in the caliphate (including Alexandria ) and installing them in Harran. Harran was made the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate under its last caliph, Marwan II , from 744 to 750. The reason for Marwan moving his court to Harran is not known, but might be either to better monitor

15128-436: Was repaired under the Ottoman sultan Selim I ( r.  1512–1520 ) though it again declined in importance after his reign. The Ottomans continued to use the castle, and also built a new smaller mosque in the southern part of the city, but Harran gradually declined over the course of Ottoman rule and was eventually entirely abandoned as a permanent settlement. Harran has over the last five hundred years mainly been used as

15252-581: Was the Turkish Southeastern Anatolia Project , launched in the 1970s, which through irrigation efforts transformed the formerly dry desert plains surrounding Harran into productive agricultural fields. Harran received its own plan for future development in 1992. The ruins of the ancient city were placed on the Tentative list of World Heritage Sites in Turkey in 2000. Accelerated economic and demographic growth in Harran

15376-645: Was then under the rule of Al-Kamil's brother Al-Ashraf Musa 1202–1228/1229, after whose death the city steadily declined in importance. Harran was captured by Khwarazmians in 1237, driven from their homeland following the fall of the Khwarazmian Empire , but the castle was retained and fortified by the Ayyubid ruler As-Salih Ayyub though he soon had to give it up to broker a deal with the Khwarazmians for military aid against Badr al-Din Lu'lu' of Mosul. Harran

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