Academic freedom is the right of a teacher to instruct and the right of a student to learn in an academic setting unhampered by outside interference. It may also include the right of academics to engage in social and political criticism.
107-497: Athena SWAN ( Scientific Women's Academic Network ) is an equality charter mark framework and accreditation scheme established and managed by the UK Equality Challenge Unit (now part of Advance HE ) in 2005 that recognises and celebrates good practices in higher education and research institutions towards the advancement of gender equality : representation, progression and success. The Athena SWAN charter
214-764: A model and inspiration for modern colleges in Germany and universities in the West. The concept of academic freedom was also formulated in response to the encroachments of the totalitarian state on science and academia in general for the furtherance of its own goals. For instance, in the Soviet Union , scientific research was brought under strict political control in the 1930s. A number of research areas were declared " bourgeois pseudoscience " and forbidden, notably genetics (see " Lysenkoism ") and sociology. Marxist scientist John Desmond Bernal characterized this as part of
321-590: A 'policy think-tank' and is engaged in research into teaching and learning, e.g. exploring the applicability of 'grade point average' schemes to the UK. The UK Professional Standards Framework (UKPSF) for teaching and supporting learning in higher education is a voluntary scheme for describing the competences and values expected of university teaching staff in the UK . The scheme consists of four "descriptors" corresponding to different roles in higher education, and defines
428-607: A balance between those invited. Referring to that background, the Minister of Education at the time Naftali Bennett (in 2017) asked Prof. Asa Kasher to compile an academic Code of Ethics for universities, a code that was approved by "The Council" in March 2018. All the research universities (7 universities), with the exception of Ben-Gurion University of the Negev , which already had for an academic code of ethics that also included
535-469: A general freedom of speech. For example, a non-academic has the freedom of speech to criticize the efficacy of vaccines, but only has academic freedom to do so if they possess the prerequisite academic qualifications to do so. Unlike public speech, academic speech is also subject to quality controls by academic peers, for example through peer review. The concept is defined differently across several countries. Universities UK has defined it as "protecting
642-476: A guarantee that research and teaching is "intellectually and morally independent of all political and economic interests", leading to openness, free enquiry and debate. Historically, academic freedom emerged tentatively. In medieval Europe, academics who criticized church doctrine or acted in ways considered objectionable by the church could face repression. Similarly during the era when nation-states were emerging, academic could face sanction for acting contrary to
749-635: A neutral manner and to not favor any particular political or religious point of view during the course of their duties. However, the academic freedom of university professors is a fundamental principle recognized by the laws of the Republic, as defined by the Constitutional Council ; furthermore, statute law declares about higher education that "teachers-researchers (university professors and assistant professors), researchers and teachers are fully independent and enjoy full freedom of speech in
856-410: A parent of a Muslim student that was in the class where this lesson took place. This video was posted onto Facebook nine days before the tragedy took place. It was then reposted by another Facebook user who was a self-proclaimed imam that was known for having extreme Islamist views. This Facebook user also attached Paty's personal cell phone number and the address of the school he worked at to
963-415: A particular set of standards for university teaching (the ' UK Professional Standards Framework '), conferring professional recognition on academics who have met these standards, and runs the UK's annual National Teaching Fellowship awards. It also provides many online resources, some discipline-specific and some more generic, and organises workshops, seminars and journals on matters of interest. The HEA has
1070-412: A police officer. The third bill's goal was to strengthen respect for the principles of the Republic by means of tweaking the education system in a multitude of ways. The French Government described this bill as a part of President Macron's strategy to counter radical Islamists attempts to influence French society in a negative way. It would assign every French child with a tracking number to enforce
1177-481: A professional recognition scheme for university teachers who have demonstrated that their teaching practices are well-aligned with the UKPSF . This is intended both to encourage excellence in teaching and provide academics with a portable qualification transferable between institutions. There are four grades. Associate Fellow represents the minimum level of competence expected of any university teacher. Fellow represents
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#17327768201361284-462: A professor of public health discovered that his country's infant mortality rate was higher than government figures indicated. He lost his job and was imprisoned. The fate of biology in the Soviet Union is cited by Jasper Becker as a reason why society has an interest in protecting academic freedom. A Soviet biologist Trofim Lysenko rejected Western science – then focused primarily on making advances in theoretical genetics, based on research with
1391-465: A proposal that steered away from traditional education and informed that the future of higher education sector should not be regulated by the central government. In 1992 the Law of Higher Education and Research (Wet op het hoger onderwijs en wetenschappelijk onderzoek, article 1.6) was published and became effective in 1993. However, this law governs only certain institutions. Furthermore, the above provision
1498-465: A public official from motives drawn from convictions or beliefs." Shortly after the murders, Macron also began to push for another proposed anti-extremist bill that would force imams to train in France while cracking down on the various groups that spread extremist and separatist ideals. This bill would also increase public funding for Islamic studies along with providing funds for low-income housing in
1605-712: A purge of scientists who professed "harmful ideas", resulting in the expulsion, imprisonment, or death of hundreds of Soviet scientists. Lysenko's ideas were then implemented on collectivised farms in the Soviet Union and China. Famines that resulted partly from Lysenko's influence are believed to have killed 30 million people in China alone. Sociologist Ruth Pearce argued that the concept of academic freedom exists to protect scholarship from censure by state or religious authorities, and not to defend intolerance. A large-scale empirical study, covering more than 157 countries over
1712-482: A qualification that met them. These would be the responsibility of a new "centre of excellence" in the form of a "teaching quality academy". The Higher Education Academy was formed and commissioned by the UK's education funding councils and Universities UK to develop new standards which became known as the "UK Professional Standards Framework" or "UKPSF". The framework has two elements: the "descriptors" (describing higher education roles and associated competences), and
1819-648: A right of faculty members is an established part of most legal systems. While in the United States the constitutional protection of academic freedom derives from the guarantee of free speech under the First Amendment , the constitutions of other countries (particularly in civil law systems) typically grant a separate right to free learning, teaching, and research. Academic freedom has been severely limited in China. Academics have noted an incentive not to express 'incorrect' opinions about issues sensitive to
1926-648: A rise in the number of women in mid-level leadership positions and the proportion of funding going to women. According to empirical research carried out at the University of Bath, "there is no evidence that Athena SWAN membership and award level have any impact" on "the gender pay gap and the proportion of women in the top quartile of pay". Some commentators consider it to be largely window-dressing with little impact on lived experiences of women working in universities. Others have indicated an apparent failure to find any significant impact of Athena SWAN awards on changes in
2033-486: A task force under their management, saying scientific publication should be orchestrated like "a game of chess", warning that those who publish without permission will be held accountable. According to National Public Radio , from 2013 to 2017, at least 109 universities in China issued their first charters affirming the CCP leadership. In 2020, Shanghai's Fudan University removed freedom of thought from its charter following
2140-457: A university that adhered to two principles of academic freedom: freedom of scientific inquiry and the unity between research and teaching. According to Humboldt, the fundamental proposition underlying the principles of academic freedom was to uphold the view that science is not something that has already been found but as knowledge that will never be fully discovered and, yet, needs to be searched for unceasingly. The university he founded later became
2247-438: Is analogous to the way in which agents co-ordinate themselves within a free market . Just as consumers in a free market determine the value of products, science is a spontaneous order that arises as a consequence of open debate among specialists. Science can therefore only flourish when scientists have the liberty to pursue truth as an end in itself: [S]cientists, freely making their own choice of problems and pursuing them in
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#17327768201362354-435: Is attributed to the introduction of Athena SWAN research funding incentives, which promote research and leadership opportunities for women. However, it is important to note that these improvements are not ubiquitous across all academic disciplines, and Charter-induced interventions may take some time to produce tangible results, as the influence of diversity charters follows a trajectory of maturity. In 2017 Advance HE supported
2461-488: Is causing academic scholars to move out of France, just like what the author of this article did. "I shudder to think where this may end, but it does at least reassure me that I made the right decision when I joined all those émigrés and left France for the UK" says the author, Barylo (2022, para.11). On October 16, 2020, a middle school history teacher in the Conflans-Sainte-Honorine area, Samuel Paty,
2568-445: Is exercised with respect for the values of the republic" without any further discussion of those values or the limitations of those values. Later, an "approximate of 40 academic research networks, associations, unions, and interest groups, in addition to almost 100 academic journals" signed an open letter to drop the amendment (p. 77). This shows the disagreement among the stakeholders of European Union (EU) about academic freedom and
2675-637: Is interpreted as a threat to the freedom of academics to follow their own research and teaching agenda". The other "new threat" would be " Strategic lawsuit against public participation (SLAPP)". This lawsuit is made to "silence the critics burdening them with the cost of a legal defense until they abandon their criticism or opposition". Increasing use of this lawsuit is endangering the " freedom of speech " and "academic freedom". Another "new threat according to Beaud (2022, para.50)" pointed out by Maassen et al. (2023, p. 78) would be regarding "students and academic activist groups ". According to this new threat,
2782-472: Is no evidence that Athena SWAN membership and award level have any impact" on "the gender pay gap and the proportion of women in the top quartile of pay". An exploratory study of women's and men's perceptions of Athena SWAN in 2017 was broadly positive, and highlighted the significance of government funding being linked to Athena SWAN awards; it also highlighted the limitations of the process to change long-standing and entrenched issues in society. A 2019 study of
2889-708: Is overseen by SAGE Ltd ., a not-for-profit company created from a partnership of the Australian Academy of Science and the Australian Academy of Technology and Engineering . In 2015 the Charter entered Irish higher education. It is supported by the Athena SWAN National Committee which has representatives from higher education institutes, Advance HE , the Higher Education Authority, Irish research agencies,
2996-517: Is part of an ordinary statute and lacks constitutional status, so it can be changed anytime by a simple majority in Parliament. The Education Act 1989 (s161(2)) defines Academic freedom as: a) The freedom of academic staff and students, within the law, to question and test received wisdom, to put forward new ideas and to state controversial or unpopular opinions; b) The freedom of academic staff and students to engage in research; c) The freedom of
3103-587: Is supposed to guard academic freedom is the "Committee of the Heads of the Universities", which is a voluntary body, but has an influence on the work of the Legislature and "The Council ". Through their employee committees, and through the personal activity of each of them, these bodies can try and influence the preservation of academic freedom. In general, it can be said that the essential academic freedom,
3210-464: Is that this bill would criminalize the publication/sharing of photos of police officers unless their identifying features have been blurred. This bill also stated that law enforcement will now be able to use drones to film citizens in public, along with allowing body-camera footage from police officers to be live streamed in real time to French authorities. Lastly, this bill would also harshen sentences for people that are charged with assaulting
3317-426: Is the "country’s lack of thinktank culture", which is blocking the flow of "Academic expertise" into the "government policy". Other countries like "US", "Canada" and "UK" may share those flaws with France but at least they have "equality laws" which allows people to express themselves and have an established "government structure" which takes those expressions under consideration. This lack of "Academic Freedom in France"
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3424-602: Is the Council for Higher Education – hereinafter "The Council". This council consists of academics who serve as professors at universities, and public figures, with the Minister of Education as the head of the council. At the disposal of "The Council" is an executive body called the " Committee for Planning and Budgeting", which mainly deals with the matter of universities budgeting and establishing relevant procedures and guidelines for budget and salary matters. Another body that
3531-666: Is used to support gender equality within higher education and research. In June 2022, Advance HE announced it would change its guidelines that ask universities to commit to "collective understanding that individuals have the right to determine their own gender identity and tackling the specific issues faced by trans and non-binary people". Academics at the University of Cambridge had refused to comply; Arif Ahmed , reader in philosophy said: "A university should absolutely not be ‘fostering collective understanding’ on controversial issues but encouraging open debate." Advance HE operates
3638-712: The American Association for the Advancement of Science in introducing a pilot scheme called STEM Equity Achievement (SEA) Change programme. SEA Change borrows from Athena SWAN but is broader in scope. In 2018 Canada introduced the Dimensions pilot programme. Supported by Advance HE, Dimensions aims to draw on the Athena SWAN methodology to recognise institutions that are inclusive of underrepresented groups. Advance HE Advance HE (formerly
3745-594: The Government of China and the ruling Chinese Communist Party (CCP). These efforts have been effective in causing academics to self-censor and shift academic discourse. In December 2020, the Associated Press reported that China was controlling scientific research into the origins of COVID-19 under direct orders from CCP general secretary Xi Jinping . According to the report, an order by China's State Council required all research to be approved by
3852-790: The HEA's professional recognition scheme and academic staff are usually expected to demonstrate that they meet the second descriptor during their probationary period. The framework is used to accredit training schemes for university teachers such as the Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE) and the Postgraduate Certificate in Academic Practice (PGCAP) . Advance HE manage the Athena Swan Charter framework (established in 2005) which
3959-655: The Higher Education Academy ) is a British charity and professional membership scheme promoting excellence in higher education. It advocates evidence-based teaching methods and awards fellowships as professional recognition for university teachers. Founded in 2003, the Higher Education Academy was responsible for the UK Professional Standards Framework for higher education practitioners and merged (with
4066-654: The Irish Universities Association and the Technological Higher Education Association. As of April 2024, there was a total of 131 award holders, 119 of these were Bronze Awards and the remainder were Silver. Despite being in its nascent stage, research into the effects of the Charter on the careers of women indicates a positive impact on gender diversity among both managerial leaders and non-managerial academics, as well as female research leaders. The latter
4173-543: The Leadership Foundation for Higher Education and Equality Challenge Unit) to form Advance HE on 21 March 2018. Despite Higher Education involvement in teacher training, University Lecturers have not required any formal qualifications beyond demonstrating (usually through publications and a higher degree, such as a doctorate), expert subject knowledge. The merits of professional teaching qualifications for University Lecturers became an issue for debate during
4280-481: The Philippine Supreme Court tend to reflexively defer to the institutional autonomy of higher institutions of learning in determining academic decisions with respect to the outcomes of individual cases filed in the courts regarding the abuse of Academic Freedom by professors, despite the individual merits or demerits of any cases. A closely watched case was the controversial case of University of
4387-408: The authorities of the institution, appointing teachers and promoting them, determining a teaching method and study, and any other scientific, educational or economic activity". It seems that the paragraph is worded in a clear and comprehensible way even for laymen. The body that is supposed to guard academic freedom, as well as maintain an adequate academic level in the higher education institutions,
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4494-405: The "dimensions of practice" (describing the activities, core knowledge and professional values expected of practitioners). There are four descriptors corresponding to support staff with minor teaching duties, full academics (e.g. lecturers), senior academics with teaching specialisms, and senior management with strategic responsibility for teaching. The descriptors correspond to the four grades within
4601-514: The "new threats" of "academic freedom". “The first new threat according to Beaud (2022) identified by Maassen et al. (2023, p.78) is formed by the university administration (referred to as the ‘close administration’), formed by the academics in leadership positions, and the institutional bureaucracy. It is argued that French universities have experienced the emergence of a “subtle form of hierarchization" mentioned by Maassen et al. (2023, p. 78) referring to (Legrand 2008, p. 2242). The latter
4708-530: The 1900-2015 period, links academic freedom to the quality and quantity of patents filed in a given country. David Audretsch and colleagues estimate that academic freedom has declined over the last decade for the first time over their century-long observation period, resulting in at least 4% fewer patents filed. The study claims to be the first to link academic freedom to economic growth through an innovation channel. Janika Spannagel and Katrin Kinzelbach call
4815-530: The 1997 Universities Act. Academic freedom in Israel is taken from "the Law of the Council for Higher Education ". Paragraph 15 in which it states that "a recognized institution is free to all its academic and administrative matters, within the framework of its budget , as it sees fit. In this paragraph, 'academic and administrative matters' – includes: determining a research and teaching program, appointing
4922-501: The 19th century. By one estimate, academic freedom has substantially increased worldwide since the 1960s. Academic freedom is more likely in liberal democratic states, while it is more heavily constrained in authoritarian states, illiberal states, and states embroiled in military conflict. A minimal definition of academic freedom is that a teacher has a right to instruct, and a student has a right to learn in an academic setting unhampered by outside interference. Other definitions include
5029-553: The Academic Freedom Index the first comprehensive global index of Academic Freedom around the world, with retroactive ratings for countries going back to 1900 that are also updated yearly. The index estimate academic freedom using five categories: As of 2023, Academic freedom overall around the world has been in retreat since 2013. Causes cited have included authoritarianism as well as political polarization and populism . The concept of academic freedom as
5136-700: The Academic Freedom of the department was exercised, in keeping with traditions within the University of the Philippines in providing a basis that may be subject to peer review, for Academic decisions made under the mantle of Academic Freedom. The South African Constitution of 1996 offers protection of academic freedom and the freedom of scholarly research. Academic freedom became a main principle for higher education by 1997. Three main threats are believed to jeopardize academic freedom: government regulations, excessive influence of private sector sponsor on
5243-738: The Academy merged with the Leadership Foundation for Higher Education and the Equality Challenge Unit to form Advance HE on 21 March 2018. Advance HE has stated its overall aim: Our mission, as stated in our Strategic Plan 2012-2016, is to use our expertise and resources to support the higher education community in order to enhance the quality and impact of learning and teaching. We do this by recognising and rewarding excellent teaching, bringing together people and resources to research and share best practice, and by helping to influence, shape and implement policy. Advance HE devised
5350-476: The Athena SWAN programme; barrister Naomi Cunningham described it as "totalitarian and unlawful" while historian Selina Todd , in a letter to the editor, said it "promotes a controversial view of sex and gender". Within the Irish context in particular (see below), it has been suggested that institutional commitment to the charter poses a risk to academic freedom . An Australian pilot of the Charter began in 2015 and
5457-534: The Ben-Gurion university of the Negev – the only one as mentioned that has a binding academic code of ethics. In this matter there are some variations among the universities. The university auditor's authority to review issues under the authority of the university senate (especially academic issues and academic appointments) is limited in all universities, except for the Ben-Gurion University in
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#17327768201365564-739: The December 2019 revision of the school charter to emphasize loyalty to the CCP. Hong Kong academia expressed concerns about the impact of the 2020 Hong Kong National Security Law on academic freedom in Hong Kong. In an August 2021 study, Jue Jiang from the University of London argued that academic freedom in China is impaired by the CCP's system of student informants, who are recruited and encouraged to watch and inform on their professors on university campuses. Professors at public French universities and researchers in public research laboratories are expected, as are all civil servants , to behave in
5671-494: The Higher Education Council Law. The author of the article further maintains that the fact that the paragraph indicating the authority of the university auditor by virtue of the "Internal Audit Law 1992" in the Higher Education Council Law appears as a sub-paragraph in section 15, which grants universities and their faculty members academic freedom, adds validity to his approach. To say: academic freedom on
5778-804: The National Institute for Health Research to hold the Athena SWAN silver award. This requirement was removed in 2020. In May 2015 the charter was expanded to include non-STEMM departments including arts, humanities, social sciences, business, and law. Additionally, it expanded to cover additional communities including professional and support staff, technical staff , as well as transgender staff and students . The first awards to non-STEMM university departments were announced in April 2016. The new charter recognises work undertaken to address gender equality more broadly, and not just barriers to progression that affect women. Members (universities) who sign up to
5885-581: The Negev. There it is written in its constitution and in the general regulations: "There is no control over the University Internal Auditor except the law, the constitution (of the university) and the general regulations", and according to the general regulations the auditor must (only) "respect the academic freedom granted to the university, including its faculty members" . The question immediately arises: who will determine which matter enjoys academic freedom and which does not. According to
5992-568: The Philippines System President Emerlinda R. Roman , Roman denied the appeal which was elevated by Professor Raymundo to the university's board of regents for decision and the BOR granted her request for tenure. A major bone of contention among the supporters of Professor Raymundo was not to question the institutional Academic Freedom of the department in not granting her tenure, but in asking for transparency in how
6099-472: The Philippines at Diliman Sociology Professor Sarah Raymundo who was not granted tenure due to an appeal by the minority dissenting vote within the faculty of the Sociology Department. This decision was sustained upon appeal by the dissenting faculty and Professor Raymundo to the University of the Philippines at Diliman Chancellor Sergio S. Cao; and though the case was elevated to University of
6206-780: The Teaching Quality Enhancement Fund. The Academy became a registered company in October 2003 and charity in January 2004. In February 2004, the Minister for Higher Education, Alan Johnson , announced to Parliament that the first Chief executive of the Academy would be Paul Ramsden . The Bell Review Archived 20 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine recommended a single sector agency for equality and diversity, learning and teaching, and leadership and governance in higher education. Consequently,
6313-459: The UK at relevant university faculties (until they closed on 1 January 2012). Academic freedom Academic freedom is often premised on the conviction that freedom of inquiry by faculty members is essential to the mission of the academy as well as the principles of academia , and that scholars should have freedom to teach or communicate ideas or facts (including those that are inconvenient to external political groups or to authorities) without
6420-470: The academic community itself. Historically, academic freedom emerged tentatively, as academics in medieval and early modern Europe could face repression for acting in ways considered objectionable by religious authorities or by governments. Scholars tend to link the institutionalization of academic freedom to the rise of the modern research university and the Humboldtian model of higher education from
6527-569: The areas of activity, core knowledge and professional values expected at each level. The UKPSF was developed by AdvanceHE and the descriptors correspond to the levels in HEA's professional recognition scheme . The introduction of national professional standards for university teachers was one of the higher education reforms proposed in the DfES white paper "The Future of Higher Education" (2003) which outlined plans to introduce new standards and ensure that all new university teaching staff achieved
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#17327768201366634-463: The article, only the Chief Internal auditor will determine this and in light of 2 rules: 1. Any issue on which the academic regulations stipulate a rule does not enjoy academic freedom, because the faculty members must act according to what is dictated in the regulations; 2. The university auditor will refrain from initiating an audit in the areas that appear in paragraph 15, mentioned above, of
6741-457: The attendance of each child in government-recognized schools. This would effectively end most homeschooling practices and privately religious owned schools in France, which means that French parents now cannot guide their child's education path to best suit their needs. Elective home education would be subjected to an issuance of authorization by the State, and it would only be approved if
6848-538: The banlieues around Paris, which has been an area notorious for violence. The German Constitution (German: Grundgesetz ) specifically grants academic freedom: "Art and science, research and teaching are free. Freedom of teaching does not absolve from loyalty to the constitution" (Art. 5, para. 3). In a tradition reaching back to the 19th century, jurisdiction has understood this right as one to teach ( Lehrfreiheit ), study ( Lernfreiheit ), and conduct research ( Freiheit der Wissenschaft ) freely, although
6955-421: The case of " Ernest Renan and Louis-Napolean " to show how the political parties in France have been the limiting factors of Academic Freedom in France for a long time now. The authority in power, Louis-Napolean, suspended Ernest Renan course from the " College de France " after his lecture where "he presented the main theses of his book on The Life of Jesus , a “scientific" biography of Jesus Christ". Following
7062-408: The charter are expected to apply for an Athena SWAN award, at Bronze, Silver or Gold level. Each award is valid for four years under the post-2015 rules (three years where pre-2015 rules apply). They commit to adopting ten principles, which focus on promoting and supporting gender equality for women. These are: *We acknowledge that academia cannot reach its full potential unless it can benefit from
7169-569: The child's specific situation was defined by law. This would also give the French government control over the quality and quantity of education that a French child gets, while also ensuring that all French children are educated in the values of the French Republic. The bill would also criminalize sharing identifying information about a public servant that could be used to inflict harm along with "intimidating/threatening violence upon
7276-626: The course of their research and teaching activities, provided they respect, following university traditions and the dispositions of this code, principles of tolerance and objectivity". The nomination and promotion of professors is largely done through a process of peer review rather than through normal administrative procedures. Academic freedom in France is different compared to other countries in European Union (EU). According to Maassen et al. (2023) " Recent discussions about academic freedom in France have, amongst other things, been focused on
7383-522: The court overturned the decision, and ordered the Minister of Education to award Goldreich the award. Godreich received the award a year later. In recent years, a fierce debate has erupted on the issue of academic freedom, following extreme political statements by a number of university faculty members. The vast majority of the controversial statements were those that called for an academic boycott of Israel, or support for organizations that support an economic and academic boycott of Israel. The question that
7490-409: The dependence on the state for funds has restricted the freedom of academics to criticize government policy. Dr. Kasenally, an educator at the University of Mauritius stated that in 1970s to 1980s the university was at the forefront of controversial debates, but in the 1990s the university stepped away after academic freedom was curtailed to not express views or ideas especially if they oppose those of
7597-554: The entirety of this field. Lernfreiheit means a student's right to determine an individual course of study. Finally, Freiheit der Wissenschaft permits academic self-governance and grants the university control of its internal affairs. Protections for academic freedom for research, teaching and other activity "to question and test received wisdom, to put forward new ideas and to state controversial or unpopular opinions" without being disadvantaged, are provided in Section 14 of
7704-541: The fear of being repressed, losing their job or being imprisoned. While the core of academic freedom covers scholars acting in an academic capacity – as teachers or researchers expressing strictly scholarly viewpoints —, an expansive interpretation extends these occupational safeguards to scholars' speech on matters outside their professional expertise. Academic tenure protects academic freedom by ensuring that teachers can be fired only for causes such as gross professional incompetence or behavior that evokes condemnation from
7811-579: The fruit fly ( Drosophila melanogaster ) – and proposed an approach to farming that was based on the collectivist principles of dialectical materialism . (Lysenko called this "Michurinism", but it is more popularly known today as Lysenkoism .) Lysenko's ideas appealed to the Soviet leadership, in part because of their value as propaganda, and he was ultimately made director of the Soviet Academy of Agricultural Sciences. Subsequently, Lysenko directed
7918-513: The good of freedom of expression. The first bill would criminalize on-campus gatherings that trouble the good order of the establishment; the punishment for violating this would be a $ 45,000 fine and/or 3 years in prison. The second bill was a global-security bill that aimed to aid law enforcement in situations similar to the Paty murders. However, a multitude of the details/provisions of this bill made French citizens upset. One of these provisions
8025-570: The government approach to so-called “ Islamo-leftism " in academia". "French Academia" has been accused of creating an "Intellectual breeding ground for Islamic terrorism "; this alleged relationship has become somewhat of a political issue in France. Purported movements of "Islamo-Leftism" were debated during 2022 presidential election . However, The National Centre for Scientific research (CNRS) has denied any presence of so-called "Islamo-leftism" in reality (p. 76). Maassen et al. (2023) also argues that "The debates in France illustrate that over
8132-539: The government to decide what will be the tuition fee for a student at the budgeted universities in Israel. But, In 2021, an academic committee of the prestigious Israel Prize decided to award the Israel Prize in the field of mathematics and computer science to Professor Oded Goldreich from the Weizmann Institute of Science . The Minister of Education did not accept the committee's recommendation on
8239-491: The government. Academic freedom began to gain institutional footing with the emergence of the modern research university. The Humboldtian model of higher education from the 19th century enshrined the basic ideas of academic freedom and diffused them to other countries. Wilhelm von Humboldt was a philosopher and linguist who was given the authority to create a new university in Berlin in the early 19th century. He then founded
8346-584: The grounds that Goldreich signed a petition calling for an academic boycott of Ariel University , which is located in the territories of Judea and Samaria , which are occupied territory , as well as for appealing to the German government to revoke its decision that the BDS movement is an anti-Semitic movement. The award committee appealed to the Supreme Court for a violation of its academic freedom, and
8453-490: The intellectual independence of academics to question and test received views and wisdom, and to put forward new ideas and controversial or unpopular opinions, without placing themselves in danger of losing their jobs or privileges", while the American Federation of Teachers has seen it as "based on the idea that the free exchange of ideas on campus is essential to good education". Norwegian education sees it as
8560-515: The interdependence between " applied science " and " pure science ". Michael Polanyi argued that a structure of liberty is essential for the advancement of science. In 1936, as a consequence of an invitation to give lectures for the Ministry of Heavy Industry in the USSR, Polanyi met Bukharin , who told him that in socialist societies all scientific research is directed to accord with the needs of
8667-403: The issue of freedom of expression, refused to adopt this code on the grounds of infringing academic freedom. All research universities in Israel have a Chief internal auditor , relatively independent. This issue of the interrelationship between the internal audit in universities and the principle of academic freedom is discussed in detail in an article that appeared in a book issued on behalf of
8774-423: The last concept has sometimes been taken as a cover term for the first two. Lehrfreiheit embraces the right of professors to determine the content of their lectures and to publish the results of their research without prior approval. Since professors through their Habilitation receive the right to teach ( Latin : venia docendi ) in a particular academic field, academic freedom is deemed to cover at least
8881-482: The last decades higher education and society in the EU Member States and elsewhere have developed a new relationship, where traditional borders and distinctions have become less prominent" (pp. 76–77). According to Maassen et al. (2023) in 2020, an amendment particularly speaking about "academic freedom raised concern amongst the academic community". The concerning amendment stated that "Academic freedom
8988-408: The later twentieth century. The Dearing Report (1997) recommended the establishment of a professional body for Lecturers that would define standards and accredit training for university teaching and that, during their probationary periods, all new Lecturers should be required to achieve 'at least associate membership' of the new Institute. The Institute for Learning and Teaching in Higher Education
9095-728: The latest five-year plan . Demands in Britain for centrally planned scientific research led Polanyi, together with John Baker , to found the Society for Freedom in Science. The society promoted a liberal conception of science as free enquiry against the instrumental view that science should exist primarily to serve the needs of society. In a series of articles, re-published in The Contempt of Freedom (1940) and The Logic of Liberty (1951), Polanyi claimed that co-operation among scientists
9202-447: The level normally required in an established academic post. These grades can be awarded on the basis of an assessed portfolio (containing a candidate's statement and supporting references) or on completion of an accredited course such as a PGCHE or PGCAP . Senior Fellow and Principal Fellow represent significant leadership in the promotion of teaching excellence, and are only awarded on the basis of an assessed portfolio. The Academy
9309-484: The level of a promotion thus, the academics try to avoid participating in controversial debates. Academic freedom became a public issue in May 2009 when the University of Mauritius spoke out against the previous vice chancellor Professor I. Fagoonee, who had forwarded a circular sent by the Ministry of Education to academics. This circular targeted public officers and required them to consult their superiors before speaking to
9416-411: The light of their own personal judgment, are in fact co-operating as members of a closely knit organization. Such self-co-ordination of independent initiatives leads to a joint result which is unpremeditated by any of those who bring it about. Any attempt to organize the group ... under a single authority would eliminate their independent initiatives, and thus reduce their joint effectiveness to that of
9523-501: The management or government. In a 2012 paper on the University of Mauritius the author states that although there are no records of abuse of human rights or freedom of the state "subtle threats to freedom of expression do exist, especially with regard to criticisms of ruling political parties and their leaders as well as religious groups." While there have been no cases of arrests or extreme detention of academics, there has been fear that it would hinder their career progress especially at
9630-449: The one aimed at the freedom of teaching and research, was preserved, and the government neither interfered nor tried to interfere in these contents. Its way of influencing this matter is by providing incentives for teaching in this or that way, or for research in certain fields, and this is through grants. The fact that the government finances a significant percentage of the current budget of the universities (around 70% or more), also allows
9737-583: The one hand, but not unlimited, and subject to audit on the other hand, and it all involves one short paragraph of the law. In the Chapter II Constitution of Mauritius, academics have the right to: the protection of Freedom of Conscience, Protection of Freedom of Expression, Protection of Freedom of Assembly and Association, Protection of Freedom to Establish schools and the Protection from Discrimination. The institutional bureaucracy and
9844-469: The post. Because of this extreme act of terror, French president Emmanuel Macron decided to stand firm on his stances against Muslim extremism while also wanting to uphold France's values on freedom of expression. Macron and members of his party that are in the French Parliament decided to propose three bills that would drastically change the atmosphere of French society and education for
9951-527: The press. The pushback resulted in the vice chancellor stepping down, with the author speculating the government used her as the scapegoat for its unpopular proposal to more overtly curtain academic freedom. In the Netherlands the academic freedom is limited. In November 1985 the Dutch Ministry of Education published a policy paper titled Higher Education: Autonomy and Quality . This paper had
10058-564: The proportion of women in senior leadership positions or professorial posts based on data held be the Higher Education Statistics Agency (HESA) for consecutive years between 2012 and 2019. The Athena SWAN charter is now used by some institutions in conjunction with the Race Equality charter and issues of gender and race inequality become conflated. In November 2021, The Times reported concerns about
10165-463: The reach of political parties to limit academic freedom. Various threats to "Academic Freedom in France" identified by Beaud (2022) and mentioned by Maassen et al. (2023, pp. 77–78) in the European Union article are as follow. The first type of "classical threat" is due to the intervention of "Political authorities", as most of the universities in France are "Public universities" and under political supervision. Beaud (2022, para.31) refers to
10272-403: The right of teachers to engage in social and political criticism. A broader definition of academic freedom incorporates individual, extramural and institutional components. Under this broader definition, an academic has freedom of expression without government interference, but this freedom is circumscribed by academic expertise and position. Academic freedom of speech is therefore narrower than
10379-707: The single person directing them from the centre. It would, in effect, paralyse their co-operation. Proponents of academic freedom believe that the freedom of inquiry by students and faculty members is essential to the mission of the academy. They argue that academic communities are repeatedly targeted for repression due to their ability to shape and control the flow of information. When scholars attempt to teach or communicate ideas or facts that are inconvenient to external political groups or to authorities, they may find themselves targeted for public vilification, job loss, imprisonment, or even death. For example, in North Africa,
10486-504: The suspension, Ernest Renan was also removed from the "body of College de France", with an "accusation" of not "abiding" the rule of not to include any "personal opinion" against the "fundamentals of the Christian Religion ". The second one is due to the interference of "civil services at national level (The Ministry of Higher Education)". Along with the "classical threats" mentioned above, Beaud (2022) also points out to
10593-440: The talents of all. The ten principles have been criticised for failing to mention collective bargaining , for failing to address unconscious bias in paying "market" rates of pay, and failing to address the sex discrimination inherent in child care rights to paid leave and the lasting negative impact this has on relative career advancement for those taking long maternity and short paternity leave. It has also been found that "there
10700-440: The teachers won't be only fearing from the authorities higher to them in the hierarchy of control, but also need to fear from "students" and "activist groups", as they would decide if something taught by the teacher is offensive or not. This relates to the case of "Islamo-leftism" as mentioned before. Barylo (2021, para.9–10), states that, "part of this problem is the historical disconnect between policies and research in France"
10807-511: The university and its staff to regulate the subject matter of courses taught at the university; d) The freedom of the university and its staff to teach and assess students in the manner they consider best promotes learning; and e) The freedom of the university through its council and vice-chancellor to appoint its own staff. The 1987 Philippine Constitution states that, "Academic Freedom shall be enjoyed in all institutions of higher learning." Philippine jurisprudence and courts of law, including
10914-572: The university culture in medical and social sciences attributed a more positive culture in medical sciences to the widespread implementation of Athena SWAN gender equality action plans, linked to the funding incentives of the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR). A 2020 study examining the effect of Athena SWAN funding incentives on women's research leadership in NIHR Biomedical Research Centres found
11021-540: Was at the center of the storm was whether an academic faculty member (hereafter referred to as a professor) is protected by the principle of freedom of speech, or is it forbidden, when he wears the guise of a professor, to express a political position that might identify the position with the institution he allegedly represents. All the more, is it permissible for the professor to express a political position during his teaching, and even to invite representatives of political bodies to lecture in his classes, and without maintaining
11128-478: Was established in 2005 and the first awards were conferred in 2006. The initial charter set out to encourage and recognise commitment to advancing the careers of women in science, technology, engineering, mathematics, and medicine (STEMM) institutions of higher education and research. In 2011, the UK Chief Medical Officer made it a requirement for academic departments applying for funding from
11235-597: Was founded in 2000. In January 2003, a committee (established by HEFCE , Universities UK and the Standing Conference of Principals ) recommended the establishment of a single central body responsible for standards of teaching in higher education. Subsequently, the Higher Education Academy was formed (2003) by the merging of the Institute for Learning and Teaching in Higher Education , Learning and Teaching Support Network and National Coordination Team for
11342-578: Was funded by grants from four higher education funding bodies in the UK ( HEFCE , SFC , HEFCW and DELNI ), subscriptions from higher education institutions, and grant/contract income for organised initiatives. It is owned by the representative bodies of the higher education sector – Universities UK and GuildHE (formerly known as the Standing Conference of Principals). The Academy incorporated "Subject Centres" to share best practices in specific disciplines (2003-12). These were based around
11449-473: Was murdered by Abdoullakh Abouyezidovich Anzorov, an eighteen year old Russian Muslim refugee who had been living in France since he was six years old. Paty had created a lesson for his class to teach his students the freedom of expression, in which he used the Charlie Hebdo satirical magazines that showcased caricatures of Muhammad. This information was posted on Facebook through a video from
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