A throttle is a mechanism by which fluid flow is managed by construction or obstruction.
109-416: An autogyro (from Greek αὐτός and γύρος , "self-turning"), or gyroplane , is a class of rotorcraft that uses an unpowered rotor in free autorotation to develop lift . While similar to a helicopter rotor in appearance, the autogyro's unpowered rotor disc must have air flowing upward across it to make it rotate. Forward thrust is provided independently, by an engine-driven propeller . It
218-485: A C.8 L.IV test flight piloted by Arthur H. C. A. Rawson. Being particularly impressed with the autogyro's safe vertical descent capability, Pitcairn purchased a C.8 L.IV with a Wright Whirlwind engine. Arriving in the United States on 11 December 1928 accompanied by Rawson, this autogyro was redesignated C.8W. Subsequently, production of autogyros was licensed to several manufacturers, including
327-552: A Special Airworthiness Certificate in the Experimental category. Per FAR 1.1, the FAA uses the term "gyroplane" for all autogyros, regardless of the type of airworthiness certificate. In 1931, Amelia Earhart (U.S.) flew a Pitcairn PCA-2 to a women's world altitude record of 18,415 ft (5,613 m). Wing Commander Ken Wallis (U.K.) held most of the autogyro world records during his autogyro flying career. These include
436-543: A pitch accent . In Modern Greek, all vowels and consonants are short. Many vowels and diphthongs once pronounced distinctly are pronounced as /i/ ( iotacism ). Some of the stops and glides in diphthongs have become fricatives , and the pitch accent has changed to a stress accent . Many of the changes took place in the Koine Greek period. The writing system of Modern Greek, however, does not reflect all pronunciation changes. The examples below represent Attic Greek in
545-429: A poppet valve , or series of poppet valves which open in sequence to regulate the amount of steam admitted to the steam chests over the pistons. It is used in conjunction with the reversing lever to start, stop and to control the locomotive's power although, during steady-state running of most locomotives, it is preferable to leave the throttle wide open and to control the power by varying the steam cut-off point (which
654-831: A power push-over (PPO or buntover) causing the death of the pilot and giving gyroplanes, in general, a poor reputation – in contrast to de la Cierva's original intention and early statistics. Most new autogyros are now safe from PPO. In 2002, a Groen Brothers Aviation 's Hawk 4 provided perimeter patrol for the Winter Olympics and Paralympics in Salt Lake City, Utah. The aircraft completed 67 missions and accumulated 75 hours of maintenance-free flight time during its 90-day operational contract. Worldwide, over 1,000 autogyros are used by authorities for military and law enforcement. The first U.S. police authorities to evaluate an autogyro were
763-532: A Russian immigrant in the United States, saw a captured German U-boat's Fa 330 gyroglider and was fascinated by its characteristics. At work, he was tasked with the analysis of the British military Rotachute gyro glider designed by an expatriate Austrian, Raoul Hafner . This led him to adapt the design for his purposes and eventually market the Bensen B-7 in 1955. Bensen submitted an improved version,
872-404: A butterfly valve in the intake tract. An exception to this generalization is newer diesel engines meeting stricter emissions standards, where such a valve is used to generate intake manifold vacuum, thereby allowing the introduction of exhaust gas (see EGR ) to lower combustion temperatures and thereby minimize NOx production. In a reciprocating engine aircraft, the throttle control is usually
981-626: A byproduct of the flapping motion. This development led to the Cierva C.8, which, on 18 September 1928, made the first rotorcraft crossing of the English Channel followed by a tour of Europe. United States industrialist Harold Frederick Pitcairn , on learning of the successful flights of the autogyro, visited de la Cierva in Spain. In 1928, he visited him again, in England, after taking
1090-408: A certain injector stay open and therefore how much fuel should be injected by each injection pulse. However, they do still need a throttle to control the airflow into the engine, together with a sensor that detects its current opening angle, so that the correct air/fuel ratio can be met at any RPM and engine load combination. The simplest way to do this is to simply remove the carburetor unit, and bolt
1199-495: A design competition to develop a bomber for the Spanish military. De la Cierva designed a three-engined aircraft, but during an early test flight, the bomber stalled and crashed. De la Cierva was troubled by the stall phenomenon and vowed to develop an aircraft that could fly safely at low airspeeds. The result was the first successful rotorcraft, which he named autogiro in 1923. De la Cierva's autogiro used an airplane fuselage with
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#17327872959801308-507: A fixed-wing aircraft. At low airspeeds, the control surfaces became ineffective and could readily lead to loss of control, particularly during landing. In response, de la Cierva developed a direct control rotor hub, which could be tilted in any direction by the pilot. De la Cierva's direct control was first developed on the Cierva C.19 Mk. V and saw the production on the Cierva C.30 series of 1934. In March 1934, this type of autogyro became
1417-529: A forward-mounted propeller and engine, an un-powered rotor mounted on a mast, and a horizontal and vertical stabilizer. His aircraft became the predecessor of the modern helicopter . After four years of experimentation, de la Cierva invented the first practical rotorcraft the autogyro ( autogiro in Spanish), in 1923. His first three designs ( C.1 , C.2 , and C.3 ) were unstable because of aerodynamic and structural deficiencies in their rotors. His fourth design,
1526-401: A hand-operated lever or knob. It controls the engine power output, which may or may not reflect in a change of RPM, depending on the propeller installation (fixed-pitch or constant speed ). Some modern internal combustion engines do not use a traditional throttle, instead relying on their variable intake valve timing system to regulate the airflow into the cylinders, although the result is
1635-548: A helicopter suffers a power failure, the pilot can adjust the collective pitch to keep the rotor spinning generating enough lift to touch down and skid in a relatively soft landing via autorotation of its rotor disc. Some autogyros, such as the Rotorsport MT03, MTO Sport (open tandem), and Calidus (enclosed tandem), and the Magni Gyro M16C (open tandem) & M24 (enclosed side by side) have type approval by
1744-409: A helicopter works by forcing the rotor blades through the air, drawing air from above, the autogyro rotor blade generates lift in the same way as a glider 's wing, by changing the angle of the air as the air moves upward and backward relative to the rotor blade. The free-spinning blades turn by autorotation ; the rotor blades are angled so that they not only give lift, but the angle of the blades causes
1853-477: A lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period. They have the same general outline but differ in some of the detail. The only attested dialect from this period is Mycenaean Greek , but its relationship to the historical dialects and
1962-419: A lesser degree. Pamphylian Greek , spoken in a small area on the southwestern coast of Anatolia and little preserved in inscriptions, may be either a fifth major dialect group, or it is Mycenaean Greek overlaid by Doric, with a non-Greek native influence. Regarding the speech of the ancient Macedonians diverse theories have been put forward, but the epigraphic activity and the archaeological discoveries in
2071-565: A long taxi to bring the rotor up to speed sufficient for takeoff. The next innovation was flaps on the tail to redirect the propeller slipstream into the rotor while on the ground. This design was first tested on a C.19 in 1929. Efforts in 1930 had shown that the development of a light and efficient mechanical transmission was not a trivial undertaking. In 1932 the Pitcairn-Cierva Autogiro Company of Willow Grove, Pennsylvania , United States solved this problem with
2180-668: A pair of Degtyaryov machine guns, and six RS-82 rockets or four FAB-100 bombs . The Avro Rota autogyro, a military version of the Cierva C.30, was used by the Royal Air Force to calibrate coastal radar stations during and after the Battle of Britain . In World War II, Germany pioneered a very small gyroglider rotor kite , the Focke-Achgelis Fa 330 "Bachstelze" (wagtail), towed by U-boats to provide aerial surveillance. The Imperial Japanese Army developed
2289-550: A prefix /e-/, called the augment . This was probably originally a separate word, meaning something like "then", added because tenses in PIE had primarily aspectual meaning. The augment is added to the indicative of the aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect, but not to any of the other forms of the aorist (no other forms of the imperfect and pluperfect exist). The two kinds of augment in Greek are syllabic and quantitative. The syllabic augment
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#17327872959802398-819: A search for the Loch Ness Monster , as well as an appearance in the 1967 James Bond movie You Only Live Twice . Three different autogyro designs have been certified by the Federal Aviation Administration for commercial production: the Umbaugh U-18/ Air & Space 18A of 1965, the Avian 2/180 Gyroplane of 1967, and the McCulloch J-2 of 1972. All have been commercial failures, for various reasons. The Kaman KSA-100 SAVER (Stowable Aircrew Vehicle Escape Rotorseat)
2507-608: A separate historical stage, though its earliest form closely resembles Attic Greek , and its latest form approaches Medieval Greek . There were several regional dialects of Ancient Greek; Attic Greek developed into Koine. Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language , divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic , Aeolic , Arcadocypriot , and Doric , many of them with several subdivisions. Some dialects are found in standardized literary forms in literature , while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms. Homeric Greek
2616-510: A simple unit containing a throttle body and fuel injectors on instead. This is known as single-port injection , also known by different marketing names (such as "throttle-body injection" by General Motors and "central fuel injection" by Ford , among others), and it allows an older engine design to be converted from carburetor to fuel injection without significantly altering the intake manifold design. More complex later designs use intake manifolds, and even cylinder heads , specially designed for
2725-625: A single main stage (such as the Space Shuttle ), than for launch with multistage rockets . They are also useful in situations where the airspeed of the vehicle must be limited due to aerodynamic stress in the denser atmosphere at lower levels (e.g. the Space Shuttle). Rockets characteristically become lighter the longer they burn, with the changing ratio of thrust:weight resulting in increasing acceleration, so engines are often throttled (or switched off) to limit acceleration forces towards
2834-447: A single oval or rectangular throttle plate, and works similarly to a single venturi carburetor, but with two small openings instead of one. A 4-venturi carburetor has two pairs of venturis, each pair regulated by a single oval or rectangular throttle plate. Under normal operation, only one throttle plate (the "primary") opens when the accelerator pedal is pressed, allowing more air into the engine, but keeping overall airflow velocity through
2943-586: A single small throttle plate over a basic carburetor with a single venturi . The throttle is either open or closed (although there is always a small hole or other bypass to allow a small amount of air to flow through so the engine can idle when the throttle is closed), or some intermediate position. Since air velocity is crucial to the functioning of a carburetor, to keep average air velocity up, larger engines require more complex carburetors with multiple small venturis, typically two or four (these venturis are commonly called "barrels"). A typical "2-barrel" carburetor uses
3052-630: A standard subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance . This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical periods of the language, which are the best-attested periods and considered most typical of Ancient Greek. From the Hellenistic period ( c. 300 BC ), Ancient Greek was followed by Koine Greek , which is regarded as
3161-457: A time-to-climb, a speed record of 189 km/h (111.7 mph), and the straight-line distance record of 869.23 km (540.11 mi). On 16 November 2002, at 89 years of age, Wallis increased the speed record to 207.7 km/h (129.1 mph) – and simultaneously set another world record as the oldest pilot to set a world record. Ancient Greek Ancient Greek ( Ἑλληνῐκή , Hellēnikḗ ; [hellɛːnikɛ́ː] ) includes
3270-406: A transmission driven by the engine. Buhl Aircraft Company produced its Buhl A-1 , the first autogyro with a propulsive rear motor, designed by Etienne Dormoy and meant for aerial observation (motor behind pilot and camera). It had its maiden flight on 15 December 1931. De la Cierva's early autogyros were fitted with fixed rotor hubs, small fixed wings, and control surfaces like those of
3379-497: A variety of engines. McCulloch drone engines, Rotax marine engines, Subaru automobile engines, and other designs have been used in Bensen-type designs. The rotor is mounted atop the vertical mast. The rotor system of all Bensen-type autogyros is of a two-blade teetering design. There are some disadvantages associated with this rotor design, but the simplicity of the rotor design lends itself to ease of assembly and maintenance and
Autogyro - Misplaced Pages Continue
3488-510: A vowel or /n s r/ ; final stops were lost, as in γάλα "milk", compared with γάλακτος "of milk" (genitive). Ancient Greek of the classical period also differed in both the inventory and distribution of original PIE phonemes due to numerous sound changes, notably the following: The pronunciation of Ancient Greek was very different from that of Modern Greek . Ancient Greek had long and short vowels ; many diphthongs ; double and single consonants; voiced, voiceless, and aspirated stops ; and
3597-570: Is a literary form of Archaic Greek (derived primarily from Ionic and Aeolic) used in the epic poems , the Iliad and the Odyssey , and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic and other Classical-era dialects. The origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of
3706-432: Is achieved by tilting the rotor fore and aft , and roll control is by tilting the rotor laterally. The tilt of the rotor can be effected by utilizing a tilting hub ( Cierva ), a swashplate ( Air & Space 18A ), or servo-flaps. A rudder provides yaw control. On pusher configuration autogyros, the rudder is typically placed in the propeller slipstream to maximize yaw control at low airspeed (but not always, as seen in
3815-418: Is added to stems beginning with consonants, and simply prefixes e (stems beginning with r , however, add er ). The quantitative augment is added to stems beginning with vowels, and involves lengthening the vowel: Some verbs augment irregularly; the most common variation is e → ei . The irregularity can be explained diachronically by the loss of s between vowels, or that of the letter w , which affected
3924-553: Is an aircraft-stowable gyroplane escape device designed and built for the United States Navy . Designed to be installed in naval combat aircraft as part of the ejection sequence, only one example was built and it did not enter service. It was powered by a Williams WRC-19 turbofan making it the first jet-powered autogyro. The basic Bensen Gyrocopter design is a simple frame of square aluminium or galvanized steel tubing, reinforced with triangles of lighter tubing. It
4033-430: Is arranged so that the stress falls on the tubes, or special fittings, not the bolts. A front-to-back keel mounts a steerable nosewheel, seat, engine, and vertical stabilizer. Outlying mainwheels are mounted on an axle. Some versions may mount seaplane-style floats for water operations. Bensen-type autogyros use a pusher configuration for simplicity and to increase visibility for the pilot. Power can be supplied by
4142-666: Is called 'East Greek'. Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian Greek had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, as exemplified in the poems of the Boeotian poet Pindar who wrote in Doric with a small Aeolic admixture. Thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to
4251-448: Is considered by some linguists to have been closely related to Greek . Among Indo-European branches with living descendants, Greek is often argued to have the closest genetic ties with Armenian (see also Graeco-Armenian ) and Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan ). Ancient Greek differs from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) and other Indo-European languages in certain ways. In phonotactics , ancient Greek words could end only in
4360-431: Is done with the reversing lever), as this is more efficient. A steam locomotive throttle valve poses a difficult design challenge as it must be opened and closed using hand effort against the considerable pressure (typically 250 psi or 1,700 kPa) of boiler steam. One of the primary reasons for later multiple-sequential valves: it is far easier to open a small poppet valve against the pressure differential, and open
4469-439: Is found in the carburetor. When a throttle is wide open , the intake manifold is usually at ambient atmospheric pressure. When the throttle is partially closed, a manifold vacuum develops as the intake drops below ambient pressure. The power output of a diesel engine is controlled by regulating the quantity of fuel that is injected into the cylinder. Because diesel engines do not need to control air volumes, they usually lack
Autogyro - Misplaced Pages Continue
4578-467: Is mechanically connected to the throttle linkages, which, in turn, rotate the throttle plate. In cars with electronic throttle control (also known as "drive-by-wire"), an electric actuator controls the throttle linkages and the accelerator pedal connects not to the throttle body, but to a sensor, which outputs a signal proportional to the current pedal position and sends it to the ECU . The ECU then determines
4687-515: Is necessary to clean it up. The malfunction of the throttle could be indicated by illuminated EPC warning light. This is usually the case with modern Volkswagen Group vehicles. Vehicles not equipped with the EPC warning light indicate issues with the throttle by illuminated check engine symbol. Symptoms of the throttle malfunction could vary from poor idle, decreased engine power, poor mileage, bad acceleration , and so on. The effective way to increase
4796-430: Is of priority. A throttle body is somewhat analogous to the carburetor in a non-injected engine, although it is important to remember that a throttle body is not the same thing as a throttle , and that carbureted engines have throttles as well. A throttle body simply supplies a convenient place to mount a throttle in the absence of a carburetor venturi. Carburetors are an older technology, which mechanically modulate
4905-439: Is one of the reasons for its popularity. Aircraft-quality birch was specified in early Bensen designs, and a wood/steel composite is used in the world-speed-record-holding Wallis design. Gyroplane rotor blades are made from other materials such as aluminium and GRP -based composite. Bensen's success triggered several other designs, some of them fatally flawed with an offset between the centre of gravity and thrust line, risking
5014-610: The Air & Space 18A , McCulloch J-2 and the Westermayer Tragschrauber, and can provide near VTOL performance. Modern autogyros typically follow one of two basic configurations. The most common design is the pusher configuration, where the engine and propeller are located behind the pilot and rotor mast, such as in the Bensen " Gyrocopter ". Its main advantages are the simplicity and lightness of its construction and
5123-545: The Autogiro garnered the interest of industrialists and under license from de la Cierva in the 1920s and 1930s, the Pitcairn & Kellett companies made further innovations. Late-model autogyros patterned after Etienne Dormoy 's Buhl A-1 Autogyro and Igor Bensen 's designs feature a rear-mounted engine and propeller in a pusher configuration . An autogyro is characterized by a free-spinning rotor that turns because of
5232-718: The Bensen B-8M , for testing to the United States Air Force , which designated it the X-25. The B-8M was designed to use surplus McCulloch engines used on flying unmanned target drones . Ken Wallis developed a miniature autogyro craft, the Wallis autogyro , in England in the 1960s, and autogyros built similar to Wallis' design appeared for many years. Ken Wallis' designs have been used in various scenarios, including military training, police reconnaissance, and in
5341-486: The C.4 , made the first documented flight of an autogyro on 17 January 1923, piloted by Alejandro Gomez Spencer at Cuatro Vientos airfield in Madrid, Spain (9 January according to de la Cierva). De la Cierva had fitted the rotor of the C.4 with flapping hinges to attach each rotor blade to the hub. The flapping hinges allowed each rotor blade to flap, or move up and down, to compensate for dissymmetry of lift ,
5450-673: The Cierva Autogiro Company in England, following a demonstration of the C.6 before the British Air Ministry at RAE Farnborough , on 20 October 1925. Britain had become the world centre of autogyro development. A crash in February 1926, caused by blade root failure, led to an improvement in rotor hub design. A drag hinge was added in conjunction with the flapping hinge to allow each blade to move fore and aft and relieve in-plane stresses, generated as
5559-466: The Cierva Autogiro Company . De la Cierva's Autogiro is considered the predecessor of the modern helicopter . The term gyrocopter (derived from helicopter) was used by E. Burke Wilford who developed the Reiseler Kreiser feathering rotor equipped gyroplane in the first half of the twentieth century. Gyroplane was later adopted as a trademark by Bensen Aircraft . The success of
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#17327872959805668-759: The Greek region of Macedonia during the last decades has brought to light documents, among which the first texts written in Macedonian , such as the Pella curse tablet , as Hatzopoulos and other scholars note. Based on the conclusions drawn by several studies and findings such as Pella curse tablet , Emilio Crespo and other scholars suggest that ancient Macedonian was a Northwest Doric dialect , which shares isoglosses with its neighboring Thessalian dialects spoken in northeastern Thessaly . Some have also suggested an Aeolic Greek classification. The Lesbian dialect
5777-570: The Kayaba Ka-1 autogyro for reconnaissance, artillery-spotting, and anti-submarine uses. The Ka-1 was based on the Kellett KD-1 first imported to Japan in 1938. The craft was initially developed for use as an observation platform and for artillery spotting duties. The army liked the craft's short take-off span, and especially its low maintenance requirements. Production began in 1941, with the machines assigned to artillery units for spotting
5886-442: The McCulloch J-2 , with twin rudders placed outboard of the propeller arc). There are three primary flight controls: control stick, rudder pedals , and throttle . Typically, the control stick is termed the cyclic and tilts the rotor in the desired direction to provide pitch and roll control (some autogyros do not tilt the rotor relative to the airframe, or only do so in one dimension, and have conventional control surfaces to vary
5995-547: The Pitcairn Autogiro Company in the United States and Focke-Wulf of Germany. In 1927, German engineer Engelbert Zaschka invented a combined helicopter and autogyro. The principal advantage of the Zaschka machine is its ability to remain motionless in the air for any length of time and to descend in a vertical line so that a landing could be accomplished on the flat roof of a large house. In appearance,
6104-523: The Tomball, Texas , police, on a $ 40,000 grant from the U.S. Department of Justice together with city funds, costing much less than a helicopter to buy ($ 75,000) and operate ($ 50/hour). Although it is able to land in 40-knot crosswinds, a minor accident happened when the rotor was not kept under control in a wind gust. Since 2009, several projects in Iraqi Kurdistan have been realized. In 2010,
6213-801: The United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) under British Civil Airworthiness Requirements CAP643 Section T. Others operate under a permit to fly issued by the Popular Flying Association similar to the U.S. experimental aircraft certification. However, the CAA's assertion that autogyros have a poor safety record means that a permit to fly will be granted only to existing types of an autogyro. All new types of autogyro must be submitted for full type approval under CAP643 Section T. The CAA allows gyro flight over congested areas. In 2005,
6322-414: The engine idle to make a cold engine warm up faster or to account for eventual additional engine loads such as running air conditioning compressors in order to avoid engine stalls. The throttle on a gasoline engine is typically a butterfly valve . In a fuel-injected engine, the throttle valve is placed on the entrance of the intake manifold , or housed in the throttle body . In a carbureted engine, it
6431-501: The present , future , and imperfect are imperfective in aspect; the aorist , present perfect , pluperfect and future perfect are perfective in aspect. Most tenses display all four moods and three voices, although there is no future subjunctive or imperative. Also, there is no imperfect subjunctive, optative or imperative. The infinitives and participles correspond to the finite combinations of tense, aspect, and voice. The indicative of past tenses adds (conceptually, at least)
6540-643: The 1930s by major newspapers , and by the United States Postal Service for the mail service between cities in the northeast. During the Winter War of 1939–1940, the Red Army Air Force used armed Kamov A-7 autogyros to provide fire correction for artillery batteries , carrying out 20 combat flights. The A-7 was the first rotary-wing aircraft designed for combat, armed with one 7.62×54mmR PV-1 machine gun ,
6649-1031: The 5th century BC. Ancient pronunciation cannot be reconstructed with certainty, but Greek from the period is well documented, and there is little disagreement among linguists as to the general nature of the sounds that the letters represent. /oː/ raised to [uː] , probably by the 4th century BC. Greek, like all of the older Indo-European languages , is highly inflected. It is highly archaic in its preservation of Proto-Indo-European forms. In ancient Greek, nouns (including proper nouns) have five cases ( nominative , genitive , dative , accusative , and vocative ), three genders ( masculine , feminine , and neuter ), and three numbers (singular, dual , and plural ). Verbs have four moods ( indicative , imperative , subjunctive , and optative ) and three voices (active, middle, and passive ), as well as three persons (first, second, and third) and various other forms. Verbs are conjugated through seven combinations of tenses and aspect (generally simply called "tenses"):
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#17327872959806758-495: The Archaic period of ancient Greek (see Homeric Greek for more details): Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά, Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε, πολλὰς δ' ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προΐαψεν ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι· Διὸς δ' ἐτελείετο βουλή· ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε Ἀτρεΐδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς. The beginning of Apology by Plato exemplifies Attic Greek from
6867-669: The CAA issued a mandatory permit directive (MPD) which restricted operations for single-seat autogyros and were subsequently integrated into CAP643 Issue 3 published on 12 August 2005. The restrictions are concerned with the offset between the centre of gravity and thrust line and apply to all aircraft unless evidence is presented to the CAA that the CG/Thrust Line offset is less than 2 inches (5 cm) in either direction. The restrictions are summarised as follows: These restrictions do not apply to autogyros with type approval under CAA CAP643 Section T, which are subject to
6976-645: The Classical period of ancient Greek. (The second line is the IPA , the third is transliterated into the Latin alphabet using a modern version of the Erasmian scheme .) Ὅτι [hóti Hóti μὲν men mèn ὑμεῖς, hyːmêːs hūmeîs, Throttle An engine 's power can be increased or decreased by the restriction of inlet gases (by the use of a throttle), but usually decreased. The term throttle has come to refer, informally, to any mechanism by which
7085-493: The ECU. The ECU then increases the amount of fuel injected by the injectors in order to obtain the required air-fuel ratio . Often a throttle position sensor (TPS) is connected to the shaft of the throttle plate to provide the ECU with information on whether the throttle is in the idle position, wide-open throttle (WOT) position, or somewhere in between these extremes. Throttle bodies may also contain valves and adjustments to control
7194-583: The German pilot couple Melanie and Andreas Stützfor undertook the first world tour by autogyro, in which they flew several different gyroplane types in Europe, southern Africa, Australia, New Zealand, the United States, and South America. The adventure was documented in the book "WELTFLUG – The Gyroplane Dream" and in the film "Weltflug.tv –The Gyrocopter World Tour". While autogyros are not helicopters, helicopters are capable of autorotation . If
7303-425: The amount of air flow (with an internal throttle plate) and combine air and fuel together ( venturi ). Cars with fuel injection don't need a mechanical device to meter the fuel flow, since that duty is taken over by injectors in the intake pathways (for multipoint fuel injection systems ) or cylinders (for direct injection systems ) coupled with electronic sensors and computers which precisely calculate how long should
7412-406: The amount of fuel or air entering the engine. In a motor vehicle the control used by the driver to regulate power is sometimes called the throttle, accelerator, or gas pedal . For a gasoline engine, the throttle most commonly regulates the amount of air and fuel allowed to enter the engine. However, in a gasoline direct injection engine, the throttle regulates only the amount of air allowed to enter
7521-550: The aorist. Following Homer 's practice, the augment is sometimes not made in poetry , especially epic poetry. The augment sometimes substitutes for reduplication; see below. Almost all forms of the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect reduplicate the initial syllable of the verb stem. (A few irregular forms of perfect do not reduplicate, whereas a handful of irregular aorists reduplicate.) The three types of reduplication are: Irregular duplication can be understood diachronically. For example, lambanō (root lab ) has
7630-419: The augment when it was word-initial. In verbs with a preposition as a prefix, the augment is placed not at the start of the word, but between the preposition and the original verb. For example, προσ(-)βάλλω (I attack) goes to προσ έ βαλoν in the aorist. However compound verbs consisting of a prefix that is not a preposition retain the augment at the start of the word: αὐτο(-)μολῶ goes to ηὐ τομόλησα in
7739-581: The beginning of German invasion in USSR June 1941, the Soviet Air Force organized new courses for training Kamov A-7 aircrew and ground support staff. In August 1941, per the decision of the chief artillery directorate of the Red Army , based on the trained flight group and five combat-ready A-7 autogyros, the 1st autogyro artillery spotting aircraft squadron was formed, which was included in
7848-465: The carburetor high (thus improving efficiency). The "secondary" throttle is operated either mechanically when the primary plate is opened past a certain amount, or via engine vacuum, influenced by the position of the accelerator pedal and engine load, allowing for greater air flow into the engine at high RPM and load and better efficiency at low RPM. Multiple 2-venturi or 4-venturi carburetors can be used simultaneously in situations where maximum engine power
7957-438: The center of Greek scholarship, this division of people and language is quite similar to the results of modern archaeological-linguistic investigation. One standard formulation for the dialects is: West vs. non-West Greek is the strongest-marked and earliest division, with non-West in subsets of Ionic-Attic (or Attic-Ionic) and Aeolic vs. Arcadocypriot, or Aeolic and Arcado-Cypriot vs. Ionic-Attic. Often non-West
8066-434: The days when many high performance cars were given one, small, single-venturi carburettor for each cylinder or pair of cylinders (i.e. Weber, SU carburettors), each one with their own small throttle plate inside. In a carburettor, the smaller throttle opening also allowed for more precise and fast carburettor response, as well as better atomization of the fuel when running at low engine speeds. Steam locomotives normally have
8175-518: The development and construction of the first five prototypes. The C.6 first flew in February 1925, piloted by Captain Joaquín Loriga , including a flight of 10.5 kilometres (6.5 miles) from Cuatro Vientos airfield to Getafe airfield in about eight minutes, a significant accomplishment for any rotorcraft of the time. Shortly after de la Cierva's success with the C.6, he accepted an offer from Scottish industrialist James G. Weir to establish
8284-615: The dialect of Sparta ), and Northern Peloponnesus Doric (including Corinthian ). All the groups were represented by colonies beyond Greece proper as well, and these colonies generally developed local characteristics, often under the influence of settlers or neighbors speaking different Greek dialects. After the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BC, a new international dialect known as Koine or Common Greek developed, largely based on Attic Greek , but with influence from other dialects. This dialect slowly replaced most of
8393-471: The difference in lift produced between the right and left sides of the rotor as the autogyro moves forward. Three days later, the engine failed shortly after takeoff and the aircraft descended slowly and steeply to a safe landing, validating de la Cierva's efforts to produce an aircraft that could be flown safely at low airspeeds. De la Cierva developed his C.6 model with the assistance of Spain's Military Aviation establishment, having expended all his funds on
8502-405: The end of a stage's burn time if it is carrying sensitive cargo (e.g. humans). In a jet engine , thrust is controlled by changing the amount of fuel flowing into the combustion chamber, similar to a diesel engine. The lifespan of the throttle is not set since it highly depends on the driving style and specific vehicle. The throttle tends to be quite dirty after 100-150 thousand kilometers, and it
8611-401: The engine to draw intake air at a certain temperature (the engine's current coolant temperature, which the ECU senses through the relevant sensor ) and therefore with a known density. The largest piece inside the throttle body is the throttle plate, which is a butterfly valve that regulates the airflow. On many cars, the accelerator pedal motion is communicated via the throttle cable, which
8720-401: The engine. The throttle of a diesel, when present, regulates the air flow into the engine. Historically, the throttle pedal or lever acts via a direct mechanical linkage . The butterfly valve of the throttle is operated by means of an arm piece, loaded by a spring. This arm is usually directly linked to the accelerator cable, and operates in accordance with the driver, who hits it. The further
8829-543: The fall of shells. These carried two crewmen: a pilot and a spotter. Later, the Japanese Army commissioned two small aircraft carriers intended for coastal antisubmarine (ASW) duties. The spotter's position on the Ka-1 was modified to carry one small depth charge. Ka-1 ASW autogyros operated from shore bases as well as the two small carriers. They appear to have been responsible for at least one submarine sinking. With
8938-632: The first rotorcraft to take off and land on the deck of a ship, when a C.30 performed trials on board the Spanish navy seaplane tender Dédalo off Valencia. Later that year, during the leftist Asturias revolt in October, an autogyro made a reconnaissance flight for the loyal troops, marking the first military employment of a rotorcraft. When improvements in helicopters made them practical, autogyros became largely neglected. Also, they were susceptible to ground resonance . They were, however, used in
9047-669: The first autogyro was handed over to the Kurdish Minister of Interiors, Mr. Karim Sinjari. The project for the interior ministry was to train pilots to control and monitor the approach and takeoff paths of the airports in Erbil , Sulaymaniyah , and Dohuk to prevent terrorist encroachments. The gyroplane pilots also form the backbone of the pilot crew of the Kurdish police, who are trained to pilot on Eurocopter EC 120 B helicopters. In 18 months from 2009 to 2010,
9156-673: The forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek ( c. 1400–1200 BC ), Dark Ages ( c. 1200–800 BC ), the Archaic or Epic period ( c. 800–500 BC ), and the Classical period ( c. 500–300 BC ). Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers . It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been
9265-561: The historical Dorians . The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, who regarded themselves as descendants of the population displaced by or contending with the Dorians. The Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people – Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians (including Athenians), each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Allowing for their oversight of Arcadian, an obscure mountain dialect, and Cypriot, far from
9374-476: The historical circumstances of the times imply that the overall groups already existed in some form. Scholars assume that major Ancient Greek period dialect groups developed not later than 1120 BC, at the time of the Dorian invasions —and that their first appearances as precise alphabetic writing began in the 8th century BC. The invasion would not be "Dorian" unless the invaders had some cultural relationship to
9483-411: The inclusion of injectors. Most fuel injected cars have a single throttle, contained in a throttle body . Vehicles can sometimes employ more than one throttle body, connected by linkages to operate simultaneously, which improves throttle response and allows a straighter path for the airflow to the cylinder head, as well as for equal-distance intake runners of short length, difficult to achieve when all
9592-447: The lift to accelerate the blades' rotation rate until the rotor turns at a stable speed with the drag force and the thrust force in balance. Because the craft must be moving forward with respect to the surrounding air to force air through the overhead rotor, autogyros are generally not capable of vertical takeoff (except in a strong headwind). A few types such as the Air & Space 18A have shown short takeoff or landing. Pitch control
9701-409: The machine does not differ much from the ordinary monoplane, but the carrying wings revolve around the body. Development of the autogyro continued in the search for a means to accelerate the rotor before takeoff (called prerotating). Rotor drives initially took the form of a rope wrapped around the rotor axle and then pulled by a team of men to accelerate the rotor – this was followed by
9810-512: The minimum airflow during idle . Even in those units that are not " drive-by-wire ", there will often be a small solenoid driven valve , the Idle Air Control Valve (IACV), that the ECU uses to control the amount of air that can bypass the main throttle opening to allow the engine to idle when the throttle is closed. The most basic carbureted engines, such as single cylinder Briggs & Stratton lawn-mower engines, feature
9919-508: The older dialects, although the Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language , which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek . By about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosed into Medieval Greek . Phrygian is an extinct Indo-European language of West and Central Anatolia , which
10028-586: The operating limits specified in the type approval. A certificated autogyro must meet mandated stability and control criteria; in the United States these are outlined in Federal Aviation Regulations Part 27: Airworthiness Standards: Normal Category Rotorcraft . The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration issues a Standard Airworthiness Certificate to qualified autogyros. Amateur-built or kit-built aircraft are operated under
10137-400: The others once pressure begins to equalize than to open a single large valve, especially as steam pressures eventually exceeded 200 psi (1,400 kPa) or even 300 psi (2,100 kPa). Examples include the balanced " double beat " type used on Gresley A3 Pacifics . Throttling of a rocket engine means varying the thrust level in-flight. This is not always a requirement; in fact,
10246-420: The passage of air through the rotor from below. The downward component of the total aerodynamic reaction of the rotor gives lift to the vehicle, sustaining it in the air. A separate propeller provides forward thrust and can be placed in a puller configuration, with the engine and propeller at the front of the fuselage, or in a pusher configuration, with the engine and propeller at the rear of the fuselage. Whereas
10355-539: The pedal is pushed, the wider the throttle valve opens. Modern engines of both types (gas and diesel) are commonly drive-by-wire systems where sensors monitor the driver controls and in response a computerized system controls the flow of fuel and air. This means that the operator does not have direct control over the flow of fuel and air; the Engine Control Unit (ECU) can achieve better control in order to reduce emissions , maximize performance and adjust
10464-487: The perfect stem eilēpha (not * lelēpha ) because it was originally slambanō , with perfect seslēpha , becoming eilēpha through compensatory lengthening. Reduplication is also visible in the present tense stems of certain verbs. These stems add a syllable consisting of the root's initial consonant followed by i . A nasal stop appears after the reduplication in some verbs. The earliest extant examples of ancient Greek writing ( c. 1450 BC ) are in
10573-420: The power or speed of an engine is regulated, such as a car's accelerator pedal. What is often termed a throttle (in an aviation context) is also called a thrust lever , particularly for jet engine powered aircraft. For a steam locomotive , the valve which controls the steam is known as the regulator . In an internal combustion engine , the throttle is a means of controlling an engine's power by regulating
10682-435: The remaining degrees of freedom). The rudder pedals provide yaw control, and the throttle controls engine power. Secondary flight controls include the rotor transmission clutch, also known as a pre-rotator, which when engaged drives the rotor to start it spinning before takeoff, and collective pitch to reduce blade pitch before driving the rotor. Collective pitch controls are not usually fitted to autogyros but can be found on
10791-636: The runners have to travel to certain location to connect to a single throttle body, at the cost of greater complexity and packaging issues. At the extreme, higher-performance cars like the E92 BMW M3 and Ferraris , and high-performance motorcycles like the Yamaha R6 , can use a separate throttle body for each cylinder, often called " individual throttle bodies " or ITBs. Although rare in production vehicles, these are common equipment on many racing cars and modified street vehicles. This practice harks back to
10900-473: The same, albeit with less pumping losses. In fuel injected engines , the throttle body is the part of the air intake system that controls the amount of air flowing into the engine, in response to driver accelerator pedal input in the main. The throttle body is usually located between the air filter box and the intake manifold , and it is usually attached to, or near, the mass airflow sensor . Often, an engine coolant line also runs through it in order for
11009-429: The strength of the 24th Army of the Soviet Air Force , combat active in the area around Elnya near Smolensk . From 30 August to 5 October 1941 the autogyros made 19 combat sorties for artillery spotting. Not one autogyro was lost in action, while the unit was disbanded in 1942 due to the shortage of serviceable aircraft. The autogyro was resurrected after World War II when Dr. Igor Bensen ,
11118-517: The syllabic script Linear B . Beginning in the 8th century BC, however, the Greek alphabet became standard, albeit with some variation among dialects. Early texts are written in boustrophedon style, but left-to-right became standard during the classic period. Modern editions of ancient Greek texts are usually written with accents and breathing marks , interword spacing , modern punctuation , and sometimes mixed case , but these were all introduced later. The beginning of Homer 's Iliad exemplifies
11227-400: The throttle (North American English) or regulator (British English) in a characteristic steam dome at the top of the boiler (although not all boilers feature these). The additional height afforded by the dome helps to avoid any liquid (e.g. from bubbles on the surface of the boiler water) being drawn into the throttle valve, which could damage it, or lead to priming . The throttle is basically
11336-438: The throttle opening based on the accelerator pedal's position and inputs from other engine sensors such as the engine coolant temperature sensor. When the driver presses on the accelerator pedal, the throttle plate rotates within the throttle body, opening the throttle passage to allow more air into the intake manifold, immediately drawn inside by its vacuum. Usually a mass airflow sensor measures this change and communicates it to
11445-505: The thrust of a solid-fuel rocket is not controllable after ignition. However, liquid-propellant rockets can be throttled by means of valves which regulate the flow of fuel and oxidizer to the combustion chamber. Hybrid rocket engines, such as the one used in Space Ship One , use solid fuel with a liquid oxidizer, and therefore can be throttled. Throttling tends to be required more for powered landings, and launch into space using
11554-418: The tractor configuration has some advantages compared to a pusher, namely greater yaw stability (as the center of mass is farther away from the rudder), and greater ease in aligning the center of thrust with the center of mass to prevent "bunting" (engine thrust overwhelming the pitch control). Juan de la Cierva was a Spanish engineer , inventor, pilot, and aeronautical enthusiast. In 1921, he participated in
11663-537: The unobstructed visibility. It was developed by Igor Bensen in the decades following World War II, who also founded the Popular Rotorcraft Association (PRA) to help it become more widespread. Less common today is the tractor configuration. In this version, the engine and propeller are located at the front of the aircraft, ahead of the pilot and rotor mast. This was the primary configuration in early autogyros but became less common. Nonetheless,
11772-480: Was Aeolic. For example, fragments of the works of the poet Sappho from the island of Lesbos are in Aeolian. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, or to an island. Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric (including Cretan Doric ), Southern Peloponnesus Doric (including Laconian ,
11881-451: Was originally named the autogiro by its Spanish inventor and engineer, Juan de la Cierva , in his attempt to create an aircraft that could fly safely at low speeds. He first flew one on 9 January 1923, at Cuatro Vientos Airport in Madrid . The aircraft resembled the fixed-wing aircraft of the day, with a front-mounted engine and propeller. The term Autogiro became trademarked by
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