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56-490: Awjila and the adjoining oasis of Jalu are isolated, the only towns on the desert highway between Ajdabiya , 250 kilometres (160 mi) to the northwest, and Kufra , 625 kilometres (388 mi) to the southeast. An 1872 account describes the cluster of three oases: the Aujilah oasis, Jalloo ( Jalu ) to the east and Leshkerreh ( Jikharra ) to the northeast. Each oasis had a small hill covered in date palm trees, surrounded by

112-691: A scorched earth policy if necessary for the conquest of fortified towns and other strongholds. Ribāts were built on frontiers, and trade routes to the north were secure, allowing relations to be established with the Pasha of Tripoli and the Turkish empire . Between 1574 and 1583, the Borno sultan had diplomatic relations with the Ottoman sultan Murad III, as well as with the Moroccan sultan Ahmad al-Mansur, in

168-535: A Majabra trader from Jalu named Schehaymah became lost while travelling to Wadai via Murzuk in the Fezzan. He was found by some Bidayat , who took him via Ounianga to Wara, the old capital of Wadai. The Sultan of Wadai, Abd al-Karim Sabun (1804–1815) agreed with Schehaymah's proposal to open a caravan route to Benghazi along a direct route through Kufra , and Awjila / Jalu . This new route would bypass both Fezzan and Darfur , states that until then had controlled

224-575: A fortified capital at Ngazargamu , to the west of Lake Chad (in present-day Nigeria ), the first permanent home a Sayfawa mai had enjoyed in a century. So successful was the Sayfawa rejuvenation that by the early 16th century Mai Idris Katakarmabe (1507–1529) was able to defeat the Bulala and retake Njimi , the former capital. The empire's leaders, however, remained at Ngazargamu because its lands were more productive agriculturally and better suited to

280-461: A large cage for a wild animal, with vertical wooden bars." Mai Hummay began his reign in 1075, and formed alliances with the Kay, Toubou, Dabir, and Magumi. He became the first Muslim king of Kanem, having been converted by his Muslim tutor Muhammad Mānī . They remained nomadic until the 11th century, when they fixed their capital at Nijmi . Humai's successor, Dunama I (1098–1151), performed

336-457: A plain of red sand impregnated with salts of soda. Among them, the three oases had a population of 9,000 to 10,000 people. The people of the oasis are mainly Berber , and some still speak a Berber-origin language. As of 2005, the Awjila language was highly endangered. The Awjila (Augila) oasis is mentioned by Herodotus (c. 484 – 425 BC). He describes the nomadic Nasamones who migrated between

392-406: A result of administrative disorganization, regional particularism, and attacks by the militant Waddai Empire to the east. The decline continued under Umar's sons. In 1893, Rabih az-Zubayr led an invading army from eastern Sudan and conquered Bornu. Rabih's invasion led to the deaths of Shehu Ashimi , Shehu Kyari , and Shehu Sanda Wuduroma between 1893 and 1894. The British recognized Rabih as

448-600: A very important part in Bornu politics, as eunuchs did in many Muslim courts". During the 17th century and 18th century, Bornu became a centre for Islamic learning. Borno sultans developed a political legitimacy based on their religious charisma, in the context of the rise of Sufism in Sahel. Islam and the Kanuri language was widely adopted, while slave raiding propelled the economy. Around this time, Fulani people invading from

504-739: Is an ancient oasis mentioned by Arab travelers, and orientalists in many historical sources. Historical sources mention that the people of the Jallow oasis were the first to conduct trade caravans along the longest desert route from  the Libyan coast to central and eastern Africa around the middle of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century. 29°01′42″N 21°32′12″E  /  29.0284°N 21.5366°E  / 29.0284; 21.5366 Bornu Empire The Kanem–Bornu Empire existed in areas which are now part of Nigeria , Niger , Cameroon , Libya and Chad . It

560-666: The Al Wahat District in northeastern Libya in the Jalo oasis . It is an oasis, a city, and the main center of the oasis region in eastern Libya.  It is located at the confluence of longitude and latitude (21-29), and the most important for attraction for the visitors and residents is the presence of dense palm forests linking the sand dunes and plateaus of the Libyan desert.  Jalu's inhabitants were famous for trade and transporting goods from Cyrenaica and Tripoli to Chad , Egypt , Sudan and other African countries. It

616-723: The Hajj three times before drowning at Aidab . At this time, the army included 100,000 horsemen and 120,000 soldiers. Kanem's expansion peaked during the long and energetic reign of Mai Dunama Dabbalemi (1210–1259). Dabbalemi initiated diplomatic exchanges with sultans in North Africa , sending a giraffe to the Hafsid monarch and arranged for the establishment of a madrasa of al-Rashid in Cairo to facilitate pilgrimages to Mecca. During his reign, he declared jihad against

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672-701: The Niger bend. Awjila became the main market for slaves from these regions. Most of these slaves supplied domestic needs. Gold was purchased from Bambouk and Bouré in what is now Senegal but then was part of the Mali Empire of the Mandinka people . In exchange, Egypt exported textiles. During the Ottoman period in Egypt, Awjila lay on the route taken by pilgrims traveling from Timbuktu via Ghat , Ghadames and

728-642: The nomadic Tebu-speaking Kanembu. The Kanembu were supposedly forced southwest towards the fertile lands around Lake Chad by political pressure and desiccation in their former range. The area already possessed independent, walled city-states belonging to the Sao civilisation . Under the leadership of the Duguwa dynasty , the Kanembu would eventually dominate the Sao, but not before adopting many of their customs. War between

784-726: The 'Sultan of Borno', until the French killed Rabih on 22 April 1900 during the Battle of Kousséri . The French then occupied Dikwa , Rabih's capital, in April 1902, after the British had occupied Borno in March. Yet, based on their 1893 treaty, most of Borno remained under British control, while the Germans occupied eastern Borno, including Dikwa, as 'Deutsch-Bornu'. The French did name Abubakar ,

840-511: The 10th century, al-Muhallabi mentions two towns in the kingdom, one of which was Mānān . Their king was considered divine, believing he could "bring life and death, sickness and health". Wealth was measured in livestock , sheep, cattle, camels and horses. From al-Bakri in the 11th century onwards, the kingdom is referred to as Kanem . In the 12th century Muhammad al-Idrisi described Mānān as "a small town without industry of any sort and little commerce". Ibn Sa'id al-Maghribi describes Mānān as

896-457: The 12th century a learned man from the coast of Tripolitania said that there were forty shrines in Awjila, and forty saints hidden among the people of the oasis. By the late 1960s only sixteen shrines remained. Some of the saints in the surviving tombs lived during the early years of Islam, and the details of their life and even their family lineage have been forgotten. In the 10th century Awjila

952-463: The Bulala forced Mai Umar b. Idris to abandon Njimi and move the Kanembu people to Bornu on the western edge of Lake Chad. But even in Bornu, the Sayfawa dynasty's troubles persisted. During the first three-quarters of the 15th century, for example, fifteen Mais occupied the throne. Then, around 1460 Ali Gazi (1473–1507) defeated his rivals and began the consolidation of Bornu. He built

1008-601: The Fezzan, avoiding the main Ottoman centers. In 1639 Awjila came under the rule of the Turkish ruler of Tripolitania, who stationed a permanent garrison at Benghazi. In the 18th century, the merchants of Awjila held a monopoly over the trade between Cairo and the Fezzan. Describing the trade between Egypt and Hausaland , Hornemann lists: ... slaves of both sexes, ostrich feathers, zibette (musk from civet cats), tiger skins (sic), and gold, partly in dust, partly in native grains, to be manufactured into rings and other ornaments for

1064-481: The Mediterranean coast of Africa, taking Cyrenaica in 644, Tripolitania in 646 and Fezzan in 663. The region around Awjila was conquered by Sidi ‘Abdullāh ibn Sa‘ad ibn Abī as-Sarḥ . He was a companion of Muhammad and standard bearer, and an important saint. His tomb was established in Awjila around 650. A modern structure has since replaced the original tomb. The Sarahna family, who consider themselves

1120-688: The Nasamones left their flocks by the coast and travelled to the oasis to gather dates. There were other permanent inhabitants of the oasis. Ptolemy (c. 90 – 168) implies that the Greek colonists had forced the Nasamones to leave the coast and take up residence in Augila. Procopius , writing around 562, says that even in his day sacrifices continued to be made to Ammon and to Alexander the Great of Macedon in two Libyan cities that were both called Augila. He

1176-608: The Pachalik of Tripoli at that time. About two million slaves traveled this route to be traded in Tripoli, the largest slave market in the Mediterranean. As Martin Meredith states, "Wells along the way were surrounded by the skeletons of thousands of slaves, mostly young women and girls, making a last desperate effort to reach water before dying of exhaustion once there." Most of the successors of Idris Alooma are only known from

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1232-713: The Shehu of Dikwa Emirate , until the British convinced him to be the Shehu of the Borno Emirate. The French then named his brother, Sanda, Shehu of Dikwa. Shehu Garbai formed a new capital, Yerwa , on 9 January 1907. After World War I , Deutsch-Bornu became the British Northern Cameroons . Upon Shehu Abubakar's death in 1922, Sanda Kura became Shehu of Borno. Upon his death in 1937, his cousin, Shehu of Dikwa Sanda Kyarimi , became Shehu of Borno. As Vincent Hiribarren points out, "By becoming Shehu of

1288-584: The capital of the Kanem kings in the 13th century and Kanem as a powerful Muslim kingdom. Kanuri-speaking Muslims gained control of Kanem from the Zaghawa nomads in the 9th century during a period of ethnic conflict . Kanuri legend states that Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan founded the Sayfawa dynasty . The new dynasty controlled the Zaghawa trade links in the central Sahara with Bilma and other salt mines . Yet,

1344-453: The coasts of Syrtis Major and the Augila oasis, where they may have exacted tribute from the local people. Herodotus says it was a journey of ten days from the oasis of Ammonium, modern Siwa , to the oasis of Augila. This distance was confirmed by the German explorer Friedrich Hornemann (1772–1801), who covered the distance in nine days, although caravans normally take 13 days. In the summer

1400-517: The context of political tensions in the Sahara. The Borno sultan allied with the Moroccan sultan against the Ottoman imperialism in the Sahara. Ibn Furtu called Alooma Amir al-Mu'minin , after he implemented Sharia , and relied upon large fiefholders to ensure justice. The Lake Chad to Tripoli route became an active highway in the 17th century, with horses traded for slaves. An intense diplomatic activity has been reported between Borno and

1456-492: The eastern Saharan trade. The first caravans travelled the route between 1809 and 1820. The trade was disrupted for a while in the 1820s due to political instability in Wadai, but starting in the 1830s every two or three years a caravan would travel the route. Usually there were two or three hundred camels carrying ivory and skins, along with a batch of slaves. Trade increased from the 1860s. The main stations between Benghazi and

1512-745: The empire until the mid-17th century when its power began to fade. By the late 18th century, Bornu rule extended only westward, into the land of the Hausa of modern Nigeria . The empire was still ruled by the Mai who was advised by his councilors ( kokenawa ) in the state council or nokena . The members of his Nokena council included his sons and daughters and other royalty (the Maina) and non-royalty (the Kokenawa, "new men"). The Kokenawa included free men and slave eunuchs known as kachela . The latter "had come to play

1568-510: The ethnic name. Al-Khwarizmi also mentions the Zaghawa in the 9th century , as did ibn al-Nadim in his Al-Fihrist in the 10th century. Kanem comes from anem , meaning "south" in the Teda and Kanuri languages, and hence a geographic term. During the first millennium , as the Sahara underwent desiccation , people speaking Kanembu migrated to Kanem in the south. This group contributed to

1624-537: The family of Sidi Abdullah, are the protectors of his tomb. When the Senussi center was established in Awjila in 1872, the Sarahna assumed the role of Islamic teachers. After being introduced in the 7th century, Islam has always been a major influence on the life of the oasis. The Arab chronicler Al-Bakri says that there were already several mosques around the oasis by the 11th century. According to oral tradition, in

1680-550: The formation of the Kanuri . Kanuri traditions state the Zaghawa dynasty led a group of nomads called the Magumi. This desiccation of the Sahara resulted in two settlements, those speaking Teda-Daza northeast of Lake Chad, and those speaking Chadic languages west of the lake in Bornu and Hausaland . The origins of Kanem are unclear. The first historical sources tend to show that the kingdom of Kanem began forming around 700 under

1736-592: The frontier'. Civil discord was said to follow his opening of the sacred Mune. By the end of the 14th century, internal struggles and external attacks had torn Kanem apart. War with the Sao brought the death of four Mai: Selemma , Kure Ghana es-Saghir , Kure Kura al-Kabir , and Muhammad I , all sons of 'Abdullāh b. Kadai . Then, war with the Bulala resulted in the death of four Mai in succession between 1377 and 1387: Daud Nigalemi , Uthmān b. Dawūd , Uthmān b. Idris , and Abu Bakr Liyatu . Finally, around 1387

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1792-486: The lost state of Agisymba (mentioned by Ptolemy in the middle of the 2nd century ) was the antecedent of the Kanem Empire. Climate change ensured the rise of the early Kanem–Bornu Empire, as desertification that increased the spread of the Sahara made some areas around Lake Chad unlivable, causing nomadic peoples from that area to navigate to the places where the empire would eventually be centralized. Kanem

1848-401: The main activities of the people in Awjila are agriculture and working for the oil sector companies, as this area is the cradle of Libyan wealth. The main crops are dates from the many varieties of palm trees, tomatoes, and cereals. The Awjila oasis is known for the high quality of its dates. Starting in the 1960s, the oil industry drove growth in the once-sleepy village. In 1968 the population of

1904-530: The meagre information provided by the Diwan . Some of them are noted for having undertaken the pilgrimage to Mecca , others for their piety. In the eighteenth century, Bornu was affected by several long-lasting famines. The Sultanate of Agadez was independently operating the Bilma salt mines by 1750, having been a tributary since 1532. The administrative reforms and military brilliance of Aluma sustained

1960-651: The next ten years the lodges of the Senussi became established throughout the Bedouins of Cyrenaica. Later they spread the Senussi influence further south, helping quell violence and resolve trade disputes. Each post on the north-south route, including Awjila, was protected by a Senussi sheikh. As late as 1907, a significant amount of the trade passing through Benghazi was in goods carried over this route, and goods would also have been routed from interior points such as Awjila and Jalu east to Egypt and west to Tripoli. Today

2016-751: The nomads around the 9th century through divine kingship . For the next millennium, the Mais ruled the Kanuri , which included the Ngalaga , Kangu, Kayi, Kuburi, Kaguwa, Tomagra, and Tubu. Kanem is mentioned as one of three great empires in the Sudan region , by Ya'qubi in 872. He describes the kingdom of "the Zaghāwa who live in a place called Kānim", which included several vassal states . "Their dwellings are huts made of reeds and they have no towns." Living as nomads , their cavalry gave them military superiority. In

2072-499: The people of interior Africa. From Bornu, copper is imported in great quantity. Cairo sends silks, melayes (striped blue and white calicoes - i.e. milayat , wrappers, sheeting) woolen cloths, glass... beads for bracelets, and an... assortment of East India goods... The merchants of Bengasi usually join the caravan from Cairo at Augila, import tobacco manufactured for chewing, or snuff, and sundry wares fabricated in Turkey... Around 1810

2128-442: The principal trade commodity was slaves. Tribes to the south of Lake Chad were raided as kafirun , and then transported to Zawila in the Fezzan, where the slaves were traded for horses and weapons. The annual number of slaves traded increased from 1000 in the 7th century to 5000 in the 15th. According to Richmond Palmer , it was customary to have "the Mai sitting in a curtained cage called fanadir, dagil, or tatatuna ...

2184-439: The raising of cattle. Ali Gaji was the first ruler of the empire to assume the title of Caliph. Bornu peaked during the reign of Mai Idris Alooma (c. 1564–1596), reaching the limits of its greatest territorial expansion, gaining control over Hausaland, and the people of Ahir and Tuareg. Peace was made with Bulala, when a demarcation of boundaries was agreed upon with a non-aggression pact . Military innovations included

2240-580: The southern terminal at Abéché were the assembly point at Awjila / Jalu where the caravans were made up, and the center at Kufra where food and water could be obtained. Later the north-south route again grew in importance due to disruption of traffic on the Nile by the Mahdist revolution in the Sudan . Muhammad ibn Ali as-Senussi stayed in Jalu and Awjila before opening his first lodge in al-Baida in 1843. Over

2296-410: The surrounding tribes and initiated an extended period of conquest with his cavalry of 41,000. He fought the Bulala for seven years, seven months, and seven days. After dominating the Fezzan, he established a governor at Traghan and delegated military command amongst his sons. As the Sayfawa extended control beyond Kanuri tribal lands, fiefs were granted to military commanders, as cima , or 'master of

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2352-600: The title of Shehu within Bornuan society and quickly supplanted the rule of the Mais who became figurehead monarchs. In the year of 1846, the last mai , in league with the Ouaddai Empire , precipitated a civil war, resulting in the death of Mai Ibrahim, the last mai. It was at that point that Kanemi's son, Umar , became Shehu, thus ending one of the longest dynastic reigns in international history. By then, Hausaland in

2408-412: The two continued up to the late 16th century. One scholar, Dierk Lange, has proposed another theory based on a diffusionist ideology. This theory was criticized by the scientific community as it seriously lacks direct and clear evidence. Lange connects the creation of Kanem–Bornu with the departure from the collapsed Neo-Assyrian Empire c. 600 BC to the northeast of Lake Chad. He also proposes that

2464-402: The use of mounted Turkish musketeers, slave musketeers, mailed cavalrymen, footmen and feats of military engineering as seen during the siege of the fortified town of Amsaka. This army was organized into an advance guard and a rear reserve while often using shield wall methods as well. The Bornu army was transported via camel or large boats and fed by free and slave women cooks, and often employed

2520-417: The village was about 2,000 people, but by 1982 it had risen to over 4,000, supported by twelve mosques. A 2007 travel guide gives the population as 6,790. The Great Mosque of Atiq is the oldest masjed ( mosque ) in the Sahara with its unique style of architecture with rooms that are naturally air conditioned. In the scorching heat of the summer days the rooms are cool and at night they are warm. The oasis

2576-560: The west were able to make major inroads into Bornu during the Fulani War . By the early 19th century, Kanem–Bornu was clearly an empire in decline, and in 1808 Fulani warriors conquered Ngazargamu . Usman dan Fodio led the Fulani thrust and proclaimed a jihad (holy war) on the irreligious Muslims of the area. His campaign eventually affected Kanem–Bornu and inspired a trend toward Islamic orthodoxy. Muhammad al-Amin al-Kanemi , who

2632-594: The west, was lost to the Sokoto Caliphate , while the east and north were lost to the Wadai Empire . Although the dynasty ended, the kingdom of Kanem–Bornu survived. Umar eschewed the title mai for the simpler designation shehu (from the Arabic shaykh ), could not match his father's vitality, and gradually allowed the kingdom to be ruled by advisers ( wazirs ). Bornu began a further decline as

2688-617: The whole of Borno, Sanda Kyarimi reunited under his rule a territory which had been divided since 1902. For 35 years two Shehus had co-existed." In 1961, the Northern Cameroons voted to join Nigeria, effectively rejoining the territories of the kingdom of Bornu. The lands of the Bornu state were thus absorbed into the new Northern Nigeria Protectorate , in the sphere of the British Empire , and eventually became part of

2744-453: Was a destination for viewing the Solar eclipse of March 29, 2006 . Notes Citations Sources [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). " Augilæ ". Catholic Encyclopedia . New York: Robert Appleton Company. Jalu Jalu , Jallow , or Gialo ( Arabic : جالو ) is a town in

2800-509: Was a stage on the trading route between the Ibadi Berber capital of Zuwayla in the Fezzan and the newly established Fatimid capital of Cairo in Egypt. The east-west caravan route from Cairo to Tripoli, the Fezzan and Tunis went via Jaghbub , Jalu and Awjila. In the early Mamluk era (13th century), trade from Egypt was along a route that led via Awjila to the Fezzan, and then on to Kanem , Bornu and to cities such as Timbuktu on

2856-564: Was a state in what is now northeastern Nigeria, in time becoming even larger than Kanem, incorporating areas that are today parts of Chad, Niger and Cameroon. The early history of the empire is mainly known from the Royal Chronicle, or Girgam , discovered in 1851 by the German traveller Heinrich Barth . Remnant successor regimes of the empire, in form of Borno Emirate and Dikwa Emirate , were established around 1900 and still exist today as traditional states within Nigeria. Kanem

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2912-588: Was connected via a trans-Saharan slave trade route with Tripoli via Bilma in the Kawar . Slaves were imported from the south along this route. In the 16th-century, Turkish musketeers where imported to Bornu, and in the 17th-century, European slaves are noted to have been imported to Bornu from the Barbary slave trade in Tripoli in Libya. Kanuri tradition states Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan established dynastic rule over

2968-658: Was known to the Arabian geographers as the Kanem Empire from the 8th century AD onward and lasted as the independent kingdom of Bornu (the Bornu Empire ) until 1900. The Kanem Empire (c. 700–1380) was located in the present countries of Chad, Nigeria and Libya . At its height, it encompassed an area covering not only most of Chad but also parts of southern Libya ( Fezzan ) and eastern Niger , northeastern Nigeria and northern Cameroon . The Bornu Empire (1380s–1893)

3024-399: Was located at the southern end of the trans-Saharan trade route between Tripoli and the region of Lake Chad . Besides its urban elite, it also included a confederation of nomadic peoples who spoke languages of the Teda – Daza group, the Toubou people or Berber people In the 8th century , Wahb ibn Munabbih used Zaghawa to describe the Teda-Tubu group, in the earliest use of

3080-411: Was of mixed Kanuri and Shuwa Arab heritage from Fezzan contested the Fulani incursions into Bornu. Al-Kanemi was a Muslim scholar who had put together an alliance of mostly Shuwa Arabs , and Kanembu within the region. He eventually built in 1814 a capital at Kukawa (in present-day Nigeria). After the creation of his capital at Kukawa, Al-Kanemi quickly amassed a large following within Bornu and adopted

3136-516: Was probably referring to what are now El Agheila on the Gulf of Sirte and the oasis of Awjilah. According to Procopius the temples of the oasis were converted into Christian churches by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I (c. 482 – 565). The 6th-century geographer Stephanus of Byzantium described Augila as a city. The Arabs launched a campaign against the Byzantine Empire soon after Muhammad died in 632, quickly conquering Syria, Persia and Egypt. After occupying Alexandria in 643, they swept along

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