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68-582: More than 161 feet (49 m) long and weighing at 1,450 tons, the Aurora Simulator was the first gamma radiation simulator of its size in the world at the time. It was also one of only four large machines in the United States that were built specifically to test complete nuclear weapons packages, with the other three being the Hermes I to III simulators at Sandia Base , New Mexico. Situated at

136-638: A Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker air refueling plane collided in mid-air over the Mediterranean Sea off the coast of Spain. This event is referred to as the Palomares incident . Three of four missing nuclear weapons were found on land near the fishing village of Palomares in Spain . The fourth was found in the sea after a lengthy search. The second incident occurred in 1968 when a B-52 bomber crashed near Thule, Greenland . Three weapons were recovered;

204-454: A self break ) during charging if the absolute timing of the output pulse is unimportant. However, it is usually intentionally triggered once all the capacitors in the Marx bank have reached full charge, either by reducing the gap distance, by pulsing an additional trigger electrode (such as a Trigatron ), by ionising the air in the gap using a pulsed laser , or by reducing the air pressure within

272-567: A fourth is believed to remain in the ocean. Always on the itinerary of key political figures, Sandia Base hosted President John F. Kennedy on December 7, 1962. On April 17, 1966, Vice President Hubert H. Humphrey toured facilities at Sandia Base. In 1971, DASA was redesignated Defense Nuclear Agency. The field activities remained at Sandia Base, which was merged into Kirtland Air Force Base. Defense Nuclear Agency returned to its roots by being renamed Defense Special Weapons Agency (DSWA) without further change of mission or functions in 1996. DSWA

340-409: A high dose uniformly throughout the nominally cubic-meter volume, which sometimes needed dose measurements at up to 200 locations within a single electronics system. However, in order to obtain the desired radiation levels, all four 230-kA bremsstrahlung pulses had to overlay within 10 ns. This synchronization was made possible by the symmetrization of the four Blumleins that was achieved only just before

408-411: A high pressure dielectric gas such as sulfur hexafluoride (SF 6 ). Note that the less resistance there is between the capacitor and the charging power supply, the faster it will charge. Thus, in this design, those closer to the power supply will charge quicker than those farther away. If the generator is allowed to charge long enough, all capacitors will attain the same voltage. In the ideal case,

476-425: A tendency to lower their resistance over time under high voltage conditions. The Marx generator is also used to generate short high-power pulses for Pockels cells , driving a TEA laser , ignition of the conventional explosive of a nuclear weapon, and radar pulses. Shortness is relative, as the switching time of even high-speed versions is not less than 1 ns, and thus many low-power electronic devices are faster. In

544-433: A voltage rise that is increasingly weaker the further the stage is from the switching one; the adjacent stage to the switching one therefore encounters the largest voltage rise, and thus switches in turn. As more stages switch, the voltage rise to the remainder increases, which speeds up their operation. Thus a voltage rise fed into the first stage becomes amplified and steepened at the same time. In electrodynamic terms, when

612-410: Is also used in the voltage multiplier circuit, used to produce high voltages for laser printers and cathode-ray tube television sets , which has similarities to this circuit. One difference is that the voltage multiplier is powered with alternating current and produces a steady DC output voltage, whereas the Marx generator produces a pulse. Proper performance depends upon capacitor selection and

680-509: Is less. Note that none of the charging resistors R c are subjected to more than the charging voltage even when the capacitors have been erected. The charge available is limited to the charge on the capacitors, so the output is a brief pulse as the capacitors discharge through the load. At some point, the spark gaps stop conducting, and the low-voltage supply begins charging the capacitors again. The principle of multiplying voltage by charging capacitors in parallel and discharging them in series

748-411: Is needed and jitter is low. The diodes also have a longer lifetime than spark gaps. A speedy switching device is an NPN avalanche transistor fitted with a coil between base and emitter. The transistor is initially switched off and about 300 volts exists across its collector-base junction. This voltage is high enough that a charge carrier in this region can create more carriers by impact ionisation, but

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816-475: Is to generate a high- voltage pulse from a low-voltage DC supply. Marx generators are used in high-energy physics experiments, as well as to simulate the effects of lightning on power-line gear and aviation equipment. A bank of 36 Marx generators is used by Sandia National Laboratories to generate X-rays in their Z Machine . The circuit generates a high-voltage pulse by charging a number of capacitors in parallel, then suddenly connecting them in series. See

884-591: The Denver Post ran a story that claimed the military was building a secret base consisting of huge caverns for atomic weapons defense purposes. The Post said the new base was in the Manzano Mountains southeast of Sandia Base. The military responded by issuing a statement that operations and construction near Sandia Base were top-secret. In fact, however, the AFSWP was building one of several bases around

952-740: The Harry Diamond Laboratories (which later became a part of the Army Research Laboratory ) in Adelphi, Maryland, it was used to test complete weapons electronics packages from the warheads of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) to satellites. After more than 20 years of use during the Cold War, the Aurora Simulator was officially decommissioned and disassembled in 1996. In 1986, the Aurora facility set

1020-477: The Sandia Mountains on the east, and Isleta Pueblo lands on the south. There were security gates on Gibson Avenue SE and Wyoming Boulevard SE. The base was created on the site formerly occupied by Oxnard Field , once the major Albuquerque airport. A competing airport took most of the local traffic in the 1930s. The U.S. Army bought the field after 1939. Leslie Groves and Robert Oppenheimer faced

1088-406: The "stack", and the process continues to sequentially break down all of the gaps. This process of the spark gaps connecting the capacitors in series to create the high voltage is called erection . The last gap connects the output of the series "stack" of capacitors to the load. Ideally, the output voltage will be nV C , the number of capacitors times the charging voltage, but in practice the value

1156-654: The Albuquerque base. Z Division and AFSWP brought to Sandia Base the strict secrecy which had prevailed at Los Alamos. In 1947, amid much public speculation about what was going on at Sandia Base, the military would only say that the activities at Sandia Base were secret under the Atomic Energy Act. When Secretary of the Army Kenneth Claiborne Royall visited Sandia Base in 1948, he falsely announced that "guided missile" development

1224-530: The Aurora Simulator, HDL moved from its downtown Washington, D.C. site to an area of land in White Oak, Maryland, which would eventually become the ARL Adelphi site. The cooperation between DASA and HDL on the Aurora project led to many HDL researchers becoming involved in the simulator's development, including assistant to DASA Deputy Director for Science and Technology Peter Haas and former participant in

1292-571: The Manhattan Project Paul Caldwell, who later was placed in charge of the Aurora Simulator. In turn, Caldwell hired physicist Alexander Stewart from Ion Physics (IP) and HDL's Robert Lamb and Dennis Whittaker, the four of whom (including Caldwell) made up the bulk of the research and development team for the Aurora project. The construction of the Aurora Simulator was completed in January 1971, costing about $ 16 million, and

1360-483: The Pockels cell into one polarity. This will also partly charge the other two generators but not trigger them, because they have been only partly charged beforehand. Leakage through the Marx resistors needs to be compensated by a small bias current through the generator. At the trailing edge of the boxcar, the two other generators are fired to "reverse" the cell. Marx generators are used to provide high-voltage pulses for

1428-462: The United States nuclear deterrence capability during the Cold War . In 1971 it was merged into Kirtland Air Force Base . Sandia Base was located at about 35° 02' 25" N, 106° 32' 59" W at an elevation 5,394 feet (1,644 m) above sea level. It was in the southeast quadrant of Albuquerque, bounded roughly by Louisiana Boulevard SE and Kirtland Air Force Base on the west, and Eubank Avenue SE and

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1496-581: The atmospheric test series at Eniwetok Atoll in the Marshall Islands . The Sandstone test series was successful, but logistics, weather, security, and safety suggested the need for a continental test site. Thus, AFSWP conducted a top secret study, named Project Nutmeg, to search for such a site. In 1950, AFSWP concluded that a site on the Air Force's Las Vegas Bombing and Gunnery Range in Nevada

1564-430: The base, and Highland High School in southeast Albuquerque. Sandia Base had an officers club, an NCO club, a commissary, a base exchange, a movie theater, a swimming pool, a library, and a teen club. Sandia Base also had a club for civilian employees. There were two chapels, a hospital, and a pre-school on the base. On July 1, 1971, Sandia Base and Manzano Base were merged into Kirtland Air Force Base , their neighbor to

1632-503: The base. Housing for military families existed in three areas of Sandia Base. In the southwest corner of the base was an area of Wherry housing, known as Zia Park. On the northwest side of the base was an area of Capehart housing, known as Pershing Park. This area stretched from Wyoming Boulevard almost to the Gibson Avenue gate. East of Wyoming Boulevard was an area of Capehart housing, known informally as "The Loops," because

1700-503: The bomb explodes: if it's inside some material, underground and even in air, a primary effect is a shock wave from the expanding bomb material (which, itself, remains more or less in place). However, x-rays with energies between about 1 and 10 MeV, which are least absorbed by materials, can radiate far outside the immediate region of the explosion even as they are gradually absorbed by the material they pass through. In air, they go just about 1000 times farther than they would in water. Since all

1768-451: The challenges of turning a war-driven, short-term bomb design effort into a stable peacetime operation in charge of producing and maintaining a nuclear stockpile for the nation. A serious short-term problem was retaining personnel, particularly at Los Alamos where many scientists and technicians were eager to return to civilian pursuits. The solutions to the challenges led directly to the transformation of Albuquerque's old Oxnard Field into

1836-400: The circuit diagram on the right. At first, n capacitors ( C ) are charged in parallel to a voltage V C by a DC power supply through the resistors ( R C ). The spark gaps used as switches have the voltage V C across them, but the gaps have a breakdown voltage greater than V C , so they all behave as open circuits while the capacitors charge. The last gap isolates the output of

1904-408: The closing of the switch closest to the charging power supply applies a voltage 2 V to the second switch. This switch will then close, applying a voltage 3 V to the third switch. This switch will then close, resulting in a cascade down the generator that produces nV at the generator output (again, only in the ideal case). The first switch may be allowed to spontaneously break down (sometimes called

1972-423: The country that would be used for nuclear weapons storage. The AFSWP code-named the base "Site Able." Construction of Site Able was delayed by a strike in which laborers demanded a 25-cent per hour increase in their minimum wage of $ 1.75 per hour. On February 22, 1952, the now-completed Site Able was renamed Manzano Base and turned over to the operational control of the Air Force. The Denver Post story apparently

2040-580: The crash site. The official version of the crash stated that the B-29 was on a routine "navigation training flight." The Air Force said the B-29 had taken off from Walker AFB and had landed at Kirtland AFB to "refuel." At Sandia Base, the Pioneers worked with Sandia Laboratory and the AEC to perfect the design, assembly, storage, and delivery of atomic weapons. In 1948, the Pioneers supported Operation Sandstone ,

2108-446: The design of high-speed circuits, electrodynamics is important, and the Marx generator supports this insofar as it uses short thick leads between its components, but the design is nevertheless essentially an electrostatic one. When the first gap breaks down, pure electrostatic theory predicts that the voltage across all stages rises. However, stages are coupled capacitively to ground and serially to each other, and thus each stage encounters

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2176-496: The engineering efforts being made there. Dorland eventually assembled a group of about sixty young Army officers, later nicknamed the "Sandia Pioneers," to oversee the bomb fabrication efforts. Dorland also established a nuclear weapons training school at Sandia Base. The Pioneers learned and practiced how to assemble atomic bombs and how to load them onto aircraft for long range missions. The aircraft used for these practice missions were Boeing B-29 Superfortress bombers similar to

2244-715: The engineering part of nuclear weapons development. Thus, in 1949, AT&T 's manufacturing arm, Western Electric , accepted the management role on a no-profit, no-fee basis. Sandia Corporation, a wholly owned subsidiary of Western Electric, was formed to manage the lab. AT&T maintained the contract until 1993 when Martin Marietta (now Lockheed Martin ) took over. The largest organization at Sandia Base, it became Sandia National Laboratories in 1979. It now operates facilities in Albuquerque and Livermore, California . The organization continues to expand into new areas of research, such as renewable energy sources. In August, 1947,

2312-680: The exact history of this site is in question. KAFB personnel thought this site was used during WWII, as a possible tear gas training site. There were two schools on the base. Sandia Base Elementary School was on Wyoming Boulevard between Pershing Park and the Loops; Wherry Elementary School was located in Zia Park. Both schools were, and still are, operated by the Albuquerque Public Schools system. Older children from Sandia Base attended Van Buren Junior High School, just outside

2380-521: The facility was closed. During active testing, the Aurora Simulator could do as many as 13 test shots in a single day. In comparison, nuclear weapons testing at the Nevada Test Site was limited to one test shot per three months. There were two main limitations to the operation of the Aurora Simulator. Early on, the long discharge time of the Blumeins sometimes allowed unintended arcs through

2448-423: The field to settle to static conditions, which restricts pulse leading edge width to 30 ns or more. Smaller devices are of course faster. The speed of a switch is determined by the speed of the charge carriers, which gets higher with higher voltage, and by the current available to charge the inevitable parasitic capacitance. In solid-state avalanche devices, a high voltage automatically leads to high current. Because

2516-562: The first of six original National Stockpile Sites (NSS) (for nuclear weapons). The other original NSS installations similar to Manzano were: Site Baker at Killeen Base, adjacent to Gray Air Force Base and Fort Hood , Texas; Site Charlie at Campbell Air Force Base and adjacent to Fort Campbell (Tennessee and Kentucky); Site Dog at Bossier Base, adjacent to Barksdale Air Force Base , Louisiana; Lake Mead Base, adjacent to Nellis Air Force Base , Nevada; and Medina Base , adjacent to Lackland Air Force Base , Texas. On July 1, 1971, Manzano Base

2584-433: The first stage breaks down it creates a spherical electromagnetic wave whose electric field vector is opposed to the static high voltage. This moving electromagnetic field has the wrong orientation to trigger the next stage, and may even reach the load; such noise in front of the edge is undesirable in many switching applications. If the generator is inside a tube of (say) 1 m diameter, it requires around 10 wave reflections for

2652-580: The first test was conducted on the Spartan ABM flight control set in April 1972. Throughout its entire run at HDL, which ended in 1995, the Aurora Simulator conducted 287 numbered tests, resulting in more than 9,100 test shots. The Aurora Pulsed Radiation Simulator consisted of four 14 MV Marx generators , each of which contained four parallel 1.25 MJ units connected together to drive four parallel oil-dielectric Blumlein pulse-forming lines (PFLs) . Each PFL

2720-432: The gap. The charging resistors, Rc, need to be properly sized for both charging and discharging. They are sometimes replaced with inductors for improved efficiency and faster charging. In many generators the resistors are made from plastic or glass tubing filled with dilute copper sulfate solution. These liquid resistors overcome many of the problems experienced by more-conventional solid resistive materials, which have

2788-409: The generator from the load; without that gap, the load would prevent the capacitors from charging. To create the output pulse, the first spark gap is caused to break down (triggered); the breakdown effectively shorts the gap, placing the first two capacitors in series, applying a voltage of about 2 V C across the second spark gap. Consequently, the second gap breaks down to add the third capacitor to

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2856-673: The ground 4.5 miles south of the Kirtland control tower and 0.3 miles west of the Sandia Base reservation. The weapon was completely destroyed by the detonation of its high explosive material, creating a crater 12 feet deep and 25 feet in diameter. Radioactive contamination at the crater lip amounted to 0.5 milliroentgen . Because of the presence of the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project and its successors, Sandia Base had military personnel of all of

2924-422: The high voltage is applied only for a short time, solid-state switches will not heat up excessively. As compensation for the higher voltages encountered, the later stages have to carry lower charge too. Stage cooling and capacitor recharging also go well together. Avalanche diodes can replace a spark gap for stage voltages less than 500 volts. The charge carriers easily leave the electrodes, so no extra ionisation

2992-522: The introduction and subsequent nuclear explosion of Soviet AMBs into the airspace would result in radiation that could interfere with the electronics systems of inbound U.S. ICBMs. In order to thoroughly harden U.S. missiles, in 1969 DASA initiated the construction of the Aurora Simulator as a gamma radiation test facility that could produce full-threat level pulses of 1 to 10 MeV photons ("gamma" radiation refers to x-rays (or photons) emitted by nuclei and typically more energetic than 1 MeV). When selecting

3060-540: The laboratory more on weapons development by relocating various weapons production and assembly activities away from Los Alamos. Thus, the decision was taken to move Z Division to the old Oxnard Field. Already at the close of the war, the engineering group of Z Division had begun consolidating weapons assembly functions there. Z Division was initially located at Wendover Field, Utah but moved to Oxnard Field , New Mexico, in September 1945 to be closer to Los Alamos. By 1946,

3128-411: The low static field allows remaining charge carriers to drain out of its collector-base junction. One application is so-called boxcar switching of a Pockels cell . Four Marx generators are used, each of the two electrodes of the Pockels cell being connected to a positive pulse generator and a negative pulse generator. Two generators of opposite polarity, one on each electrode, are first fired to charge

3196-451: The nation's principal nuclear weapons installation. Atomic Bomb engineering was carried out by the Z Division, named for its director, Dr. Jerrold R. Zacharias from Los Alamos. Z Division was conceived as an ordnance design, testing, and assembly arm. However, space was at a premium at Los Alamos. Additionally, members of Z Division needed to work closely with the military. Groves also decided as part of an effort to retain personnel to focus

3264-605: The oil to shorten or even prevent the bremsstrahlung pulses. In the early 1990s this problem was solved by improvements in triggering the Blumlein's V/N oil switch. Second, the 40-Ohm impedance of the Blumleins made it inefficient to drive low impedance loads. Sandia Base Sandia Base was the principal nuclear weapons installation of the United States Department of Defense from 1946 to 1971. It

3332-503: The ones that flew the first atomic missions over Japan in 1945. The Pioneers and the 509th Bombardment Group (successor to the 509th Composite Group that flew the 1945 missions) flew the practice missions from Kirtland AFB to Wendover, Utah . The 509th was stationed at Walker Air Force Base near Roswell, New Mexico . On April 12, 1950, a B-29 from the 509th Bombardment Group crashed at Sandia Base shortly after takeoff. Thirteen crewmen were killed. The military imposed strict security over

3400-512: The probability is too low to form a proper avalanche; instead a somewhat noisy leakage current flows. When the preceding stage switches, the emitter-base junction is pushed into forward bias and the collector-base junction enters full avalanche mode, so charge carriers injected into the collector-base region multiply in a chain reaction. Once the Marx generator has completely fired, voltages everywhere drop, each switch avalanche stops, its matched coil puts its base-emitter junction into reverse bias, and

3468-426: The services, as well as Department of Defense civilian employees. Sandia Lab brought more civilians to the base community. Although most of the base was restricted, the rest of the base resembled other U.S. military installations in the world. By the 1950s, there were places for several thousand military family members to live, shop, attend school, recreate, and worship. The Army was in charge of running these parts of

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3536-740: The site for the Aurora facility, DASA wanted the gamma radiation simulator to be situated at an existing military laboratory. After much deliberation between the Air Force Weapons Laboratory (AFWL) in New Mexico and the Army and Navy laboratories in the Washington, D.C. area, DASA chose the latter and granted the Harry Diamond Laboratory (HDL) the responsibility of operating the facility. In order to house

3604-663: The site was being referred to as "Sandia Base" after the nearby Sandia Mountains . In January 1947, the rest of Z Division completed its move to Sandia Base. That same month, Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson and Secretary of the Navy James V. Forrestal established the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project (AFSWP) to assume all of the military functions of the Manhattan Engineering District. The ASWP took over

3672-405: The streets were circular and had names such as 10th Loop, 11th Loop, etc. Zia Park was once thought to house chemical warfare training; however, the only evidence suggesting chemical warfare training as reported by Kirtland AFB personnel is an old hand drawn map identifying this area as a chemical warfare training area. No other recorded maps have identified this area as a chemical training area, so

3740-462: The time these were fairly small, primarily used to take x-rays of fast-moving events such as explosives and bullets. After the Soviet Union demonstrated the use of the world's first anti-ballistic missiles (ABM) in 1964, in response DASA launched a series of projects that aimed to hasten the advancement of nuclear effects laboratories in the United States. The U.S. military was concerned that

3808-404: The timing of the discharge. Switching times can be improved by doping of the electrodes with radioactive isotopes caesium 137 or nickel 63, and by orienting the spark gaps so that ultraviolet light from a firing spark gap switch illuminates the remaining open spark gaps. Insulation of the high voltages produced is often accomplished by immersing the Marx generator in transformer oil or

3876-569: The west. The merger was concurrent with the change of DASA into the Defense Nuclear Agency. The Air Force took over host responsibilities for the nation's military nuclear weapons program. 35°2′25″N 106°32′59″W  /  35.04028°N 106.54972°W  / 35.04028; -106.54972 Marx generator A Marx generator is an electrical circuit first described by Erwin Otto Marx in 1924. Its purpose

3944-660: The world record for the largest amount of high-power microwave power generated from a virtual cathode oscillator. As a result, HDL was recognized by the American Defense Preparedness Association (ADPA) in 1987. Following the use of the atomic bomb in World War II and subsequent development, it became clear that much of the damage they produce comes from powerful, short (sub-microsecond) pulses of various kinds of radiation. Exactly how this works depends, among other particulars, on where

4012-410: The x-rays go at the light speed, their pulse shape reflects the explosion itself: much shorter than a microsecond. Sub-MeV radiation from a nuclear explosion may be more important in (empty) space. Given this realization, during the 1960s the U.S. military began to investigate whether military systems could be tested for their response to nuclear-weapon generated pulsed x-rays with flash x-ray machines. At

4080-520: Was abolished, effective October 1, 1998, with functions transferred to the newly established Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA). After the move to Sandia Base, Los Alamos Laboratory's Z Division grew to almost 500 people, and became a separate branch of Los Alamos on April 1, 1948. Named Sandia Laboratory , the organization continued to grow to approximately 1000 employees by mid-1948. The University of California , long-time manager of Los Alamos, indicated that it no longer desired to be involved in

4148-452: Was correct insofar as it described the general nature of the base. What appeared to be secure bunkers were visible to people (mostly military personnel) who went to a recreational camping area nearby known as Coyote Canyon. The military, however, never officially confirmed the nature of the activities at Manzano Base. At one point, a military spokesman said that Manzano Base had nothing to do with Sandia Base. Manzano has since been identified as

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4216-429: Was coupled with an E-beam diode. The Aurora Simulator produced four short pulses of high energy bremsstrahlung radiation that overlapped to deliver a single 120 ns wide pulse of 20 to 50 krads (Si) into a 1m cube. It could also deliver 25 krads (Si) throughout a 1m diameter and 1m long cylindrical volume or 50 krads (Si) throughout a 25 cm sphere. What made the Aurora Simulator unique was its ability to provide such

4284-479: Was located on the southeastern edge of Albuquerque, New Mexico . For 25 years, the top-secret Sandia Base and its subsidiary installation, Manzano Base, carried on the atomic weapons research, development, design, testing, and training commenced by the Manhattan Project during World War II . Fabrication, assembly, and storage of nuclear weapons was also done at Sandia Base. The base played a key role in

4352-413: Was merged, along with Sandia Base, into Kirtland Air Force Base. On March 8, 1950, a fire of undetermined origin swept through the stockade at Sandia Base, killing fourteen prisoners. Several officers and military firefighters were seriously injured. On May 22, 1957, a B-36 ferrying a nuclear weapon from Biggs AFB to Kirtland AFB dropped a nuclear weapon on approach to Kirtland AFB. The weapon impacted

4420-489: Was redesignated the Defense Atomic Support Agency (DASA), the Sandia Base was designated Headquarters Field Command, DASA. Over the next dozen years, Field Command was headed by Army, Navy, and Air Force officers. Sandia Base personnel were dispatched to assist in two major incidents involving the loss and recovery of nuclear weapons in the 1960s. In 1966, a Boeing B-52 Stratofortress bomber and

4488-1324: Was sequentially renamed the Naval Air Special Weapons Facility (NASWF) in August 1952, the Naval Nuclear Ordnance Evaluation Unit (NNOEU) in 1958, and the Naval Weapons Evaluation Facility (NWEF) in March 1961. Before the NWEF ceased flight test operations in September 1992, nuclear compatibility and safety certification had been completed for 76 versions of 32 different Navy nuclear-capable fighter and attack aircraft. Following accidents aboard USS  Oriskany in 1966 and Forrestal in 1967, NWEF applied nuclear safety protocols to develop procedures to safely stow, handle, transport, assemble, disassemble, preload, load, unload, arm, dearm, rearm, and deliver non-nuclear aviation ordnance including bombs , torpedoes , naval mines , missiles and conventional stores from sonobuoys to Air-Delivered Seismic Intrusion Detectors (ADSID). In 1959, because AFSWP

4556-660: Was the right place. President Truman approved the location, known as Frenchman Flat . The first post-war continental atomic test was conducted on January 27, 1951. A weapon assembled at Sandia Base was dropped from a Boeing B-50 Superfortress ("D" model) bomber in the successful "Able" shot. Thereafter, some 927 atmospheric and underground nuclear tests occurred at what is now known as the Nevada Test Site . These tests were supported by AFSWP and its successors from Sandia Base and its successor. A United States Naval Air Detachment of eleven aircraft assigned to Sandia Base in June 1949

4624-556: Was underway at the base. AFSWP was given responsibility for discharging all military functions relating to atomic energy in coordination with the Atomic Energy Commission. General Groves was placed in charge, and reported directly to the Joint Chiefs of Staff . Concerned about the postwar status of the nation's nuclear stockpile, Groves had already dispatched Col. Gilbert M. Dorland to Sandia Base to evaluate

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