Misplaced Pages

#146853

80-678: On November 13, 1925, Grace Delano Clark persuaded the Austin Branch of American Association of University Women (AAUW) to initiate a project to establish the Austin Public Library. AAUW organized a house-to-house campaign to solicit book donations and money for a dedicated building. In February 1926, the Austin Public Library opened at 819 Congress Avenue in a rented room above the office of newspaper Pressler & Ziller. The library held 500 donated volumes, and Grace Delano Clark served as Volunteer Librarian. In December of

160-464: A sentence forms the final explicit act of a judge -ruled process, and also the symbolic principal act connected to his function. The sentence can generally involve a decree of imprisonment , a fine and/or other punishments against a defendant convicted of a crime . Laws may specify the range of penalties that can be imposed for various offenses, and sentencing guidelines sometimes regulate what punishment within those ranges can be imposed given

240-484: A $ 6 million bond for a new central library to be built on an adjacent site at West 8th and Guadalupe. Jessen Associates, founded by Bubi Jessen and Wolf Juessen, designed this central library in the New Formalist style under the direction of architect Fred Day. Construction began in 1976, and the building opened to the public on April 11, 1979. John Henry Faulk , a local writer and free speech advocate who would be

320-477: A bond program approved by Austin voters in 2006. The building is part of the city's extensive redevelopment of the former Seaholm Power Plant site, east of the intersection of Lamar Boulevard and Cesar Chavez Street. It opened to the public on Saturday October 28, 2017. The building was designed by a joint venture of San Antonio -based Lake Flato Architects , known for their energy-efficient and sustainable projects; and Boston -based Shepley Bulfinch , successor to

400-579: A certain set of offense and offender characteristics. The most common purposes of sentencing in legal theory are: In civil cases the decision is usually known as a verdict , or judgment, rather than a sentence. Civil cases are settled primarily by means of monetary compensation for harm done (" damages ") and orders intended to prevent future harm (for example injunctions ). Under some legal systems an award of damages involves some scope for retribution, denunciation and deterrence, by means of additional categories of damages beyond simple compensation, covering

480-431: A fair and equitable manner. This applies both at the individual level and at the organizational and societal levels. To illustrate these ideas, Plato describes a person as having three parts: reason, spirit, and desire. These parallel the three parts of a city in his philosophy, which he describes through the metaphor of a chariot: it functions effectively when the charioteer, representative of reason, successfully controls

560-598: A love of reading. In addition to the Central Library and the Austin History Center, the Austin Public Library has 20 branches and a Recycled Reads bookstore and upcycling facility. The APL library system also has mobile libraries – bookmobile buses and a human-powered trike and trailer called "unbound: sin fronteras". American Association of University Women The American Association of University Women ( AAUW ), officially founded in 1881,

640-556: A meeting in Boston, Massachusetts. The purpose of this meeting was to create an organization of women college graduates that would assist women in finding greater opportunities to use their education, as well as promoting and assisting other women's college attendance. The Association of Collegiate Alumnae or ACA (AAUW's predecessor organization) was officially founded on January 14, 1882. The ACA also worked to improve standards of education for women so that men and women's higher education

720-464: A political order. In the 19th century, utilitarian philosophers such as John Stuart Mill said that justice is served by what creates the best outcomes for the greatest number of people. Modern frameworks include concepts such as distributive justice , egalitarianism , retributive justice , and restorative justice . Distributive justice considers what is fair based on what goods are to be distributed, between whom they are to be distributed, and what

800-486: A professor at Huston–Tillotson University , challenged this arrangement. By the end of 1951 the segregation policy was ended. The new, permanent building was to be designed by Austin architect Hugo Kuehne , and construction began in 1932. The building took advantage of local materials and craftsmen. Texas “Cordova” cream limestone was selected to achieve the Italian Renaissance Revival style of

880-789: A program of the Foundation, is the United States' largest legal fund focused solely on sex discrimination against women in higher education. LAF provides funds and a support system for women seeking judicial redress for sex discrimination in higher education. Since 1981, LAF has helped female students, faculty, and administrators challenge sex discrimination, including sexual harassment, pay inequity, denial of tenure and promotion, and inequality in women's athletics programs. AAUW sponsors grassroots and advocacy efforts, research, and Campus Action Projects and other educational programs in conjunction with its ongoing programmatic theme, Education as

SECTION 10

#1732786895147

960-558: A significant secondary role. Theories of distributive justice need to answer three questions: Distributive justice theorists generally do not answer questions of who has the right to enforce a particular favored distribution, while property rights theorists say that there is no "favored distribution". Rather, distribution should be based simply on whatever distribution results from lawful interactions or transactions (that is, transactions which are not illicit). In Anarchy, State, and Utopia , Robert Nozick said that distributive justice

1040-469: A single global community with a shared morality. Social justice is also distinct from egalitarianism , which is the idea that all people are equal in terms of status, value, or rights, as social justice theories do not all require equality. For example, sociologist George C. Homans suggested that the root of the concept of justice is that each person should receive rewards that are proportional to their contributions. Economist Friedrich Hayek said that

1120-616: A variety of fields and philosophical branches including ethics , rationality , law , religion , equity and fairness. The state may be said to pursue justice by operating courts and enforcing their rulings. A variety of philosophical and moral theories have been advanced to inform understanding of justice. Early theories of justice were set out by the Ancient Greek philosophers Plato , in his work The Republic , and Aristotle , in his Nicomachean Ethics and Politics . Religious explanations of justice can be grouped under

1200-541: A view of negative liberty, in the form of freedom from governmental interference. He further extends the concept of negative liberty in endorsing John Stuart Mills' harm principle: "the sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually and collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is self-protection", which represents a classical liberal view of liberty. In political theory, liberalism includes two traditional elements: liberty and equality. Most contemporary theories of justice emphasize

1280-465: Is a form of fairness: an impartial distribution of goods. Rawls asks us to imagine ourselves behind a veil of ignorance that denies us all knowledge of our personalities, social statuses, moral characters, wealth, talents and life plans, and then asks what theory of justice we would choose to govern our society when the veil is lifted, if we wanted to do the best that we could for ourselves. We do not know who in particular we are, and therefore can not bias

1360-520: Is a non-profit organization that advances equity for women and girls through advocacy , education, and research. The organization has a nationwide network of 170,000 members and supporters, 1,000 local branches, and 800 college and university partners. Its headquarters are in Washington, D.C. AAUW's CEO is Gloria L. Blackwell. In 1881, Emily Fairbanks Talbot , Marion Talbot and Ellen Swallow Richards invited 15 alumnae from 8 colleges to

1440-400: Is considered further below, under ' Justice as Fairness '. The absence of bias refers to an equal ground for all people involved in a disagreement (or trial in some cases). According to utilitarian thinkers including John Stuart Mill , justice is not as fundamental as we often think. Rather, it is derived from the more basic standard of rightness, consequentialism : what is right is what has

1520-471: Is just, and what anyone else does or does not have or need is irrelevant. On the basis of this theory of distributive justice, Nozick said that all attempts to redistribute goods according to an ideal pattern, without the consent of their owners, are theft. In particular, redistributive taxation is theft. Some property rights theorists (such as Nozick) also take a consequentialist view of distributive justice and say that property rights based justice also has

1600-443: Is not a matter of the whole distribution matching an ideal pattern , but of each individual entitlement having the right kind of history . It is just that a person has some good (especially, some property right ) if and only if they came to have it by a history made up entirely of events of two kinds: If the chain of events leading up to the person having something meets this criterion, they are entitled to it: that they possess it

1680-418: Is one of the world's largest sources of funding exclusively for women who have graduated from college. Each year, AAUW has provided $ 3.5 to $ 4 million in fellowships, grants , and awards for women and for community action projects. The Foundation also funds pioneering research on women, girls, and education. The organization funds studies germane to the education of women. The AAUW Legal Advocacy Fund (LAF),

SECTION 20

#1732786895147

1760-570: Is overwhelmingly important by arguing that it derives from two natural human tendencies: our desire to retaliate against those who hurt us, or the feeling of self-defense and our ability to put ourselves imaginatively in another's place, sympathy. So, when we see someone harmed, we project ourselves into their situation and feel a desire to retaliate on their behalf. If this process is the source of our feelings about justice, that ought to undermine our confidence in them. It has been said that 'systematic' or 'programmatic' political and moral philosophy in

1840-416: Is the proper distribution. Egalitarians suggest justice can only exist within the coordinates of equality. Theories of retributive justice say justice is served by punishing wrongdoers, whereas restorative justice (also sometimes called "reparative justice") is an approach to justice that focuses on the needs of victims and offenders. Justice, according to Plato , is about balance and harmony. It represents

1920-455: Is the concept of cardinal virtues , of which it is one. Metaphysical justice has often been associated with concepts of fate , reincarnation or Divine Providence , i.e., with a life in accordance with a cosmic plan. The equivalence of justice and fairness has been historically and culturally established. In his A Theory of Justice , John Rawls used a social contract argument to show that justice, and especially distributive justice,

2000-648: Is ultimately derived from and held by God . According to the Bible , such institutions as the Mosaic Law were created by God to require the Israelites to live by and apply God's standards of justice. The Hebrew Bible describes God as saying about the Judeo-Christian-Islamic patriarch Abraham : "No, for I have chosen him, that he may charge his children and his household after him to keep

2080-409: Is usually understood as some combination of talent and hard work. According to needs -based theories, goods, especially such basic goods as food, shelter and medical care, should be distributed to meet individuals' basic needs for them. According to contribution -based theories, goods should be distributed to match an individual's contribution to the overall social good. Social justice encompasses

2160-486: The George Washington Carver Museum , adjacent to the current Carver Branch. From 1933 until 1951 library services were provided on a racially segregated basis. The small George Washington Carver branch was designated as the facility to serve Blacks. They were not welcome at any other library facility, although they could request library materials to be sent to Carver. William Astor Kirk ,

2240-437: The divine command theory , which holds that justice issues from God. Western thinkers later advanced different theories about where the foundations of justice lie. In the 17th century, philosophers such as John Locke said justice derives from natural law . Social contract theory, advocated by thinkers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau , says that justice derives from the mutual agreement of members of society to be governed in

2320-575: The ACA participated in a larger effort led by a group of American women which ultimately raised $ 156,413 to purchase a gram of radium for Marie Curie for her experiments. In 1921, the ACA merged with the Southern Association of College Women to create the AAUW, although local branches continued to be the backbone of AAUW. The policy of expansion greatly increased both the size and the impact of

2400-887: The American Association of University Women, the National Women's Law Center , the National Women's Political Caucus , Girls, Inc. , Legal Momentum , End Rape on Campus, Equal Rights Advocates and the Women's Sports Foundation said that, "as organizations that fight every day for equal opportunities for all women and girls, we speak from experience and expertise when we say that nondiscrimination protections for transgender people—including women and girls who are transgender—are not at odds with women's equality or well-being, but advance them" and that "we support laws and policies that protect transgender people from discrimination, including in participation in sports, and reject

2480-753: The Association, from a small, local organization to a nationwide network of college educated women, and by 1929, there were 31,647 members and 475 branches. During World War II, AAUW officially began raising money to assist female scholars displaced by the Nazi led occupation who were unable to continue their work. The War Relief Fund received numerous pleas for help and worked tirelessly to find teaching and other positions for refugee women at American schools and universities and in other countries. Individual branch members of AAUW also participated by signing immigration affidavits of support. During 1940, its inaugural year,

Austin Public Library - Misplaced Pages Continue

2560-665: The Gateway to Women's Economic Security. Along with three other organizations, it founded the CTM Madison Family Theatre in 1965. AAUW joined forces with other women's organizations in August 2011 to launch HERVotes to mobilize women voters in 2012 on preserving health and economic rights. In 2011, the AAUW Action Fund launched an initiative to encourage women to vote in the 2012 election. The campaign

2640-491: The War Relief Committee raised $ 29,950 for distribution with 350 branches contributing. The organization was "largely apolitical" until the 1960s. On the other hand, women in the workforce had increased to the extent that they made up 38% of workers by the end of the 1960s. Women graduating from college were looking for good employment. Membership in 1960 was at 147,920 women, most of them middle class. AAUW

2720-540: The West begins, in Plato 's Republic , with the question, 'What is Justice?' According to most contemporary theories of justice, justice is overwhelmingly important: John Rawls claims that "Justice is the first virtue of social institutions, as truth is of systems of thought." In classical approaches, evident from Plato through to Rawls , the concept of 'justice' is always construed in logical or 'etymological' opposition to

2800-512: The best consequences (usually measured by the total or average welfare caused). So, the proper principles of justice are those that tend to have the best consequences. These rules may turn out to be familiar ones such as keeping contracts ; but equally, they may not, depending on the facts about real consequences. Either way, what is important is those consequences, and justice is important, if at all, only as derived from that fundamental standard. Mill tries to explain our mistaken belief that justice

2880-463: The best consequences overall (perhaps executing a few suspected shoplifters live on television would be an effective deterrent to shoplifting, for instance). It also suggests that punishment might turn out never to be right, depending on the facts about what actual consequences it has. According to the utilitarian, justice requires the maximization of the total or average welfare across all relevant individuals. This may require sacrifice of some for

2960-440: The brain and that, "Fairness is activating the same part of the brain that responds to food in rats... This is consistent with the notion that being treated fairly satisfies a basic need". Research conducted in 2003 at Emory University involving capuchin monkeys demonstrated that other cooperative animals also possess such a sense and that " inequity aversion may not be uniquely human". Instrumental theories of justice look at

3040-540: The building's namesake, was the keynote speaker at the dedication ceremony on August 26, 1979. The Faulk Central Library was 110,000 square feet (10,000 m) on five stories (the first three open to the public, with the fourth floor reserved for the administrative offices, and the basement reserved for storage/utilities). In the spring of 2013, the City of Austin broke ground on a 6-story new central library overlooking Shoal Creek and Lady Bird Lake , funded in large part by

3120-452: The building. Ornamental wrought iron work was created by Fortunat Weigl to enhance the balconies, doors and windows. Peter Mansbendel, a Swiss master woodcarver who immigrated to Texas in 1911, carved much of the interior woodwork. Bubi Jessen and Peter Alidi painted the tracery frescoes on the ceiling of the arched loggia on the north side of the building. In March 1933, the new building opened at West 9th and Guadalupe. This building served as

3200-644: The concept connecting law to justice, since law cannot be applied without reference to justice. In that context, justice is seen as 'the rationale and the ethical foundation of equity'. One approach towards equity in justice is community policing . Marxism is a needs-based theory, expressed succinctly in Marx's slogan " from each according to his ability, to each according to his need ". Relational justice examines individual connections and societal relationships, focusing on normative and political aspects. Rawls' theory of justice aims to distribute social goods to benefit

3280-415: The concept of equality, including Rawls' theory of justice as fairness. For Ronald Dworkin, a complex notion of equality is the sovereign political virtue. Dworkin raises the question of whether society is under a duty of justice to help those responsible for the fact that they need help. Complications arise in distinguishing matters of choice and matters of chance, as well as justice for future generations in

Austin Public Library - Misplaced Pages Continue

3360-458: The concept of injustice. Such approaches cite various examples of injustice, as problems which a theory of justice must overcome. A number of post-World War II approaches do, however, challenge that seemingly obvious dualism between those two concepts. Justice can be thought of as distinct from benevolence , charity , prudence , mercy , generosity , or compassion , although these dimensions are regularly understood to also be interlinked. Justice

3440-404: The concept of social justice was meaningless, saying that justice is a result of individual behavior and unpredictable market forces. Social justice is closely related to the concept of relational justice, which is about the just relationship with individuals who possess features in common such as nationality, or who are engaged in cooperation or negotiation. In legal theory , equity is seen as

3520-424: The consequences of punishment for wrongdoing, looking at questions such as: In broad terms, utilitarian theories look forward to the future consequences of punishment, retributive theories look back to particular acts of wrongdoing and attempt to match them with appropriate punishment, and restorative theories look at the needs of victims and society and seek to repair the harms from wrongdoing. According to

3600-468: The decision in our own favor. So, the decision-in-ignorance models fairness, because it excludes selfish bias . Rawls said that each of us would reject the utilitarian theory of justice that we should maximize welfare (see below) because of the risk that we might turn out to be someone whose own good is sacrificed for greater benefits for others. Instead, we would endorse Rawls's two principles of justice : This imagined choice justifies these principles as

3680-508: The differences among social groups offers a better approach, one which acknowledges unjust power relations among individuals, groups, and institutional structures. Young Kim also takes a relational approach to the question of justice, but departs from Iris Marion Young's political advocacy of group rights and instead, he emphasizes the individual and moral aspects of justice. As to its moral aspects, he said that justice includes responsible actions based on rational and autonomous moral agency, with

3760-477: The divine command theory by Plato can be found in his dialogue, Euthyphro . Called the Euthyphro dilemma , it goes as follows: "Is what is morally good commanded by the gods because it is morally good, or is it morally good because it is commanded by the gods?" The implication is that if the latter is true, then justice is beyond mortal understanding; if the former is true, then morality exists independently from

3840-480: The education of women through fellowships would continually remain a critical part of AAUW's mission. Back in 1883, a similar group of college women had considered forming a Chicago, Illinois branch of the ACA; however, they had reconsidered and formed their own independent organization. They formed the Western Association of Collegiate Alumnae (WACA) with Jane M. Bancroft as its first president. WACA

3920-434: The effect of maximizing the overall wealth of an economic system. They explain that voluntary (non-coerced) transactions always have a property called Pareto efficiency . The result is that the world is better off in an absolute sense and no one is worse off. They say that respecting property rights maximizes the number of Pareto efficient transactions in the world and minimized the number of non-Pareto efficient transactions in

4000-408: The extent that human welfare involves them. But even then, such demands as human rights would only be elements in the calculation of overall welfare, not uncrossable barriers to action. Retributive justice argues that consequentialism is wrong, as it argues that all guilty individuals deserve appropriate punishment, based on the conviction that punishment should be proportional to the crime and for all

4080-599: The firm founded by 19th century architect Henry Hobson Richardson . The new central library offers a living rooftop garden, reading porches, an indoor reading room and a bicycle corral, large indoor and outdoor event spaces, a gift shop, an art gallery and a café run by the ELM Restaurant Group. In April 2018, Austin Public Library hosted their first Kids Block Party. The event encourages families with children to promote learning through play and fosters

SECTION 50

#1732786895147

4160-444: The gods, and is therefore subject to the judgment of mortals. A response , popularized in two contexts by Immanuel Kant and C. S. Lewis , is that it is deductively valid to say that the existence of an objective morality implies the existence of God and vice versa. Jews , Christians , and Muslims traditionally believe that justice is a present, real, right, and, specifically, governing concept along with mercy , and that justice

4240-405: The good of others, so long as everyone's good is taken impartially into account. Utilitarianism, in general, says that the standard of justification for actions, institutions, or the whole world, is impartial welfare consequentialism , and only indirectly, if at all, to do with rights , property , need , or any other non-utilitarian criterion. These other criteria might be indirectly important, to

4320-558: The guilty. However, it is sometimes said that retributivism is merely revenge in disguise. However, there are differences between retribution and revenge: the former is impartial and has a scale of appropriateness, whereas the latter is personal and potentially unlimited in scale. Restorative justice attempts to repair the harm that was done to the victims. It encourages active participation from victims and encourages offenders to take responsibility for their actions. Restorative justice fosters dialogue between victim and offender and shows

4400-517: The highest rates of victim satisfaction and offender accountability. Meta-analyses of the effectivity of restorative justice show no improvement in recidivism . Some modern philosophers have said that Utilitarian and Retributive theories are not mutually exclusive. For example, Andrew von Hirsch , in his 1976 book Doing Justice , suggested that we have a moral obligation to punish greater crimes more than lesser ones. However, so long as we adhere to that constraint then utilitarian ideals would play

4480-485: The individual as the proper bearer of rights and responsibilities. Politically, he maintains that the proper context for justice is a form of liberalism with the traditional elements of liberty and equality, together with the concepts of diversity and tolerance. The phrase " Justice delayed is justice denied " refers to the problem of slow justice. The right to speedy trial is in some jurisdictions enshrined. Higher quality justice tends to be speedy. In criminal law ,

4560-408: The just relationship between individuals and their society, often considering how privileges, opportunities, and wealth ought to be distributed among individuals. Social justice is also associated with social mobility , especially the ease with which individuals and families may move between social strata . Social justice is distinct from cosmopolitanism , which is the idea that all people belong to

4640-433: The law, not for equality of outcome . Classical liberalism opposes pursuing group rights at the expense of individual rights . In addition to equality, individual liberty serves as a core notion of classical liberalism. As to the liberty component, British social and political theorist, philosopher, and historian of ideas Isaiah Berlin identifies positive and negative liberty in "Two Concepts of Liberty", subscribing to

4720-693: The main library from 1933 until 1979, when construction of the John Henry Faulk Central Library next door was complete. At that time, the newly formed Austin History Center Association consolidated community support to renovate the old central library building to house the expanding Austin-Travis County Collection. In 1983, the Austin-Travis County Collection formally became the Austin History Center. In 1972, Austin voters passed

4800-521: The meaning of what is "deserved". The main distinction is between theories that say the basis of just deserts ought to be held equally by everyone, and therefore derive egalitarian accounts of distributive justice – and theories that say the basis of just deserts is unequally distributed on the basis of, for instance, hard work, and therefore derive accounts of distributive justice by which some should have more than others. Studies at UCLA in 2008 have indicated that reactions to fairness are "wired" into

4880-447: The organization took on one of its first major projects: they essentially had to justify their right to exist. A common belief held at the time that a college education would harm a woman's health and result in infertility. This myth was supported by Harvard-educated Boston physician Dr. Edward H. Clarke. An ACA committee led by Annie Howes created a series of questions that were sent to 1,290 ACA members; 705 replies were received. After

SECTION 60

#1732786895147

4960-466: The parable of the ship to illustrate this point: the unjust city is like a ship in open ocean, crewed by a powerful but drunken captain (the common people), a group of untrustworthy advisors who try to manipulate the captain into giving them power over the ship's course (the politicians), and a navigator (the philosopher), the latter of whom being the only one who knows how to get the ship to port. Advocates of divine command theory say justice, and indeed

5040-428: The poor, but does not consider power relations, political structures, or social meanings. Even Rawls' self-respect is not compatible with distribution. Iris Marion Young charges that distributive accounts of justice fail to provide an adequate way of conceptualizing political justice in that they fail to take into account many of the demands of ordinary life and that a relational view of justice grounded upon understanding

5120-536: The principles of justice for us, because we would agree to them in a fair decision procedure. Rawls's theory distinguishes two kinds of goods – (1) the good of liberty rights and (2) social and economic goods, i.e. wealth, income and power – and applies different distributions to them – equality between citizens for (1), equality unless inequality improves the position of the worst off for (2). In one sense, theories of distributive justice may assert that everyone should get what they deserve. Theories vary on

5200-431: The redistribution of resources that he advocates. Law raises important and complex issues about equality, fairness, and justice. There is an old saying that ' All are equal before the law '. The belief in equality before the law is called legal egalitarianism. In criticism of this belief, the author Anatole France said in 1894, "In its majestic equality, the law forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, beg in

5280-480: The resources, skills, and networks they need to lead change on campuses and in communities nationwide. The student leadership conference is held annually in Washington, D.C. Local chapters frequently host speakers who highlight a variety of topics related to women such as Molly Murphy MacGregor , a co-founder of the National Women's History Alliance. A statement by 16 women's rights organizations including

5360-476: The results were tabulated, the data demonstrated that higher education did not harm women's health. The report, "Health Statistics of Female College Graduates", was published in 1885 in conjunction with the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor . This first research report is one of many conducted by AAUW during its history. In 1887, a fellowship program for women was established. Supporting

5440-454: The right relationship between conflicting aspects within an individual or a community. He defines justice as everyone having and doing what they are responsible for or what belongs to them. In other words, a just person is someone who contributes to society according to their unique abilities and receives what is proportionate to their contribution. They are in the right place, always striving to do their best, and reciprocating what they receive in

5520-498: The same year, Austin's first library building, an 1,800 square feet (170 m) wood-frame structure, opened at West 9th and Guadalupe Streets. In 1928, Austin voters approved $ 150,000 in bonds for a permanent building, and the temporary building was moved to Angelina Street, resurfaced with brick, and opened as the library's first branch, the George Washington Carver Branch. The building is now part of

5600-417: The streets, and steal loaves of bread." With this saying, France illustrated the fundamental shortcoming of a theory of legal equality that remains blind to social inequality; the same law applied to all may have disproportionately harmful effects on the least powerful. According to meritocratic theories, goods, especially wealth and social status , should be distributed to match individual merit , which

5680-432: The suggestion that cisgender women and girls benefit from the exclusion of women and girls who happen to be transgender." Justice Justice , in its broadest sense, is the concept that individuals are to be treated in a manner that is equitable and fair. A society in which justice has been achieved would be one in which individuals receive what they "deserve". The interpretation of what "deserve" means draws on

5760-540: The theory that justice is part of natural law (e.g., John Locke ), justice inheres in the nature of man. In Republic by Plato , the character Thrasymachus argues that justice is the interest of the strong – merely a name for what the powerful or cunning ruler has imposed on the people. Advocates of the social contract say that justice is derived from the mutual agreement of everyone; or, in many versions, from what they would agree to under hypothetical conditions including equality and absence of bias. This account

5840-504: The two horses, symbolizing spirit and desire. Continuing on these themes, Plato theorizes that those who love wisdom, or philosophers , are the most ideal to govern because only they truly comprehend the nature of the good. Just like one would seek a doctor's expertise in matters of health rather than a farmer's, so should the city entrust its governance to someone knowledgeable about the good, rather than to politicians who might prioritize power over people's genuine needs. Socrates later used

5920-444: The utilitarian, justice is the maximization of the total or average welfare across all relevant individuals. Utilitarianism fights crime in three ways: So, the reason for punishment is the maximization of welfare, and punishment should be of whomever, and of whatever form and severity, are needed to meet that goal. This may sometimes justify punishing the innocent, or inflicting disproportionately severe punishments, when that will have

6000-461: The way of the Lord by doing righteousness and justice;...." ( Genesis 18:19, NRSV) . The Psalmist describes God as having "Righteousness and justice [as] the foundation of [His] throne;...." (Psalms 89:14, NRSV). The New Testament also describes God and Jesus Christ as having and displaying justice, often in comparison with God displaying and supporting mercy ( Matthew 5:7). For advocates of

6080-405: The whole of morality, is the authoritative command of God. Murder is wrong and must be punished, for instance, because God says it so. Some versions of the theory assert that God must be obeyed because of the nature of God's relationship with humanity, others assert that God must be obeyed because God is goodness itself, and thus doing God's command would be best for everyone. An early meditation on

6160-425: The world (i.e. transactions where someone is made worse off). The result is that the world will have generated the greatest total benefit from the limited, scarce resources available in the world. Further, this will have been accomplished without taking anything away from anyone unlawfully. Equality before the law is one of the basic principles of classical liberalism . Classical liberalism calls for equality before

6240-509: Was aimed to increase the number of votes by women and to advance initiatives supporting education and equity for women and girls. AAUW's 2011 research report addresses sexual harassment in grades seven through 12. AAUW's national convention is held biennially. AAUW sponsors a student leadership conference, called the National Conference of College Women Student Leaders (NCCWSL) designed to help women college students access

6320-470: Was broad in purpose and consisted of five committees: fine arts, outdoor occupations, domestic professions, press and journalism, and higher education of women in the West. In 1888, WACA awarded its first fellowship of $ 350 to Ida Street , a Vassar College graduate, to conduct research at the University of Michigan . In 1889, WACA merged with the ACA, further expanding the groups' capacity. In 1919,

6400-431: Was more equal in scope and difficulty. At the beginning of 1884, the ACA had been meeting only in Boston. However, as more women across the country became interested in its work, the Association saw that expansion into branches was necessary to carry on its work. Washington, D.C., was the first branch to be created in 1884, and New York, Pacific (San Francisco), Philadelphia, and Boston branches followed in 1886. In 1885,

#146853