140-468: In diplomatic history , a color book is an officially sanctioned collection of diplomatic correspondence and other documents published by a government for educational or political reasons, or to promote the government position on current or past events. The earliest were the British Blue Books, dating to the 17th century. In World War I , all the major powers had their own color book, such as
280-405: A "Flight into war" being imposed on Hitler generated much controversy, and in the 1980s he conducted a series of debates with economic historian Richard Overy over this matter. Overy maintained the decision to attack Poland was not caused by structural economic problems, but rather was the result of Hitler wanting a localized war at that particular time in history. For Overy, a major problem with
420-805: A collective note on 27 July pledging them to maintain the independence and integrity of the Turkish Empire in order to preserve the security and peace of Europe. However, by 1840 Muhammad Ali had occupied Syria and won the Battle of Nezib against the Turkish forces. Lord Ponsonby , the British ambassador at Constantinople, vehemently urged the British government to intervene. Privately, Palmerston explained his views on Muhammad Ali to Lord Granville thus: "Coercion of Mehemet Ali by England if war broke out might appear partial and unjust; but we are partial; and
560-414: A dispute between Wellington and Huskisson over the issue of parliamentary representation for Manchester and Birmingham led to the resignation of Huskisson and his allies, including Palmerston. In the spring of 1828, after more than twenty years continuously in office, Palmerston found himself in opposition. On 26 February 1828, Palmerston delivered a speech in favour of Catholic emancipation. He felt that it
700-498: A huge country estate in the north of County Sligo in the northwest of Ireland. He was educated at Harrow School (1795–1800). Admiral Sir Augustus Clifford , 1st Bt. , was a fag to Palmerston, Viscount Althorp and Viscount Duncannon and later remembered Palmerston as by far the most merciful of the three. Temple was often engaged in school fights and fellow Old Harrovians remembered Temple as someone who stood up to bullies twice his size. Henry Temple's father took him to
840-614: A large number were issued about the Eastern Question . Publication meant that not only parliament and the public got to see them, but foreign powers got to see them as well. Sometimes a government might be embarrassed by leaks from foreign sources, or publications from them; but they gave back as good as they got. By 1880 there were some informal rules, and foreign countries were consulted before publishing things that affected them. This prevented them from being used as instruments of policy, as under Canning or Palmerston. After 1885
980-630: A mutual assistance pact between Russia and the Ottomans, but was annoyed and hostile towards David Urquhart , the creator of the Vixen affair , running the Russian blockade of Circassia in the mid-1830s. For his part, David Urquhart considered Palmerston a "mercenary of Russia" and founded the "Free Press" magazine in London, where he constantly promoted these views. The permanent author of this magazine
1120-461: A neutrality which France would by compulsion have converted into an active hostility. In a letter to a friend on 24 December 1807, he described the late Whig MP Edmund Burke as possessing "the palm of political prophecy". This would become a metaphor for his own career in divining the course of imperial foreign policy. Palmerston's speech was so successful that Spencer Perceval , who formed his government in 1809, asked him to become Chancellor of
1260-584: A new type of international history in the 1950s that included taking into account what Renouvin called forces profondes (profound forces) such as the influence of domestic politics on French foreign policy. However, Renouvin and his followers still followed the concept of la décadence with Renouvin arguing that French society under the Third Republic was “sorely lacking in initiative and dynamism” and Baumont arguing that French politicians had allowed "personal interests" to override "any sense of
1400-575: A perpetual courtship. The sentiment was reciprocal; and I have frequently seen them go out on a morning to plant some trees, almost believing that they would live to eat the fruit, or sit together under the shade. Young Queen Victoria found it unseemly that people in their 50s could marry, but the Cowper-Palmerston marriage according to biographer Gillian Gill : Within a few months Melbourne's administration came to an end (1841) and Palmerston remained out of office for five years. The crisis
1540-724: A point in the narrative of the White Book. The Russian Orange Book came out in mid-August. On 20 September 1914, the NY Times published excerpts. The article said that examination of the Russian Orange Book in conjunction with reports in the British Blue Book conclusively establish responsibility on Germany and Austria for the war. Study of the Serbian role in the war was slowed by delays in publication of
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#17327941357321680-643: A policy of universal non-interventionism. He therefore focused chiefly on achieving a peaceful settlement of the crisis in Belgium. William I of the Netherlands appealed to the great powers that had placed him on the throne after the Napoleonic Wars to maintain his rights. The London Conference of 1830 was called to address this question. The British solution involved the independence of Belgium, which Palmerston believed would greatly contribute to
1820-723: A reluctant party to the treaty, and never executed its role in it with much zeal. Louis Philippe was accused of secretly favouring the Carlists – the supporters of Don Carlos – and he rejected direct interference in Spain. It is probable that the hesitation of the French court on this question was one of the causes of the enduring personal hostility Palmerston showed towards the French king thereafter, though that sentiment may well have arisen earlier. Although Palmerston wrote in June 1834 that Paris
1960-536: A seat in the House of Lords , leaving him eligible to sit in the House of Commons ) as the 3rd Viscount Palmerston in 1802. He became a Tory MP in 1807. From 1809 to 1828 he was Secretary at War , organising the finances of the army. He first attained Cabinet rank in 1827, when George Canning became prime minister, but he resigned from office one year later. He was Foreign Secretary 1830–1834, 1835–1841 and 1846–1851. In this office, Palmerston responded effectively to
2100-610: A seat in the cabinet for the first time. The Canning administration ended after only four months on the death of the Prime Minister, and was followed by the ministry of Lord Goderich , which barely survived the year. The Canningites remained influential, and the Duke of Wellington hastened to include Palmerston, Huskisson, Charles Grant , William Lamb , and the Earl of Dudley in the government he subsequently formed. However,
2240-534: A series of conflicts in Europe. In 1852, the 4th Earl of Aberdeen formed a coalition government . The Peelites insisted that Lord John Russell be foreign secretary, forcing Palmerston to take the office of home secretary . As home secretary Palmerston enacted various social reforms, although he opposed electoral reform. When Aberdeen's coalition fell in 1855 over its handling of the Crimean War , Palmerston
2380-554: A treaty in 1838-9 - now asserting his (and British) independence by leaning rather more towards the Netherlands and the reactionary powers, and against the Belgium/French axis. In 1833 and 1834, the youthful Queens Isabella II of Spain and Maria II of Portugal were the representatives and the hope of the constitutional parties of their countries. Their positions were under some pressure from their absolutist kinsmen, Dom Miguel of Portugal and Don Carlos of Spain, who were
2520-469: A vast country estate in the north of County Sligo in the west of Ireland . He later built Classiebawn Castle on this estate. Palmerston went to St John's College, Cambridge (1803–1806). As a nobleman, he was entitled to take his MA without examinations, but Palmerston wished to obtain his degree through examinations. This was declined, although he was allowed to take the separate college examinations, where he obtained first-class honours. After war
2660-625: A way of accelerating the Four Year Plan. Moreover, Overy asserted that the repressive capacity of the German state as a way of dealing with domestic unhappiness was somewhat downplayed by Mason. In addition, because World War II was a global war, diplomatic historians start to focus on Japanese-American relations to understand why Japan had attacked the United States in 1941. This in turn led diplomatic historians to start to abandon
2800-422: A way to "meet the ebb and flow of public opinion", they were handled differently during different parts of the 19th century, under the influence of different Foreign Secretaries . Blue Books are more complete from some parts of the century than others, but a lot was always omitted, and texts were abridged. These were sometimes flagged in the text by the word 'Extract', but that did not give any sense of scale or what
2940-663: The Austro-Hungarian Red Book , the Belgian Grey Book , and the Serbian Blue Book . World War I color books attempted to cast the issuing country in a good light, and enemy countries in a poor light via numerous means including omission, selective inclusion, changes in the sequence of (undated) documents presented in order to imply certain documents appeared earlier or later than they actually did, or outright falsification. A mistake in
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#17327941357323080-533: The East India Company 's monopoly on trade with China, both Tory and Whig governments sought to maintain peace and good trade relations. However Lord Napier wanted to provoke a revolution in China that would open trade. The Foreign Office, led by Palmerston, stood opposed and sought peace. The Chinese government refused to change, and interdicted the British smugglers bringing in opium from India, which
3220-490: The House of Commons or Lords . Pressure was sometimes brought to bear, and papers might be published, which otherwise might not have been. Blue Books were bound and published since the days of Foreign Secretary George Canning . Bound Blue Book sets of the House of Commons are readily available; Lords less so. Documents were often printed on large sheets of white paper, loosely bound, called White Papers , and were presented to
3360-699: The November Uprising of 1830. Palmerston's overall policy was to safeguard British interests, maintain peace, keep the balance of power, and retain the status quo in Europe. He had no grievance against Russia and while he privately sympathised with the Polish cause, in his role as foreign minister he rejected Polish demands. With serious trouble simultaneously taking place in Belgium and Italy, and lesser issues in Greece and Portugal, he sought to de-escalate European tensions rather than aggravate them, favouring
3500-589: The Peerage of Ireland , although he rarely visited Ireland . His father was Henry Temple, 2nd Viscount Palmerston (1739–1802), an Anglo-Irish peer, and his mother was Mary (1752–1805), a daughter of Benjamin Mee, a London merchant. From 1792 to 1794, he accompanied his family on a long Continental tour. While in Italy, Palmerston acquired an Italian tutor, who taught him to speak and write fluent Italian. The family owned
3640-474: The Serbian Blue Book . Some began to become available in the mid-1970s. The two Belgian Gray Books came out after the Russian Orange Book and Serbian Blue Book. The second was issued in 1915. The French Yellow Book ( Livre Jaune ), completed after three months of work, contained 164 documents and came out on 1 December 1914. Unlike the others which were limited to the weeks before the start of
3780-565: The Yellow Book , or presented out of order to confuse or mislead the sequence in which events occurred. She concluded, The documents will not change existing views to any great extent. They will not establish the innocence of France in the minds of Germans. On the other hand, the French will be able to find in them a justification of the policy they pursued in July 1914; and in spite of Herr Hitler's recent declaration repudiating Article 231 of
3920-488: The balance of power (which provided Britain with decisive agency in many conflicts), and his commitment to British interests. His policies in relation to India, China, Italy, Belgium and Spain had extensive long-lasting beneficial consequences for Britain. However, Palmerston's leadership during the Opium Wars was questioned and denounced by other prominent statesmen such as William Ewart Gladstone . The consequences of
4060-510: The state parliaments ( Landtag ). The full title was " The German White Book about the outbreak of the German-Russian-French war ". An authorized English translation appeared in 1914. The book contained extracts of diplomatic material intended to attribute the war's cause to other sources. There were many fewer dispatches in the White Book than in the British Blue Book, and those that were included were mostly to illustrate
4200-523: The 1830s and 1840s) was unable to refuse the demands of the House of Commons, as Canning had done. Later, when he rose to Prime Minister, Palmerston embodied the "Golden Age" of Blue Books, publishing a large number of them, especially during the Russell Foreign Ministry incumbency (1859–1865). Foreign Secretaries under P.M. William Gladstone (three incumbencies between 1868 and 1886) also issued many Blue Books, but were more restrained;
4340-559: The 1960s, 70s and 80s start to borrow models from the social sciences. A notable example of the Primat der Innenpolitik approach was the claim by the British Marxist historian Timothy Mason who claimed that the launch of World War II in 1939 was best understood as a “barbaric variant of social imperialism”. Mason argued that “Nazi Germany was always bent at some time upon a major war of expansion”. However, Mason argued that
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4480-622: The American Cold War revisionists tended to focus on American foreign policy decision-making with respect to the genesis of the Cold War in the 1940s and on how the United States became involved in Vietnam in the 1960s. Starting in the 1960s, a ferocious debate has taken place within Cold War historiography between the advocates of the “orthodox” school which saw the Cold War as a case of Soviet aggression such as Vojtech Mastny against
4620-521: The British blue book go back centuries and other individual color books were common in the 19th century and especially during World War I. The collective term color book appears less frequently, and later. In German, "Rainbow book" (" Regenbogenbuch ") is seen in 1915, and "color book" (" Farbbuch ") in 1928. Attestations of color book in English go back to at least 1940 and the term was still new enough in 1951 to be enclosed in quotation marks. In
4760-765: The European governments. The German White Book, on the other hand, contains few despatches, and these only as illustrations of points made in an exhaustive argument. Such a presentation can be convincing only if one has confidence in the honesty of the author. There can be no doubt that as a source book for study the British Parliamentary Papers are superior to the German Papers, but even the British Papers are not, as many people have wished to believe, complete and do not, therefore, offer
4900-522: The Exchequer , then a less important office than it was to become later. But Palmerston preferred the non-cabinet office of Secretary at War , charged exclusively with the financial business of the army. He served in that post for almost 20 years. On 1 April 1818, a retired officer on half-pay, Lieutenant David Davies, who had a grievance about his application from the War Office for a pension and
5040-590: The German White Book, the Austrian Red Book, Russian Orange Book, and more. Especially in wartime or times of crisis, color books have been used as a form of white propaganda to justify governmental action, or to assign blame to foreign actors. The choice of what documents to include, how to present them, and even what order to list them, can make the book tantamount to government-issued propaganda. The terms for individual color books such as
5180-529: The German White Book. It contained 159 items and was submitted to Parliament before the session of 6 August 1914, after the British declaration of war on Germany . It appeared later in an expanded, and somewhat different version, and included an introduction and reports from parliamentary sessions in the beginning of August under the title, Great Britain and the European Crisis . This version contained
5320-624: The House of Commons in 1799, where the young Palmerston shook hands with the prime minister, William Pitt the Younger . Temple was then at the University of Edinburgh (1800–1803), where he learnt political economy from Dugald Stewart , a friend of the Scottish philosophers Adam Ferguson and Adam Smith . Temple later described his time at Edinburgh as producing "whatever useful knowledge and habits of mind I possess". Lord Minto wrote to
5460-444: The House of Commons or Lords, often unbound and undated. This lack of date would sometimes become problematic later for historians attempting to follow the historical record, and depended on further research to sort it out. Some of the documents were reprinted and bound and known as "Blue Books" after the color of the covers. No other European state rivaled Great Britain in the number of Blue Book publications. Originally conceived of as
5600-570: The Mason thesis was that it rested on the assumption that in a way unrecorded by the records, that information was passed on to Hitler about the Reich 's economic problems. Overy argued that there was a major difference between economic pressures inducted by the problems of the Four Year Plan , and economic motives to seize raw materials, industry and foreign reserve of neighboring states as
5740-541: The Nazi leaders were deeply haunted by the November Revolution of 1918, and was most unwilling to see any fall in working class living standards out of the fear that it might provoke another November Revolution. According to Mason, by 1939, the “overheating” of the German economy caused by rearmament, the failure of various rearmament plans produced by the shortages of skilled workers, industrial unrest caused by
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5880-698: The Netherlands was rent in half by the Belgian Revolution , the Kingdom of Portugal was the scene of civil war , and the Spanish were about to place an infant princess on the throne. Poland was in arms against the Russian Empire , while the northern powers (Russia, Prussia , and Austria ) formed a closer alliance that seemed to threaten the peace and liberties of Europe. Polish exiles called on Britain to intervene against Russia during
6020-583: The Nile. He regarded the maintenance of the authority of the Sublime Porte as the chief barrier against both these developments. Palmerston had long maintained a suspicious and hostile attitude towards Russia, whose autocratic government offended his liberal principles and whose ever-growing size challenged the strength of the British Empire. He was angered by the 1833 Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi ,
6160-532: The Representatives of the people "collected documents" containing the information on which the Government has shaped its foreign policy. In Great Britain these documents are often printed on large sheets of white paper, loosely bound, called "White Papers." If the documents are very important, they are later reprinted in pamphlet form, and are then called by the color of their cover, "Blue Books." At
6300-587: The Tory government made some ground, with George Canning becoming Foreign Secretary and Leader of the House of Commons , William Huskisson advocating and applying the doctrines of free trade, and Catholic emancipation emerging as an open question. Although Palmerston was not in the Cabinet, he cordially supported the measures of Canning and his friends. Upon the retirement of Lord Liverpool in April 1827, Canning
6440-606: The Treaty of Versailles, they will continue, on the basis of these documents, to hold Germany primarily responsible for the Great War. In the German White Book , anything that could benefit the Russian position was redacted. The Austrian Red Book (or Austro-Hungarian Red Book ) goes back at least to the 19th century. An 1868 version was printed in London, and included cables and other diplomatic correspondence during
6580-418: The United States, who examined economic and domestic political forces. Sir Winston Churchill 's multi-volume The Second World War , especially the first volume The Gathering Storm (1948) set the framework and the interpretation for much later historiography . His interpretation, echoing his own position before the war, that World War II was caused by the mad ambitions of Adolf Hitler ; Churchill damned
6720-606: The Yellow Book was not complete, or entirely accurate. Historians who gained access to previously unpublished French material were able to use it in their report to the Senate entitled "Origins and responsibilities for the Great War" as did ex-President Raymond Poincaré . The conclusion set forth in the report of the 1919 French Peace Commission is illustrative of the two-pronged goals of blaming their opponents while justifying their own actions, as laid out in two sentences: The war
6860-621: The Yellow Book was ruined, and historians avoided using it. In her essay for the April 1937 issue of Foreign Affairs, Bernadotte E. Schmitt examined recently published diplomatic correspondence in the Documents Diplomatiques Français and compared it to the documents in the French Yellow Book published in 1914, concluding that the Yellow Book "was neither complete nor entirely reliable" and went into some detail in examining documents either missing from
7000-730: The archives relating to the war of 1870 . Ranke's approach, combined with the effects of the War Guilt Clause in the Treaty of Versailles (1919) that blamed Germany, stimulated a massive outpouring in many languages on the origins of the war of 1914 . The Bolsheviks in Russia published key secret papers from the Allies in 1918 and other governments commissioned carefully edited, multivolume collections of key documents in their possession. Numerous historians wrote multi-volume histories of
7140-618: The assassination and on 23 July sent Serbia an ultimatum intended to provoke a war. This led to Austria partially mobilizing, followed by Russia doing the same in support of Serbia. Austria declared war on Serbia on 28 July, and a series of partial mobilizations and diplomatic warnings followed, including Germany demanding Russia's demobilization, and warning France to remain neutral rather than come to Russia's aid. After various messages back and forth, misunderstandings, and erroneous assumptions about what other countries might do, Germany invaded Luxembourg and Belgium on 3–4 August, and Britain entered
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#17327941357327280-630: The attack by peroration with reference to the ambitions of Napoleon to take control of the Danish fleet: it is defensible on the ground that the enormous power of France enables her to coerce the weaker state to become an enemy of England... It is the law of self-preservation that England appeals for the justification of her proceedings. It is admitted by the honourable gentleman and his supporters, that if Denmark had evidenced any hostility towards this country, then we should have been justified in measures of retaliation... Denmark coerced into hostility stands in
7420-474: The breakdown of German social policies, and the sharp drop in living standards for the German working class forced Hitler into going to war at a time and place not of his choosing. Mason contended that when faced with the deep socio-economic crisis the Nazi leadership had decided to embark upon a ruthless “smash and grab” foreign policy of seizing territory in Eastern Europe which could be pitilessly plundered to support living standards in Germany. Mason's theory of
7560-416: The cabinet. Palmerston held that "if we can procure for it ten years of peace under the joint protection of the five Powers, and if those years are profitably employed in reorganizing the internal system of the empire, there is no reason whatever why it should not become again a respectable Power" and challenged the metaphor that an old country, such as Turkey should be in such disrepair as would be warranted by
7700-435: The closest males in the lines of succession. Palmerston conceived and executed the plan of a Quadruple Alliance of the constitutional states (Britain, France, Spain & Portugal) to serve as a counterpoise to the reactionary alliance. A treaty for the pacification of the Peninsula was signed in London on 22 April 1834 and, although the struggle was somewhat prolonged in Spain, it accomplished its objective. France had been
7840-411: The comparison: "Half the wrong conclusions at which mankind arrive are reached by the abuse of metaphors, and by mistaking general resemblance or imaginary similarity for real identity." However, when the power of Muhammad Ali appeared to threaten the existence of the Ottoman dynasty, particularly given the death of Sultan Mahmud II on 1 July 1839, he succeeded in bringing the great powers together to sign
7980-460: The compilation of the 1914 British Blue Book went unattended, and left the book vulnerable to attack by German propagandists. This unrectified mistake then led to certain details falsification in the French Yellow Book, which had copied them verbatim from the Blue Book. German propagandists called the Yellow Book a vast "collection of falsifications". France was accused of having given its unconditional support to Russia. Germany tried to show that it
8120-528: The concept of color books spread to other countries in Europe, with each country using one color: Germany using white; France: yellow; red: Austria-Hungary (Spain also used red later, as did the Soviet Union); Belgium: gray; Italy: green; and Netherlands (and Tsarist Russia): orange. This concept spread to the Americas as well, with the United States using red, Mexico: orange, and various countries in Central and South America using other colors; it even spread as far as China (yellow) and Japan (gray). The 19th century
8260-440: The concerns of international relations drive the internal development of the state. Ranke's understanding of diplomatic history relied on using as sources the large number of official documents produced by modern western governments; he argued that historians should examine such sources in an objective and neutral spirit. Ranke's understanding of the dominance of foreign policy, and hence an emphasis on diplomatic history, remained
8400-452: The conquest of India have been reconsidered by more recent scholarship weighing the burdens placed on India in colonial rule and British uncertainty on proper governance. The consequences of his policies towards France , the Ottoman Empire , and the United States proved more ephemeral. Henry John Temple was born in his family's Westminster house to the Irish branch of the Temple family on 20 October 1784. His family derived their title from
8540-415: The conventional consultation of the Board of Trade , and gave instruction to assist with the construction of an Anglican church in the city, under the prompting influences of Lord Shaftesbury , a prominent Christian Zionist . China restricted outside trade under the Canton System to only one port and refused all official diplomatic relations except to tributary countries. In 1833–1835, as London ended
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#17327941357328680-512: The core endeavor of diplomatic history remains the study of the state interacting with other states, which is also a key to its broadening appeal, since considerations of America's superpower status is essential to understanding the world internationally. In the early 1980s, historian Jeffrey Kimball surveyed the ideological preferences of 109 active diplomatic historians in the United States as well as 54 active military historians. He reports that: In Europe, diplomatic history fell out of favor in
8820-425: The cowardly and weak-willed British and French leaders who used appeasement in a futile effort to avoid the war. Churchill did not consider the argument that the alternative to appeasement was a premature war that Germany would win in 1938. The British historian A. J. P. Taylor 's 1961 book The Origins of the Second World War challenged Churchill's viewpoint and argued that Hitler had no master-plan for conquering
8960-449: The defence of the Ottoman Empire became one of the cardinal objects of his policy. He believed in the regeneration of Turkey, as he wrote to Henry Bulwer (Lord Dalling): "All that we hear about the decay of the Turkish Empire, and its being a dead body or a sapless trunk, and so forth, is pure unadulterated nonsense." His two great aims were to prevent Russia establishing itself on the Bosporus and to prevent France doing likewise on
9100-407: The desire to justify themselves before their own people. In America the British Blue Book won the greatest favor, not only because it became known first but also because of its inherent worth. Its despatches are well written, and sufficiently numerous to tell a consecutive story. The book is well printed, provided with indexes and cross references, and represents the most scholarly work done by any of
9240-686: The discipline of diplomatic history has become more relevant to and better integrated with the mainstream of the academic history profession. It has taken the lead in internationalization of American historical studies. Since it explores the interaction of domestic and international forces, the field has become increasingly important for its study of culture and identity and the exploration of political ideologies as applied to foreign affairs. There have been major influences from other new approaches such as Orientalism and globalism , as well as gender and racial history. The history of human rights has become important as well. Despite all these innovations, however,
9380-434: The dominant paradigm in historical writing through the first half of the twentieth century. In the early 20th centuries, work by prominent diplomatic historians such as Charles Webster , Harold Temperley , and Bernadotte Everly Schmitt focused on great European events, especially wars and peace conferences. A notable breakthrough in diplomatic historiography occurred in 1910 when the French government start to publish all of
9520-444: The early 17th century, blue books first came into use in England as a means of publishing diplomatic correspondence and reports. They were so named, because of their blue cover. The Oxford English Dictionary first records such a usage in 1633. During the time of the Napoleonic Wars in the early 19th century, they were being published regularly. By the second half of the century, Turkey began publishing its own version in red, and
9660-490: The end of the nineteenth century, those on foreign affairs lessened both in number and in interest." There were still numerous publications, but less diplomatic correspondence, and lots of treaty texts. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914, led to a month of diplomatic maneuvering between Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France and Britain, called the July Crisis . Austria-Hungary correctly believed that Serbian officials were involved in
9800-407: The end the British policy prevailed. Although the continent had been close to war, peace was maintained on London's terms and Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg , the widower of a British princess, was placed upon the throne of Belgium. Fishman says that the London Conference was "an extraordinarily successful conference" because it "provided the institutional framework through which the leading powers of
9940-438: The final authority on which scholars can rely. Citations Diplomatic history Diplomatic history deals with the history of international relations between states. Diplomatic history can be different from international relations in that the former can concern itself with the foreign policy of one state while the latter deals with relations between two or more states. Diplomatic history tends to be more concerned with
10080-428: The foreign policy decision-making elite. Wehler, who favored the Primat der Innenpolitik approach, for his part contended that diplomatic history should be treated as a sub-branch of social history , calling for theoretically based research, and argued that the real focus should be on the study of the society in question. Moreover, under the influence of the Primat der Innenpolitik approach, diplomatic historians in
10220-578: The general interest". In 1979, Duroselle's book La Décadence offered a total condemnation of the entire Third Republic as weak, cowardly and degenerate. At the same time, in 1961 when the German historian Fritz Fischer published Griff nach der Weltmacht , which established that Germany had caused the First World War led to the fierce "Fischer Controversy" that tore apart the West German historical profession. One result of Fischer's book
10360-561: The great interests of Europe require that we should be so....No ideas therefore of fairness towards Mehemet ought to stand in the way of such great and paramount interests." Having closer ties to the wali than most, France refused to be a party to coercive measures against him despite having signed the note in the previous year. Palmerston, irritated at France's Egyptian policy, signed the London Convention of 15 July 1840 in London with Austria , Russia , and Prussia – without
10500-550: The height of its imperial power. He held office almost continuously from 1807 until his death in 1865. He began his parliamentary career as a Tory , defected to the Whigs in 1830, and became the first prime minister from the newly formed Liberal Party in 1859. He was highly popular with the British public. David Brown argues that "an important part of Palmerston's appeal lay in his dynamism and vigour". Temple succeeded to his father 's Irish peerage (which did not entitle him to
10640-485: The history of Early Modern Europe , using the diplomatic archives of the European powers (particularly the Republic of Venice ) to construct a detailed understanding of the history of Europe wie es eigentlich gewesen ist ("as it actually happened"). Ranke saw diplomatic history as the most important kind of history to write because of his idea of the "Primacy of Foreign Affairs" ( Primat der Aussenpolitik ), arguing that
10780-498: The history of diplomacy, but international relations concern more with current events and creating a model intended to shed explanatory light on international politics. In the 5th century BCE the Greek historian Thucydides was highly concerned with the relations among states. However Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886), the leading German historian of the 19th century, codified the modern form of diplomatic history. Ranke wrote largely on
10920-470: The horrible moral evils of opium which the Chinese government was valiantly trying to stamp out. Meanwhile, he manipulated information and public opinion to enhance his control of his department, including controlling communications within the office and to other officials. He leaked secrets to the press, published selected documents, and released letters to give himself more control and more publicity, all
11060-472: The immorality of the opium trade. Palmerston's biographer, Jasper Ridley , outlines the government's position: An entirely opposite British viewpoint was promoted by humanitarians and reformers such as the Chartists and religious nonconformists led by young William Ewart Gladstone . They argued that Palmerston was only interested in the huge profits it would bring Britain, and was totally oblivious to
11200-413: The influence of studies of Orientalism and globalism, gender studies, race, and considerations of national identity, diplomatic history was often at the cutting edge of historical research. Despite such innovations, however, the core endeavor of diplomatic history remains the study of the state, which is also a key to its broadening appeal, since considerations of US state power are essential to understanding
11340-511: The knowledge of the French government. This measure was taken with great hesitation, and strong opposition on the part of several members of the cabinet. Palmerston forced the measure through in part by declaring in a letter to the prime minister, Lord Melbourne , that he would resign from the ministry if his policy were not adopted. The London Convention granted Muhammad Ali hereditary rule in Egypt in return for withdrawal from Syria and Lebanon, but
11480-465: The late Cold War era. Since the collapse of communism, there has been a renaissance, led especially by historians of the early modern era, in the history of diplomacy. The new approach differs from previous perspectives by the wholesale incorporation of perspectives from political science, sociology, the history of mentalities, and cultural history. In the U.S. since 1980, the discipline of diplomatic history has become more relevant to and integrated with
11620-403: The late Cold War era. Since the collapse of communism in 1989–91, however, there has been a renaissance, led especially by historians of the early modern era, in the history of diplomacy. The new approach differs from previous perspectives by the wholesale incorporation of perspectives from political science, sociology, the history of mentalities, and cultural history. In the U.S. since the 1980s,
11760-409: The leftish German historian Hans-Ulrich Wehler over the merits of the Primat der Aussenpolitik ("primacy of foreign politics") and Primat der Innenpolitik ("primacy of domestic politics") schools. Hillgruber and Hildebrand made a case for the traditional Primat der Aussenpolitik approach to diplomatic history with the stress on examining the records of the relevant foreign ministry and studies of
11900-411: The mainstream of the historiographic profession, having been in the forefront of the internationalization of American historical studies. As a field that explores the meeting of domestic and international forces, the study of US foreign relations has become increasingly important for its examination of both the study of culture and identity and the exploration of political ideologies. Particularly shaped by
12040-478: The most cordial understanding between the two governments, and the irritation which Palmerston had inflamed gradually subsided. During the administration of Sir Robert Peel , Palmerston led a retired life, but he attacked with characteristic bitterness the Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842 with the United States. It resolved several Canadian boundary disputes with the United States, particularly
12180-566: The oldest history, going back at least as far as 1633. In the early 17th century, blue books first came into use in England as a means of publishing diplomatic correspondence and reports. They were so named due to their blue cover. They were widely used in England in the 19th century. In World War I , the British Blue Book was the second collection of national diplomatic documents about the war to appear; it came out just days after
12320-550: The origins of the war. In the interwar period, most diplomatic historians tended to blame all of the Great Powers of 1914 for the First World War, arguing that the war was in effect everybody's responsibility. In general, the early works in this vein fit fairly comfortably into Ranke's emphasis on Aussenpolitik . Historian Muriel Chamberlain notes that after the First World War: She adds that after 1945,
12460-522: The outbreak of the World War in 1914 several Governments besides that of Great Britain issued pamphlets of collected documents, and these have become known, by the color of their respective bindings, as the German "White Book," the French "Yellow Book," the Russian "Orange Book," and so on. Following the previous customs of their respective countries the several Governments issued more or less exhaustive collections, and in each case were primarily guided by
12600-769: The outbreak of the war in February 1915 in the Austro-Hungarian Red Book, entitled: "K. and k. Ministry of Foreign Diplomatic Affairs on the Historical Background of the 1914 War". Simultaneously, the Austro-Hungarian government published a compact popular edition of the Red Book, which included an introduction, and translations into German of the few documents written in English or French. The Red Book contained 69 items and covered
12740-431: The period 29 June to 24 August 1914. It is not clear why the Austro-Hungarian government let over six months of war elapse before it followed the example of the other powers. This was unlike the case of the delayed French Yellow Book, whose later publication meant that the French public had no files for judging the diplomatic events before the war. For Austria-Hungary, the war was primarily an Austrian-Serbian war, and there
12880-453: The period of the July crisis by Germany, Britain, and Austria, as well as some from Soviet archives, revealed some truths that the Yellow Book conveniently left out. In particular, was Yellow Book document #118, which showed a Russian mobilization in response to Austrian mobilization the day before on 30 July, but in fact, the order of mobilization was reversed; Russian mobilized first. After a contorted explanation by Quai d'Orsay , confidence in
13020-418: The point in 1830, when his party allegiance changed. In November 1830 he accepted an offer from Lord Grey to join his new government as Foreign Secretary. Palmerston entered the office of Foreign Secretary with great energy and continued to exert his influence there for twenty years; he held it from 1830 to 1834 (his apprentice years ), 1835 to 1841, and 1846 to 1851. Basically, Palmerston was responsible for
13160-515: The political leadership distrusted him, he received and sustained the favour of the press and the populace, from whom he received the affectionate sobriquet "Pam". Palmerston's alleged weaknesses included mishandling of personal relations, and continual disagreements with the Queen over the royal role in determining foreign policy. Historians rank Palmerston as one of the greatest foreign secretaries, due to his handling of great crises, his commitment to
13300-529: The previous Euro-centric approach in favor of a more global approach. A sign of the changing times was the rise to prominence of such diplomatic historians such as the Japanese historian Chihiro Hosoya, the British historian Ian Nish , and the American historian Akira Iriye , which was the first time that Asian specialists became noted diplomatic historians. The Cold War and decolonization greatly added
13440-495: The proponents of the “revisionist” school which saw the Cold War as a case of American aggression. Latterly, a third school known as "neo-orthodox" whose most prominent member is the American historian John Lewis Gaddis has emerged, which holds through the United States borne some responsibility for the Cold War, the lion's share of the responsibility goes to the Soviet Union. In Europe diplomatic history fell out of favor in
13580-560: The reign of Emperor Franz Josef , and covering such topics as the Treaty of Prague , the Luxembourg Crisis , the Treaty of London (1867) , the Treaty of Vienna between Austria, France, and Italy in October 1866, five-power relations between Austria and France, England, Prussia, and Russia, as well as relations with the east (Greece, Serbia, Ottoman Empire ). Last among the great powers, Austria-Hungary published its files on
13720-526: The same 159 items from the first one, plus two more from the British embassies in Vienna and Berlin , after the outbreak of the war. Although incomplete (e.g., files on the English promises of aid to France, and on German concessions and proposals are not included), it is the richest of the color books and "despite its gaps, constitutes a true treasure trove of historical insights into the great crisis". The German White Book ( German : Das Deutsche Weißbuch )
13860-433: The same position as Denmark voluntarily hostile, when the law of self-preservation comes into play...Does anyone believe that Buonaparte will be restrained by any considerations of justice from acting towards Denmark as he has done towards other countries? ... England, according to that law of self-preservation which is a fundamental principle of the law of nations, is justified in securing, and therefore enforcing, from Denmark
14000-462: The security of Britain, but any solution was not straightforward. On the one hand, the reactionary powers were anxious to defend William I; on the other, many Belgian revolutionaries, like Charles de Brouckère and Charles Rogier , supported the reunion of the Belgian provinces to France, whereas Britain favoured Dutch, not French influence, on an independent state. The British policy which emerged
14140-639: The situation altered again, there was less pressure from Parliament, fewer party-based papers, and almost all publications were ordered by the Crown. Around the close of the century and beginning of the next, there was less disclosure of documents and less pressure from MPs and the public, and ministers became more restrained and secretive, for example with Sir Edward Grey , in the run-up to World War I. Penson & Temperley said, "As Parliament became more democratic its control over foreign policy declined, and, while Blue Books on domestic affairs expanded and multiplied at
14280-488: The tendency to a more global diplomatic history. The Vietnam War led to the rise of a revisionist school in the United States, which led many American historians such as Gabriel Kolko and William Appleman Williams to reject traditional diplomatic history in favor of a Primat der Innenpolitik approach that saw a widespread examination of the influence of American domestic politics together with various social, economic and cultural forces on foreign-policy making. In general,
14420-482: The time safeguarded the peace of Europe." Thereafter, despite a Dutch invasion and French counter-invasion in 1831, France and Britain framed and signed a treaty settlement between Belgium and the Netherlands, inducing the three reactionary powers to accede to it as well; while in Palmerston's second period of office, as his authority grew, he was able to finally settle relations between Belgium and Holland with
14560-402: The timing of such a war was determined by domestic political pressures, especially as relating to a failing economy, and had nothing to do with what Hitler wanted. In Mason's view in the period between 1936 and 1941, it was the state of the German economy, and not Hitler's "will" or "intentions" that was the most important determinate on German decision-making on foreign policy. Mason argued that
14700-629: The trend reversed, allowing political, intellectual and social history to displace diplomatic history. For the first half of the 20th century, most diplomatic history working within the narrow confines of the Primat der Aussenpolitik approach was very narrowly concerned with foreign-policy making elites with little reference to broader historical forces. The most notable exceptions to this tendency were A. J. P. Taylor and William Medlicott in Britain, Pierre Renouvin in France, and William L. Langer in
14840-604: The two-member constituency so as to ensure a Tory was elected. Palmerston entered Parliament as Tory MP for the pocket borough of Newport on the Isle of Wight in June 1807. On 3 February 1808, he spoke in support of confidentiality in the working of diplomacy, and of the bombardment of Copenhagen and the capture and destruction of the Royal Danish Navy by the Royal Navy in the Battle of Copenhagen . Denmark
14980-475: The war due to its 1839 treaty with Belgium . Europe was plunged into the Great War . As their armies began to clash, the opposing governments engaged in a media battle attempting to avoid blame for causing the war, and casting blame on other countries, through the publication of carefully selected documents, basically consisting of diplomatic exchanges. The German White Book appeared on 4 August 1914, and
15120-547: The war investigating the causes of World War I found that Germany had a large share of responsibility in triggering World War I, and cited the White Book as one example, in which about 75 percent of the documents presented in it were falsified. Translation of the color books into English was often performed or approved by the governments of origin; for example, the English translation of the Italian Green Book
15260-454: The war, the Yellow Book included some documents from 1913, putting Germany in a bad light by shedding light on their mobilization for a European war. Some of the documents in the Yellow Book were challenged by Germany as not genuine, but their objections were mostly ignored, and the Yellow Book was widely cited as a resource in the July crisis of 1914 . It turned out after the war was over, that
15400-540: The while stirring up British nationalism. He feuded with The Times , edited by Thomas Barnes , which did not play along with his propaganda ploys. In 1839, Palmerston married his mistress of many years, the noted Whig hostess Emily Lamb , widow of Peter Leopold Louis Francis Nassau Clavering-Cowper, 5th Earl Cowper (1778–1837) and sister of William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne , prime minister (1834 and 1835–1841). They had no legitimate children, although at least one of Lord Cowper's putative children, Lady Emily Cowper,
15540-458: The whole of British foreign policy from the time of the French and Belgian Revolutions of 1830 until December 1851. His abrasive style would earn him the nickname "Lord Pumice Stone", and his manner of dealing with foreign governments who crossed him, especially in his later years, was the original " gunboat diplomacy ". The Revolutions of 1830 gave a jolt to the settled European system that had been created in 1814–1815. The United Kingdom of
15680-541: The wife of Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury , was widely believed to have been fathered by Palmerston. Palmerston resided at Brocket Hall in Hertfordshire , his wife's inheritance. His London townhouse was Cambridge House on Piccadilly in Mayfair . Emily's son-in-law, |Lord Shaftesbury wrote: "His attentions to Lady Palmerston, when they both of them were well stricken in years, were those of
15820-627: The world internationally. Timelines Citations Works cited Lord Palmerston Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston , (20 October 1784 – 18 October 1865), known as Lord Palmerston , was a British statesman and politician who was prime minister of the United Kingdom from 1855 to 1858 and from 1859 to 1865. A member of the Liberal Party , Palmerston was the first Liberal Prime Minister, and he dominated British foreign policy from 1830 to 1865, when Britain stood at
15960-433: The world. Instead he was an ordinary statesman –-an opportunistic leader seizing whatever chances he had for expansionism. The fact that a world war started over Poland in 1939 was due to diplomatic miscalculation by all the countries concerned, instead of being a case of German aggression. British historians such as D.C. Watt, Paul Kennedy, George Peden and David Dilks argued that appeasement was not an aberration, and that it
16100-474: The young Palmerston's parents that Henry Temple was well-mannered and charming. Stewart wrote to a friend, saying of Temple: "In point of temper and conduct he is everything his friends could wish. Indeed, I cannot say that I have ever seen a more faultless character at this time of life, or one possessed of more amiable dispositions." Henry Temple succeeded his father to the title of Viscount Palmerston on 17 April 1802, before he had turned 18. He also inherited
16240-729: Was Karl Marx , who stated "from the time of Peter the Great until the Crimean War, there was a secret agreement between the London and St. Petersburg offices, and that Palmerston was a corrupt tool of the Tsar's policy" Despite his popular reputation he was hesitant in 1831 about aiding the Sultan Mahmud II , who was under threat from Muhammad Ali , the wali of Egypt. Later, after Russian successes, in 1833 and 1835 he made proposals to afford material aid, which were overruled by
16380-510: Was "the pivot of my foreign policy", the differences between the two countries grew into a constant but sterile rivalry that brought benefit to neither. Palmerston was greatly interested by the Eastern question . During the Greek War of Independence he had energetically supported the Greek cause and backed the Treaty of Constantinople that gave Greece its independence. However, from 1830
16520-466: Was a close alliance with France , but one subject to the balance of power on the Continent, and in particular the preservation of Belgian independence. If the reactionary powers supported William I by force, they would encounter the resistance of France and Britain united in arms. If France sought to annex Belgium, it would forfeit the British alliance and find herself opposed by the whole of Europe. In
16660-503: Was a period of great development and activity for Blue Books which were published in large numbers in Great Britain under numerous foreign secretaries. In theory, their purpose was to give Parliament the info it needed (and sometimes demanded) to provide a basis for judgment on foreign affairs. They were initially created through one of three paths: by command of the Crown , by order of the House , or in response to an address in
16800-425: Was a publication by the German government of 1914 documenting their claims for the causes of World War I. The British institution of political blue books with official publications of diplomatic documents found its way to Germany relatively late. There was a lively debate about whether it was appropriate and necessary long before the first German one appeared, and also afterward among the German public, and especially in
16940-598: Was also mentally ill, shot Palmerston as he walked up the stairs of the War Office. The bullet only grazed his back and the wound was slight. After learning of Davies' illness, Palmerston paid for his legal defence at the trial, and Davies was sent to Bethlem Royal Hospital . After the suicide of Lord Castlereagh in 1822, Lord Liverpool , who was Prime Minister had to hold together the Tory Cabinet which began to split along political lines. The more liberal wing of
17080-662: Was an old British tradition which in this case flowed from numerous structural, economic and military factors. Historians such as Christopher Thorne and Harry Hinsley abandoned the previous focus on individual leaders to discuss the broader societal influences such as public opinion and narrower ones like intelligence on diplomatic relations. In recent years the debates regarding the 1930s have continued, but new approaches are in use, such as an analysis in terms of Britain's national identity. A group of French historians centered around Pierre Renouvin (1893–1974) and his protégés Jean-Baptiste Duroselle and Maurice Baumont started
17220-688: Was approved by the Royal Italian Embassy. The New York Times undertook the republication of the full text of numerous color books in English translation, including the Green Book, which was translated for the newspaper. In addition, the Times published the British Blue Book, the German White Book, the Russian Orange Book, the Gray Book of Belgium, the Yellow Book of France, and the Red Book of Austria-Hungary. The British Blue Book has
17360-508: Was banned in China. Britain responded with military force in the First Opium War , 1839–1842, which ended in a decisive British victory. Under the Treaty of Nanjing , China paid an indemnity and opened five treaty ports to world trade. In those ports there would be extraterritorial rights for British citizens. Palmerston thus achieved his main goals of diplomatic equality and opening China to trade. However his angry critics focused on
17500-508: Was called to be prime minister. The more conservative Tories, including Sir Robert Peel , withdrew their support, and an alliance was formed between the liberal members of the late ministry and the Whigs. The post of Chancellor of the Exchequer was offered to Palmerston, who accepted it, but this appointment was frustrated by some intrigue between King George IV and John Charles Herries . Lord Palmerston remained Secretary at War, though he gained
17640-456: Was cut. George Canning's tenure (1807–1809) stood out, as having designed a new system. Canning used it to get public support for his positions, for example, regarding South America. Robert Stewart ( Lord Castelreagh (1812–1822)) was the pivot point between the early years when the government might refuse to publish certain papers, and the later period when it was not able to do that anymore. Henry Templeton ( Lord Palmerston three incumbencies in
17780-533: Was declared on France in 1803, Palmerston joined the Volunteers mustered to oppose a French invasion , being one of the three officers in the unit for St John's College. He was also appointed Lieutenant-Colonel Commander of the Romsey Volunteers. In February 1806, Palmerston was defeated in the election for the University of Cambridge constituency . In November he was elected for Horsham but
17920-504: Was forced into general mobilization by that of Russia, which in turn, blamed Austria-Hungary. The Allied documents on the circumstances of the declaration of war, as well as the war crimes committed by the German army, constituted the basis on which the Allies would rely in 1919 to formulate Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles assigning the exclusive responsibility for the outbreak of the war to Germany and Austria-Hungary. A report to parliament by German jurist Hermann Kantorowicz after
18060-526: Was in the opposition. The Great Reform Act passed Parliament in 1832. Following his move to opposition Palmerston appears to have focused closely on foreign policy. He had already urged Wellington into active interference in the Greek War of Independence , and he had made several visits to Paris , where he foresaw with great accuracy the impending overthrow of the Bourbons . On 1 June 1829 he made his first great speech on foreign affairs. Lord Palmerston
18200-475: Was neutral but Napoleon had recently agreed with the Russians in the Treaty of Tilsit to build a naval alliance against Britain, including using the Danish navy for invading Britain. Pre-empting this, the British offered Denmark the choice of temporarily handing over its navy until the war's end or the destruction of their navy. The Danes refused to comply and so Copenhagen was bombarded. Palmerston justified
18340-575: Was never any lack of documents about it from the outset. Other color books were used in other countries, including: Edmund von Mach 's 1916 "Official Diplomatic Documents Relating to the Outbreak of the European War" gives the following introduction to the color books of World War I: In constitutionally governed countries it is customary for the Executive at important times to lay before
18480-517: Was no orator; his language was unstudied, and his delivery somewhat embarrassed; but generally he found the words to say the right thing at the right time, and to address the House of Commons in the language best adapted to the capacity and the temper of his audience. in September 1830, Wellington tried to induce Palmerston to re-enter the cabinet, but he refused to do so without Lord Lansdowne and Lord Grey , two notable Whigs. This can be said to be
18620-458: Was past, but the change which took place by the substitution of François Guizot for Adolphe Thiers in France, and of Lord Aberdeen for Palmerston in Britain kept the peace. Palmerston believed that peace with France was not to be relied on, and indeed that war between the two countries was sooner or later inevitable. Aberdeen and Guizot inaugurated a different policy: by mutual confidence and friendly offices, they entirely succeeded in restoring
18760-537: Was premeditated by the Central Powers, as well as by their Allies Turkey and Bulgaria, and is the result of acts deliberately committed with the intention of making it inevitable. Germany, in concordance with Austria-Hungary, worked deliberately to have the many conciliatory proposals of the Entente Powers set aside, and their efforts to avoid war nullified. Later, publication of complete archives from
18900-466: Was rejected by the pasha. The European powers intervened with force, and the bombardment of Beirut , the fall of Acre , and the total collapse of Muhammad Ali's power followed in rapid succession. Palmerston's policy was triumphant, and the author of it had won a reputation as one of the most powerful statesmen of the age. In September 1838, Palmerston appointed a British consul in Jerusalem, without
19040-588: Was the first such book to come out. It contains 36 documents. Within a week, most other combatant countries had published their own book, each named with a different color name. France held off until 1 December 1914, when they finally published their Yellow Book . Other combatants in the war published similar books: the Blue Book of Britain , the Orange Book of Russia , the Yellow Book of France , and
19180-537: Was the only man able to sustain a majority in Parliament, and he became prime minister. He had two periods in office, 1855–1858 and 1859–1865, before his death at the age of 80 years, a few months after victory in a general election in which he had obtained an increased majority. He remains the most recent British prime minister to die in office. Palmerston masterfully controlled public opinion by stimulating British nationalism . Although Queen Victoria and most of
19320-404: Was the rise in the Primat der Innenpolitik (Primacy of Domestic Politics) approach. As a result of the rise of the Primat der Innenpolitik school, diplomatic historians increasing started to pay attention to domestic politics. In the 1970s, the conservative German historian Andreas Hillgruber , together with his close associate Klaus Hildebrand , was involved in a very acrimonious debate with
19460-745: Was unseated in January 1807, when the Whig majority in the Commons voted for a petition to unseat him. Due to the patronage of Lord Chichester and Lord Malmesbury , Palmerston was given the post of Junior Lord of the Admiralty in the ministry of the Duke of Portland . He stood again for the Cambridge seat in May , but lost by three votes after he advised his supporters to vote for the other Tory candidate in
19600-549: Was unseemly to relieve the "imaginary grievances" of the Dissenters from the established church while at the same time "real afflictions pressed upon the Catholics" of Great Britain. Palmerston also supported parliamentary reform. One of his biographers has stated that: "Like many Pittites, now labelled tories, he was a good whig at heart." The Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 finally passed Parliament in 1829 when Palmerston
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