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79-466: Ayacucho ( Spanish pronunciation: [aʝaˈkutʃo] , Quechua : Ayak'uchu , derived from the words aya ("death" or "soul") and k'uchu ("corner") in honour of the battle of Ayacucho ), founded in 1540 as San Juan de la Frontera de Huamanga and known simply as Huamanga (Quechua: Wamanga ) until 1825, is the capital city of Ayacucho Region and of Huamanga Province , Ayacucho Region , Peru. Its original name, which continues to be

158-492: A mallki could not attend an event, his huaoque , or royal statuette, would. Through blood ties, ample estates with yanakuna (servants or retainers) providing labor, and the possession of totemic and deified mallki , a panaqa was able to wield considerable political power, having influence over the selection of future Sapa Incas. Beneath the Cuzco-based top-level of government were the suyu , or quarters. Each suyu

237-554: A toqrikoq were to maintain state infrastructure, organize the census, and mobilize labor or military resources when called upon. Typically, these governors, be they apu or tuqrikuq , were ethnic Inca, but some provincial groups did manage to ascend to the lower level. Apu , on the other hands, were typically close relatives of the Sapa Inca. The yanakuna formed a unique estate within Inca society and government. To become part of

316-408: A central government with the Inca at its head and four quarters, or suyu : Chinchay Suyu (northwest), Antisuyu (northeast), Kuntisuyu (southwest), and Qullasuyu (southeast). The four corners of these quarters met at the center, Cuzco. These suyu were likely created around 1460 during the reign of Pachacuti before the empire assumed it largest territorial extent. It is probably the case that at

395-475: A district and the four suyu as administrative regions were grouped into upper hanan and lower hurin divisions. As the Inca did not have written records, it is impossible to exhaustively list the constituent wamani . However, records created during the Spanish colonial period allow us to reconstruct a partial list. There were likely more than 86 wamani , with more than 48 in the highlands and more than 38 on

474-1048: A fourth, a northern or Peruvian branch. The latter causes complications in the classification, however, as various dialects (e.g. Cajamarca–Cañaris , Pacaraos , and Yauyos ) have features of both Quechua I and Quechua II, and so are difficult to assign to either. Torero classifies them as the following: Willem Adelaar adheres to the Quechua I / Quechua II (central/peripheral) bifurcation. But, partially following later modifications by Torero, he reassigns part of Quechua II-A to Quechua I: Ancash (Huaylas–Conchucos) Alto Pativilca–Alto Marañón–Alto Huallaga Yaru Wanka (Jauja–Huanca) Yauyos–Chincha (Huangáscar–Topará) Pacaraos Lambayeque (Cañaris) Cajamarca Lincha Laraos Kichwa ("Ecuadorian" or Highlands and Oriente) Chachapoyas (Amazonas) Lamas (San Martín) Ayacucho Cusco Puno (Collao) Northern Bolivian (Apolo) Southern Bolivia Santiago del Estero Landerman (1991) does not believe

553-447: A labor tax performed by male heads of households. These taxpayers were drafted to build massive public works projects, such as aqueducts , bridges , roads , as well as tampu warehouses. A mit’ayuq , "one who carried out mit’a duties", also performed agricultural , extractive (e.g., mining), and artisanal (e.g., working ceramics and metals) labor for the state. Mit'a was also the basis of military conscription; military units followed

632-429: A place called Pocra. The Spanish colonial founding of Huamanga was led by conqueror Francisco Pizarro on April 25, 1540, who named it San Juan de la Frontera de Huamanga . Due to the constant Incan rebellion led by Manco Inca Yupanqui against the Spanish in the zone, Pizarro was quick to populate the settlement with a small number of Spaniards brought from Lima and Cusco . On May 17, 1544, by Royal decree, Ayacucho

711-547: A reference point, the overall degree of diversity across the family is a little less than that of the Romance or Germanic families, and more of the order of Slavic or Arabic . The greatest diversity is within Central Quechua, or Quechua I, which is believed to lie close to the homeland of the ancestral Proto-Quechua language. Alfredo Torero devised the traditional classification, the three divisions above, plus

790-568: A series of fierce battles the Inca managed to defeat and conquer the Chanka confederacy and integrated the area into the Inca Empire, the Inca founded Vilcashuaman within Vilcas' culture territory, one of the most populous cities known to have existed in the Inca Empire, capital of the Inca province ( wamani ) of Vilcas. Huamanga was another of the administrative centers in the region, founded at

869-591: A significant influence on other native languages of the Americas, such as Mapuche . It is difficult to measure the number of Quechua speakers. The number of speakers given varies widely according to the sources. The total in Ethnologue 16 is 10 million, primarily based on figures published 1987–2002, but with a few dating from the 1960s. The figure for Imbabura Highland Quechua in Ethnologue , for example,

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948-599: A true genetic classification is possible and divides Quechua II so that the family has four geographical–typological branches: Northern, North Peruvian, Central, and Southern. He includes Chachapoyas and Lamas in North Peruvian Quechua so Ecuadorian is synonymous with Northern Quechua. Quechua I (Central Quechua, Waywash ) is spoken in Peru's central highlands, from the Ancash Region to Huancayo . It

1027-821: A viceroy Attendant yanakuna retainers Attendant yanakuna retainers Kamayuq , non-hereditary bureaucratic officials Willaq Umu , the High Priest of the Sun Michuq , assisting officers Mit’ayuq tax-payers Council of the Realm, consisting of: Khipu kamayuq , record keepers Tukuy rikuq , inspectors reporting to the Sapa Inca Chaski , messengers Mallki , royal mummies Apukuna , military Generals The Inca state had no separate judiciary or codified set of laws . While customs, expectations, and traditional local power holders did much in

1106-459: Is 300,000, an estimate from 1977. The missionary organization FEDEPI, on the other hand, estimated one million Imbabura dialect speakers (published 2006). Census figures are also problematic, due to under-reporting. The 2001 Ecuador census reports only 500,000 Quechua speakers, compared to the estimate in most linguistic sources of more than 2 million. The censuses of Peru (2007) and Bolivia (2001) are thought to be more reliable. Additionally, there

1185-653: Is a secondary division in Quechua II between the grammatically simplified northern varieties of Ecuador, Quechua II-B, known there as Kichwa , and the generally more conservative varieties of the southern highlands, Quechua II-C, which include the old Inca capital of Cusco . The closeness is at least in part because of the influence of Cusco Quechua on the Ecuadorean varieties in the Inca Empire. Because Northern nobles were required to educate their children in Cusco, this

1264-455: Is an unknown number of speakers in emigrant communities. There are significant differences among the varieties of Quechua spoken in the central Peruvian highlands and the peripheral varieties of Ecuador, as well as those of southern Peru and Bolivia. They can be labeled Quechua I (or Quechua B, central) and Quechua II (or Quechua A, peripheral). Within the two groups, there are few sharp boundaries, making them dialect continua . However, there

1343-502: Is the most diverse branch of Quechua, to the extent that its divisions are commonly considered different languages. Quechua II (Peripheral Quechua, Wamp'una "Traveler") This is a sampling of words in several Quechuan languages: Government of the Inca Empire#Administrative divisions The Tawantinsuyu ( Quechua : "land of the four quarters") or Inca Empire was a centralized bureaucracy . It drew upon

1422-611: The Coricancha or Temple of the Sun or to its own, special temple, and was maintained by priests from its home province. This old Andean practice performed two functions; first, as divine hostage holding to ensure loyalty; second, as a sign of piety on the part of Inca rulers. The operational aspect of Inca ideology rested upon the tools of assimilation of nobility and the perpetuation of parochial differences. The formal education in Cuzco of

1501-469: The Inti Raymi , attended by soldiers, mummified rulers, nobles, clerics, and the general population of Cuzco beginning on the auspicious June solstice and culminating nine days later with the ritual breaking of the earth using a foot plow by the Inca himself. Moreover, Cuzco itself was considered cosmologically central, loaded as it was with huacas and radiating ceque lines, and geographic center of

1580-462: The Peruvian War of Independence , and the independents' victory ensured independence. The battle developed in the nearby pampas of La Quinua on December 9, 1824. Independentist forces were led by Antonio José de Sucre , Simón Bolívar's lieutenant. Viceroy José de la Serna e Hinojosa was wounded, and after the battle second commander-in-chief José de Canterac signed the final capitulation of

1659-539: The Peruvian struggle for independence in the 1780s. As a result, various Quechua languages are still widely spoken today, being co-official in many regions and the most spoken language lineage in Peru , after Spanish. The Quechua linguistic homeland may have been Central Peru. It has been speculated that it may have been used in the Chavín and Wari civilizations. Quechua had already expanded across wide ranges of

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1738-595: The University of San Marcos , completed and defended the first thesis in the language group in 2019; it concerned the works of poet Andrés Alencastre Gutiérrez and it was also the first non-Spanish native language thesis done at that university. Currently, there are different initiatives that promote Quechua in the Andes and across the world: many universities offer Quechua classes, a community-based organization such as Elva Ambía 's Quechua Collective of New York promote

1817-430: The yanakuna meant severing traditional ayllu ties and obligations, serving the nobility rather than their lineage. For many, it was a way to advance in the social and political hierarchy; being inheritable, it meant a more privileged position for their descendants as well. Their labor was attached to important people or institutions such as the Sapa Inca, a panaqa , the nobility, or to temple lands. The kurakas on

1896-589: The Americas. As a result of Inca expansion into Central Chile , there were bilingual Quechua- Mapudungu Mapuche in Central Chile at the time of the Spanish arrival . It has been argued that Mapuche, Quechua, and Spanish coexisted in Central Chile , with significant bilingualism, during the 17th century. Alongside Mapudungun, Quechua is the indigenous language that has influenced Chilean Spanish

1975-502: The Four Quarters; Inca Garcilaso de la Vega himself called it "the navel of the universe." Land was conceptualized as ultimately belonging to the Inca, and distributed between the three estates of the empire—the imperial church, the commoners, and the state itself—for their benefit and care according to the principle of reciprocity. When a territory was conquered, its chief huaca was brought to Cuzco and installed in either

2054-556: The Inca Empire expanded and further promoted Quechua as the official language of the Empire. After the Spanish conquest of Peru in the 16th century, Quechua continued to be used widely by the indigenous peoples as the "common language." It was officially recognized by the Spanish administration, and many Spaniards learned it in order to communicate with local peoples. The clergy of the Catholic Church adopted Quechua to use as

2133-429: The Inca, the elevation of the god Inti to a preeminent position was therefore nothing radical. Likewise, cults of the dead were very ancient in the Andes, and so the worship of deceased, mummified Incas attended to by their descendant panaqa groups was not revolutionary. However, as Conrad and Demerest argue, the "simplification" of these beliefs and rituals, "stressing the solar aspects of the ancient divine complex" in

2212-725: The Late Intermediate period (1000 AD – 1476 AD) is said to begin, while some post-Wari cultures continued to further develop during this era, particularly cultures from coastal Peru, the Late Intermediate era is marked by population decline and substantial cultural regression over extensive areas of the Peruvian highlands, the Ayacucho region became one of the most affected areas, urban planning ceased to be, people abandoned virtually all cities, if not all, and dispersed into rural hamlets. New tribal cultures — well differentiated from

2291-474: The Latin American nations achieved independence in the 19th century, the prestige of Quechua had decreased sharply. Gradually its use declined so that it was spoken mostly by indigenous people in the more isolated and conservative rural areas. Nevertheless, in the 21st century, Quechua language speakers number roughly 7 million people across South America, more than any other indigenous language family in

2370-531: The Middle Horizon period (600 – 1000 AD), at its zenith the Wari state reigned over most of the highlands and coast of Peru, centered near the present-day city of Ayacucho (Huamanga), the Wari became the largest dominant culture in the Andes region before the Inca came into existence. The Wari civilization collapsed by about 1000 AD, and the capital city of Wari was abandoned. With the end of the Wari culture,

2449-466: The Royalist army. The independent victory sealed the independence of Peru and South America. La Paz , now the seat of government of Bolivia , was similarly renamed La Paz de Ayacucho following this battle. Although the city gained a new name and some fame, the economy declined following independence. There were attempts to revive the city's fortunes, with a planned railway link to Peru's network, but

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2528-403: The Sapa Inca claimed descent from Inti, which placed a high value on imperial blood; by the end of the empire, it was common to wed brother and sister. He was "son of the Sun", and his people the intip churin , or "children of the sun," and both his right to rule and mission to conquer derived from his holy ancestor. The Sapa Inca also presided over ideologically-important festivals, notably during

2607-450: The Sapa Inca, perhaps along the lines of a prime minister or viceroy . From the time of Topa Inca Yupanqui on, there existed a "Council of the Realm" composed of sixteen nobles: two from hanan Cuzco; two from hurin Cuzco; four from Chinchaysuyu; two from Contisuyu; four from Collasuyu; and two from Antisuyu. This weighting of representation balanced the hanan and hurin divisions of

2686-630: The Spanish encierro , except that the bulls are led by horses of the Morochucos . Vestiges of human settlements more than 15,000 years old have been found at the site of Pikimachay , about 25 km north of Ayacucho. From 500 to 900, the region was occupied by the Wari culture , which became known as the first expansionist empire based in the Andes before the Inca Empire . The Ayacucho region

2765-568: The administrative forms and practices of previous Andean civilizations such as the Wari Empire and Tiwanaku , and had in common certain practices with its contemporary rivals, notably the Chimor . These institutions and practices were understood, articulated, and elaborated through Andean cosmology and thought. Following the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire , certain aspects of these institutions and practices were continued. Inca ideology

2844-471: The alternative name of the city, dates back to the Incan and Viceregal periods of its history, until its official change by Simón Bolívar in 1825 through a decree to commemorate the battle of Ayacucho during the Peruvian War of Independence . Bolívar issued the decree on February 15, 1825, changing the name from "Huamanga" to "Ayacucho", after the battle that decisively established the total independence of

2923-516: The balance in the world. The Sapa Inca was conceptualized as divine and was effectively head of the state religion. Only the Willaq Umu (or Chief Priest) was second to the emperor. Local religious traditions were allowed to continue, and in some cases such as the Oracle at Pachacamac ( Pacha Kamaq , "vivifier of the world") on the Peruvian coast, were officially venerated. Following Pachacuti,

3002-460: The central Andes long before the expansion of the Inca Empire . The Inca were one among many peoples in present-day Peru who already spoke a form of Quechua, which in the Cuzco region particularly has been heavily influenced by Aymara , hence some of the characteristics that still distinguish the Cuzco form of Quechua today. Diverse Quechua regional dialects and languages had already developed in different areas, influenced by local languages, before

3081-410: The children of noble families from recently acquired territories disseminated fluency in Quechua, imperial law, and bureaucratic practices. Families which previously held political position were integrated into the Inca bureaucracy, and traditional tribal areas of settlement integrated as provinces, their pre-conquest boundaries typically intact. The continuation of provincial dress was encouraged, serving

3160-480: The city has the subtropical highland ( Cfb ) with uniform rainfall. 13°09′47″S 74°13′28″W  /  13.16306°S 74.22444°W  / -13.16306; -74.22444 Quechua language Although Quechua began expanding many centuries before the Incas , that previous expansion also meant that it was the primary language family within the Inca Empire. The Spanish also tolerated its use until

3239-536: The city's name to Ayacucho , renaming it after the historical Battle of Ayacucho . Upon seeing so many casualties on the battlefield, citizens called the area Ayakuchu , aya meaning "dead" and kuchu meaning "corner" in Ayacucho Quechua . The Battle of Ayacucho was the last armed clash between the Spanish Army (formed mostly by Peruvian mestizos and indigenous peoples) and independentists during

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3318-473: The coast. The most populous suyu , Chinchaysuyu encompassed the former lands of the Chimú Empire and much of the northern Andes. At its largest extent, the suyu extended through much of modern Ecuador and just into modern Colombia. The second smallest of the suyu , Antisuyu was located northeast of Cuzco in high Andes. Indeed, it is the root of the word "Andes." Collasuyu or Qollasuyu

3397-561: The country. The major obstacle to the usage and teaching of Quechua languages is the lack of written materials, such as books, newspapers, software, and magazines. The Bible has been translated into Quechua and is distributed by certain missionary groups. Quechua, along with Aymara and minor indigenous languages, remains essentially a spoken language . In recent years, Quechua has been introduced in intercultural bilingual education (IBE) in Peru , Bolivia , and Ecuador . Even in these areas,

3476-548: The creation of a wamani , the Inca would establish an administrative center known as a hatoñ . The naming of these centers was formulaic; the center of the Colla wamani was hatoñ qolla , while that of the Sora wamani was hatoñ sora , et cetera. Wamani were then further subdivided into saya , reflecting the largely moietal structure of Andean society. The number of saya per wamani varied between two and three, typically

3555-460: The dialects is the basic criterion that defines Quechua not as a single language, but as a language family. The complex and progressive nature of how speech varies across the dialect continua makes it nearly impossible to differentiate discrete varieties; Ethnologue lists 45 varieties which are then divided into two groups; Central and Peripheral. Due to the non-intelligibility between the two groups, they are all classified as separate languages. As

3634-533: The empire, both within Cuzco and within the Quarters ( hanan suyukuna and hurin suyukuna ). Most of the upper tier of Inca administration were Inca by class, if not blood relatives of the Sapa Inca. Besides the Qoya/Coya (the principal wife or queen), royal wives, children and various attaches to the royal family, the royal panakas lineages held great influence. Every time a Sapa Inca died, his heir assumed

3713-582: The exact duties and functions of government positions cannot be told. At the top of the chain of administration sat the Sapa Inca. Next to the Sapa Inca in terms of power may have been the Willaq Umu , literally the "priest who recounts", who was the High Priest of the Sun. However, it has been noted that beneath the Sapa Inca also sat the Inkap rantin , who was at the very least a confidant and assistant to

3792-399: The form of Inti as a patron deity of the empire during the reign of Pachacuti. Furthermore, the inclusion of mummified rulers not just into rituals but festivals and state councils elaborated upon the preexisting Andean practice. "Pachacuti" is an appellation created from pacha , equilibrium, and kuti , an act of overturning; Pachacuti was, therefore, someone whose dynamism and power changed

3871-527: The former. These saya were of differential status, with one being higher (the hanan saya ) and one lower (the hurin saya ). Ideally each saya would contain roughly 10,000 taxpayers. Therefore, three saya were typically only established in those wamani with around 30,000 taxpayers. Following the saya subdivision, the empire was subdivided into ayllu lineage groups, which were then again divided into upper hanan and lower hurin moieties, and then into individual family units. The capital area, Cusco,

3950-480: The function of a social marker . Forcibly resettled populations were likewise not encouraged to assimilate into neighboring, indigenous populations. Many of these administrative techniques seem to have been adopted from the Huari empire. The colonial-era sources are not entirely clear or in agreement about the nature of the structure of the Inca government. However, its basic structure can be spoken of broadly, even if

4029-869: The governments are reaching only a part of the Quechua-speaking populations. Some indigenous people in each of the countries are having their children study in Spanish for social advancement. Radio Nacional del Perú broadcasts news and agrarian programs in Quechua for periods in the mornings. Quechua and Spanish are now heavily intermixed in much of the Andean region, with many hundreds of Spanish loanwords in Quechua. Similarly, Quechua phrases and words are commonly used by Spanish speakers. In southern rural Bolivia, for instance, many Quechua words such as wawa (infant), misi (cat), waska (strap or thrashing), are as commonly used as their Spanish counterparts, even in entirely Spanish-speaking areas. Quechua has also had

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4108-399: The head of one of the nine groups at a lower level, so that one pachaka kuraka might also be a waranqa kuraka , in effect directly responsible for one unit of 100 tax-payers and less directly responsible for nine other such units. While the Inca state exacted taxes in kind—e.g., textiles, grain, wares, etc.—it also drew upon corvée labor as an important supply of power. The mit'a was

4187-423: The highest authorities: provincial governors, the apu of the four suyu , and the Sapa Inca himself. The Incas did not have prisons. Instead capital punishment was used for offenses including murder, blasphemy, adultery, theft, laziness, second offenses in drunkenness and rebellion. Punishment for lesser crimes included blinding and cutting off limbs. The Inca Empire was a federalist system which consisted of

4266-648: The language of evangelization . The oldest written records of the language are by missionary Domingo de Santo Tomás , who arrived in Peru in 1538 and learned the language from 1540. He published his Grammatica o arte de la lengua general de los indios de los reynos del Perú (Grammar or Art of the General Language of the Indians of the Kingdoms of Peru) in 1560. Given its use by the Catholic missionaries,

4345-439: The language, and governments are training interpreters in Quechua to serve in healthcare, justice, and bureaucratic facilities. In 1975, Peru became the first country to recognize Quechua as one of its official languages. Ecuador conferred official status on the language in its 2006 constitution, and in 2009, Bolivia adopted a new constitution that recognized Quechua and several other indigenous languages as official languages of

4424-460: The latitude of behavior granted to them rose as well; punishments for acts by commoners against nobles were far more severe than for those by nobles against commoners. And yet there were also legal protections for commoners, despite their unequal legal standing. Soldiers who stole food could face capital punishment, as could their captains. Abusive or negligent officials likewise faced punishment. The sentencing of an individual to death rested only among

4503-499: The line was terminated in Huancavelica. A highway was subsequently constructed in 1968. The city's economy is based on agriculture and light manufacturing, including textiles, pottery, leather goods, and filigree ware. It is a regional tourism destination, known for its 33 churches built in the colonial period, and for the nearby battlefield of La Quinua, where the Ayacucho battle was fought in 1824. The University of San Cristóbal

4582-556: The most. Quechua-Aymara and mixed Quechua-Aymara- Mapudungu toponymy can be found as far south as Osorno Province in Chile (latitude 41° S). In 2017 the first thesis defense done in Quechua in Europe was done by Peruvian Carmen Escalante Gutiérrez at Pablo de Olavide University ( Sevilla ). The same year Pablo Landeo wrote the first novel in Quechua without a Spanish translation. A Peruvian student, Roxana Quispe Collantes of

4661-467: The nascent Peruvian Republic. Ayacucho is famous for its 33 churches, which represent one for each year of Jesus' life. Ayacucho has large religious celebrations, especially during the Holy Week of Easter . These celebrations include horse races featuring Peruvian Caballos de Paso and the traditional running of the bulls, known locally as the jalatoro or pascuatoro . The jalatoro is similar to

4740-493: The old Wari — arose in the Ayacucho region, over time these became a series of relatively powerful warlike chiefdoms that controlled region, according to colonial chroniclers these tribes were united into a confederacy by the time Inca began to expand, referred in the Spanish accounts as the " Chanca confederacy ", an alliance formed by the Chanca, Parinacocha, Vilca, Sora, and Rucana (Lucana) cultures, among other ayllu clans. After

4819-467: The only people resettled in the Inca empire, as the state had innumerable communities relocated to less defensible, more productive land in order to both make agricultural production more efficient and reduce the possibility of revolt. Sapa Inka , the supreme ruler Apu , the Governor of a suyu Tuqrikuq , the Governor of a wamani Kuraka , hereditary bureaucratic officials Inkap Rantin ,

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4898-662: The other hand, were the rank-and-file of the provincial bureaucracy. They were typically provincial nobility who maintained their social status after Inca conquest. Like the yanakuna , they were exempt from taxation and held hereditary status. Unlike the yanakuna , they served administrative, military, and judicial functions, though it is worth mentioning that one could be both a kuraka and a yana . Hurin Cuzco or Rurin Qusqu : The "dynasty" of Lower Cuzco Hanan Cuzco or Hanan Qusqu : The "dynasty" of Upper Cuzco Post-Conquest dynasty : Ruling from Cuzco or Vilcabamba While there

4977-492: The range of Quechua continued to expand in some areas. In the late 18th century, colonial officials ended the administrative and religious use of Quechua. They banned it from public use in Peru after the Túpac Amaru II rebellion of indigenous peoples. The Crown banned "loyal" pro-Catholic texts in Quechua, such as Garcilaso de la Vega's Comentarios Reales . Despite a brief revival of the language immediately after

5056-845: The same decimal system of administration as mit'a units. Periods of service varied; especially intensive service, such as mining, was kept short to avoid exhaustion. Mitmas , on the other hand, was the practice of moving certain ethnic groups around for strategic purposes. They could be seen as loyal, and therefore transplanted as a garrison colony to help maintain order in a newly conquered province, or, alternatively, be seen as questionably loyal and therefore settled among more loyal populations. In certain cases, colonizing mitmaq groups were used to exploit ecozones not seen as efficiently or productively used by native groups. Despite moving perhaps hundreds of miles to new homes, mitmas were still considered members of their original, native group and land for census and mit'a purposes. The mitmaqkuna were not

5135-413: The throne while the rest of his descendants formed a panaqa , or royal lineage charged with maintaining the deceased king (in the form of his mummy) and his estates, in line with the practice of split inheritance . The deceased king himself, or rather his mallki (mummy), was believed to continue to communicate with the living and so was involved in the affairs of state, be they political or ceremonial. If

5214-594: The time the suyu were established they were roughly of equal size and only later changing their proportions as the empire expanded north and south along the Andes. Each suyu was further subdivided into wamani , or provinces. These wamani were districts that were roughly geographically coterminous with pre-conquest tribal groupings administered by a tokrikoq , or governor. However, the differential populations of these tribes were taken into account and if they were found to be too small to establish their own wamani , they were put together with other small tribes. Following

5293-435: The way of governing behavior, the state, too, had legal force, such as through tukuy rikuq (lit. "he who sees all"), or inspectors. The highest such inspector, typically a blood relation to the Sapa Inca, acted independently of the conventional hierarchy, providing a point of view for the Sapa Inca free of bureaucratic influence. Individuals could only be judged by those of higher rank. Moreover, ones as one's rank increased,

5372-455: Was a great deal of variation in the form that Inca bureaucracy and government took at the provincial level, the basic (perhaps, ideal) form of organization was decimal. In this system of organization, taxpayers—male heads of household of a certain age range—were organized into corvée units (which often doubled as military units) that formed the muscle of the state as part of mit'a service. Each level of jurisdiction above one hundred tax-payers

5451-402: Was captured in 1992 and put in prison. The region headed by Ayacucho is rural and one of the poorest of all the country. With the peace of the last 15 years, the citizens work hard to improve the living conditions and attract jobs. Owing to its high elevation, Ayacucho has a monsoon -influenced, cold semi-arid climate ( Köppen BSk ). Aside from precipitation and from a thermal standpoint,

5530-461: Was founded on Andean cosmology . This cosmology was hierarchical and dualistic , with a variety of opposing forces jostling in position through on-going action. Their worldview was animistic , and their amauta or amawt’a (teachers or sages) taught that the world was suffused with kamaq , meaning "breath" or "life-force". Change was understood as occurring through asymmetries in power between those forces, while pacha , an equilibrium or balance,

5609-502: Was headed by a kuraka , while those heading smaller units were kamayuq , a lower, non-hereditary status. However, while kuraka status was hereditary, one's actual position within the hierarchy (which was typically served for life) was subject to change based upon the privileges of those above them in the hierarchy; a pachaka kuraka (see below) could be appointed to their position by a waranqa kuraka . Furthermore, it has been suggested that one kuraka in each decimal level also served as

5688-608: Was inhabited by varying indigenous cultures for thousands of years. During the Early Intermediate period (200 BC – 600 AD) the Nazca culture settled in the south-west, and the Warpa culture arose in the center of the Ayacucho region, the Wari Empire emerged as Huarpa cultures interacted with the nearby Nasca Culture at a time of intense interregional exchanges and widespread disruption to existing cultural traditions. During

5767-404: Was led by a governor known as an apu , a title also given to generals and deified mountains. Beneath each suyu were wamani , or provinces, each of which were led by a governor known as a toqrikoq . These lower level governors administered the provinces with the assistance of michuq officers, khipu kamayuq record keepers, kuraka officials, and yanakuna retainers. The primary functions of

5846-561: Was likely not organized as a wamani . Rather, it was probably somewhat akin to a modern federal district , like Washington, D.C., or Mexico City. The city sat at the center of the four suyu and served as the preeminent center of politics and religion. While Cuzco was essentially governed by the Sapa Inca, his relatives, and the royal panaqa lineages, each suyu was governed by an Apu , a term of great esteem used for men of very high status and for venerated mountains. Just as with so much of Andean society and Inca administration, both Cuzco as

5925-585: Was maintained as the prestige dialect in the north. Speakers from different points within any of the three regions can generally understand one another reasonably well. There are nonetheless significant local-level differences across each. ( Wanka Quechua , in particular, has several very distinctive characteristics that make the variety more challenging to understand, even for other Central Quechua speakers.) Speakers from different major regions, particularly Central or Southern Quechua, are not able to communicate effectively. The lack of mutual intelligibility among

6004-576: Was named after the Aymara -speaking Qolla people and was the largest of the quarters in terms of area. This suyu encompassed the Bolivian Altiplano and much of the southern Andes, running down into Argentina and as far south as the Maule river near modern Santiago, Chile. Cuntisuyu or Kuntisuyu was the smallest suyu of all was located along the southern coast of modern Peru, extending into

6083-548: Was reopened in 1959. The city's population began to increase, but violent political unrest destabilized the region forced migration of many. In 1980, the far-left terrorist organization known as the Shining Path ( Sendero Luminoso ) used Ayachucho as its base for its campaign against the Peruvian government, even staging an assault on the Ayacucho prison in 1982. The campaign faded after the leader Abimael Guzmán Reynoso

6162-426: Was struck through ayni , a process of reciprocal exchange . The essential beliefs and divinities of the Inca pantheon were widely established in the Andes by the time the empire arose. Conrad and Demerest argue that these pre-established beliefs were key to the ideological effectiveness of later Inca reforms. While a belief in any number of "high gods", those preeminent aspects of a given pantheon, were common before

6241-581: Was titled La Muy Noble y Leal Ciudad de Huamanga (the most noble and loyal city of Huamanga), the highest designation in the Spanish hierarchy of naming cities. The city's main University was founded on July 3, 1677, as San Cristóbal of Huamanga University . Ayacucho was significant in the colonial era for being an administrative center, a stopping-off point between Lima and Cuzco, and the residence of mercury miner from Huancavelica , as well as local land owners. On February 15, 1825, Simón Bolívar changed

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