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74-515: Aybak ( Turkic : ay , moon ; bak , commander ) was an Emir/commander of Turkic origin who served with other Turkmens in the court of the Ayyubid sultan as-Salih Ayyub and therefore was known among the Bahri Mamluks as Aybak al-Turkmani. He raised to the position of Emir (commander) and worked as a Jashnkir (taster of the sultan's food and drink, or cupbearer) and used the rank of

148-498: A language family of more than 35 documented languages, spoken by the Turkic peoples of Eurasia from Eastern Europe and Southern Europe to Central Asia , East Asia , North Asia ( Siberia ), and West Asia . The Turkic languages originated in a region of East Asia spanning from Mongolia to Northwest China , where Proto-Turkic is thought to have been spoken, from where they expanded to Central Asia and farther west during

222-683: A Khawanja (Sultan's accountant). After the death of as-Salih Ayyub during the Frankish invasion of Damietta in 1249 and the murder of his heir and son Turanshah in 1250, Shajar al-Durr , the widow of as-Salih Ayyub, with the help and support of the Mamluks of her late husband, seized the throne and became the Sultana of Egypt. The Ayyubids lost control over Egypt. Both the Ayyubids in Syria and

296-718: A conspiracy with Qutuz and a few Mamluks, Aybak invited Aktai to the citadel and had him murdered. Watching the head of Aktai thrown out from the citadel, the Bahriyya Mamluks, among them Baibars al-Bunduqdari and Qalawun al-Alfi , fled during the night to Damascus, al-Karak and the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm . Aybak plundered the properties of the Bahriyya Mamluks and retracted Alexandria which Aktai controlled as own domain since 1252. Those who could not flee were either imprisoned or executed. As soon as he finished with Aktai and his Bahriyya Mamluks, Aybak dethroned

370-710: A courageous and generous Sultan. Aybak ruled in a turbulent time. In addition to his conflicts with an-Nasir Yusuf in Syria and Emir Aktai and his Mamluks in Egypt, there were threats from external forces, namely the Crusaders and Louis IX of France who were in Acre waiting for a chance to score a success against the Muslims after their humiliating defeat in Egypt in 1250, and the Mongols led by Hulagu who were starting to raid

444-583: A force to Gaza to observe the small Mongol garrison there, which Baibars easily defeated. After spending a day in Gaza, Qutuz led his army along the coast towards Acre , a city that remains a remnant of the Kingdom of Jerusalem Crusader state . The Crusaders were traditional enemies of the Mamluks and had been approached by the Mongols about forming a Franco-Mongol alliance . However, the Crusaders recognized

518-452: A result, there exist several systems to classify the Turkic languages. The modern genetic classification schemes for Turkic are still largely indebted to Samoilovich (1922). The Turkic languages may be divided into six branches: In this classification, Oghur Turkic is also referred to as Lir-Turkic, and the other branches are subsumed under the title of Shaz-Turkic or Common Turkic . It

592-463: Is a common characteristic of major language families spoken in Inner Eurasia ( Mongolic , Tungusic , Uralic and Turkic), the type of harmony found in them differs from each other, specifically, Uralic and Turkic have a shared type of vowel harmony (called palatal vowel harmony ) whereas Mongolic and Tungusic represent a different type. The homeland of the Turkic peoples and their language

666-443: Is currently regarded as one of the world's primary language families . Turkic is one of the main members of the controversial Altaic language family , but Altaic currently lacks support from a majority of linguists. None of the theories linking Turkic languages to other families have a wide degree of acceptance at present. Shared features with languages grouped together as Altaic have been interpreted by most mainstream linguists to be

740-582: Is not clear when these two major types of Turkic can be assumed to have diverged. With less certainty, the Southwestern, Northwestern, Southeastern and Oghur groups may further be summarized as West Turkic , the Northeastern, Kyrgyz-Kipchak, and Arghu (Khalaj) groups as East Turkic . Geographically and linguistically, the languages of the Northwestern and Southeastern subgroups belong to

814-690: Is one of the most popular Mamluk sultans in the Islamic world and holds a high position in Islamic history. Qutuz was a Turkic prince from Persia, captured by the Mongols during the fall of the Khwarazmian dynasty c.  1231 , he was taken to Damascus where he was sold to an Egyptian slave merchant who then sold him to Aybak , the Mamluk sultan in Cairo . According to sources, Qutuz's name

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888-517: Is suggested to be somewhere between the Transcaspian steppe and Northeastern Asia ( Manchuria ), with genetic evidence pointing to the region near South Siberia and Mongolia as the "Inner Asian Homeland" of the Turkic ethnicity. Similarly several linguists, including Juha Janhunen , Roger Blench and Matthew Spriggs, suggest that modern-day Mongolia is the homeland of the early Turkic language. Relying on Proto-Turkic lexical items about

962-411: Is the least harmonic or not harmonic at all. Taking into account the documented historico-linguistic development of Turkic languages overall, both inscriptional and textual, the family provides over one millennium of documented stages as well as scenarios in the linguistic evolution of vowel harmony which, in turn, demonstrates harmony evolution along a confidently definable trajectory Though vowel harmony

1036-604: Is widely rejected by historical linguists. Similarities with the Uralic languages even caused these families to be regarded as one for a long time under the Ural-Altaic hypothesis. However, there has not been sufficient evidence to conclude the existence of either of these macrofamilies. The shared characteristics between the languages are attributed presently to extensive prehistoric language contact . Turkic languages are null-subject languages , have vowel harmony (with

1110-415: The ğ in dağ and dağlı is not realized as a consonant, but as a slight lengthening of the preceding vowel. The following table is based mainly upon the classification scheme presented by Lars Johanson . [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The following is a brief comparison of cognates among the basic vocabulary across

1184-582: The Abbasid Caliph al-Musta'sim in Baghdad defied the Mamluk move in Egypt and refused to recognize Shajar al-Durr as a Sultana but the Mamluks in Egypt renewed their oath to the new Sultana, and she appointed Aybak to the important position of Atabeg (commander in chief). Feeling uneasy when the Syrian Emirs refused to pay homage to Shajar al-Durr and granted Damascus to an-Nasir Yusuf

1258-606: The Catholic missionaries sent to the Western Cumans inhabiting a region corresponding to present-day Hungary and Romania . The earliest records of the language spoken by Volga Bulgars , debatably the parent or a distant relative of Chuvash language , are dated to the 13th–14th centuries AD. With the Turkic expansion during the Early Middle Ages (c. 6th–11th centuries AD), Turkic languages, in

1332-559: The Chuvash language from other Turkic languages. According to him, the Chuvash language does not share certain common characteristics with Turkic languages to such a degree that some scholars consider it an independent Chuvash family similar to Uralic and Turkic languages. Turkic classification of Chuvash was seen as a compromise solution for the classification purposes. Some lexical and extensive typological similarities between Turkic and

1406-519: The Crusaders . The Battle of Ain Jalut was fought on 3 September 1260 in southeastern Galilee between the Egyptian Mamluk army and the Mongols. In what has been considered a historical turning point, the Mongols were crushingly defeated by Qutuz's forces. Qutuz was assassinated by a fellow Mamluk leader, Baibars , on the triumphant return journey to Cairo. Although Qutuz's reign was short, he

1480-624: The Jordan River , at which point Qutuz and Baibars led their forces to meet the Mongols at Ain Jalut . The Battle of Ain Jalut was fought on 3 September 1260, and was one of the most important battles and a turning point in history. In 1250, only ten years before the battle, the Bahariyya Mamluks (Qutuz, Baibars, and Qalawun) led Egypt against the Seventh Crusade of King Louis IX of France . The Mongol army at Ain Jalut

1554-643: The Mongols . He led the Khwarezmian mercenaries in the Battle of Forbie and crushed the Crusader forces. Qutuz faced the Cruaders again in the Seventh Crusade . This time, as an Ayyubid general. He defeated them in the Battle of Mansurah and the Battle of Fariskur . Hulagu and his forces were proceeding towards Damascus. Some Syrian emirs suggested that an-Nasir Yusuf surrender and submit to Hulagu, as

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1628-471: The " Turco-Mongol " tradition. The two groups shared a similar religion system, Tengrism , and there exists a multitude of evident loanwords between Turkic languages and Mongolic languages . Although the loans were bidirectional, today Turkic loanwords constitute the largest foreign component in Mongolian vocabulary. Italian historian and philologist Igor de Rachewiltz noted a significant distinction of

1702-654: The Ayyubid emir of Aleppo , Shajar al-Durr married Aybak then abdicated and passed the throne to Aybak after she ruled Egypt for 80 days, starting on May 2, 1250. Aybak, from the end of July 1250 the new sultan of Egypt, was given the royal name al-Malik al-Muizz. Until then, Aybak relied foremost on four Mamluks: Faris ad-Din Aktai , Baibars al-Bunduqdari , Qutuz and Bilban al-Rashidi. Aybak's formal rule ended after just five days. To consolidate his position of Aybak, and attempting to satisfy their opponents in Syria and Baghdad,

1776-644: The Bahariyya Faris ad-Din Aktai during Sultan Aybak 's reign or due to Qutuz's decision to grant Aleppo to al-Malik al-Said Ala'a ad-Din the Emir of Mosul, instead of to Baibars as had promised to him before the Battle of Ain Jalut . Qutuz was first buried in Al-Qusair and then reburied near Masjid Sultan Qutuz in El Nozha, Heliopolis . Baibars returned to Cairo, which was undergoing celebrations on

1850-687: The Bahri Mamluks installed the 6-year-old al-Ashraf Musa , who was one of the Syrian branch of the Ayyubid family as a Sultan and announced that Aybak is merely a representative of the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad. In addition, and to display his loyalty to his deceased Ayyubid master as-Salih Ayyub, Aybak organised a funeral ceremony for as-Salih and buried him in the tomb which as-Salih had built for himself before his death near his madrasah in

1924-584: The Bahriyya Mamluks in Al-Karak as some of them wanted to support their followers in Egypt. In February 1258, the Mongol army sacked Baghdad , massacred its inhabitants, and killed the Abbasid Caliph Al-Musta'sim . They then advanced towards present-day Syria, which was then ruled by the Ayyubid ruler an-Nasir Yusuf , who received a threatening letter from Hulagu . Vice-Sultan Qutuz and

1998-474: The Egyptian Emirs were alarmed by a message from an-Nasir Yusuf in which he appealed for immediate help from Egypt. The emirs assembled at the court of the 15-year-old Sultan Al-Mansur Ali, and Qutuz told them that because of the seriousness of the situation, Egypt should have a strong and capable sultan who could fight the Mongols. On 12 November 1259, Al-Mansur Ali was deposed by Qutuz. When Qutuz became

2072-578: The Egyptian border, this time accompanied by the Bahriyya Mamluks who had fled to Syria, including Baibars al-Bunduqdari and Qalawun al-Alfi. Being in need to form an alliance with an ally who could help him against the threat of the Mamluks who had fled to Syria, Aybak decided in 1257 to marry the daughter of Badr ad-Din Lu'lu' , the emir of Mosul. At the beginning of his reign, his wife, Shajar al-Durr dominated Aybak in all his affairs. He had no say with her and

2146-543: The Faith Qutuz ' ), was the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt . He reigned as Sultan for less than a year, from 1259 until his assassination in 1260, but served as the de facto ruler for two decades. Sold into slavery in Egypt , he rose to become vice-sultan for more than 20 years, becoming the power behind the throne. He was prominent in defeating the Seventh Crusade , which invaded Egypt in 1248–1254. When Egypt

2220-843: The Levant and were recognized by the Ayyubids and the others as legitimate rulers. When Hulagu heard about the defeat of the Mongol Army, he executed An-Nasir Yusuf near Tabriz . Hulagu kept threatening the Mamluk Sultanate, but soon he was struck hard by conflicts with the Mongols of the Golden Horde , in the western half of the Eurasian Steppe during the Berke–Hulagu war . Hulagu died in 1265 and would never avenge

2294-436: The Mongol army was approaching Aleppo , he sent his wife, his son, and his money to Egypt. The population of Damascus and other Syrian towns began to flee. After besieging Aleppo for seven days, the Mongols sacked it and massacred its population. When an-Nasir Yusuf heard about the fall of Aleppo, he fled to Egypt, leaving Damascus and its remaining population defenseless, but Qutuz denied him entry. An-Nasir Yusuf thus stayed on

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2368-465: The Mongols as the greater threat that year. Qutuz suggested a military alliance with the Crusaders against the Mongols, but the Crusaders opted to stay neutral. However, they allowed Qutuz and his forces to travel unmolested through Crusader territory and to camp and resupply near the Crusader stronghold of Acre. Qutuz and his army stayed there for three days until they heard that the Mongols had crossed

2442-422: The Mongols. But the emirs showed timidity. Qutuz shamed them into joining him with the statement, "Emirs of the Muslims, for some time now you have been fed by the country treasury and you hate to be invaded. I will go alone and who likes to join me should do that and who does not like to join me should go back home, but who will not join will carry the sin of not defending our women." Qutuz ordered Baibars to lead

2516-519: The Syrian coast. Feeling secure by his victories and his agreement with the Ayyubids, Aybak imprisoned the young Ayyubid co-sultan Musa and appointed Qutuz as vice-sultan in 1252. In 1253, a serious rebellion led by Hisn al-Din Thalab in Upper and Middle Egypt was crushed by Aktai, the leader of the Bahri Mamluks. By defeating the Ayyubid forces of An-Nasir Yusuf and the crushing of the rebellion of Thalab

2590-453: The Turkic family. There is a high degree of mutual intelligibility , upon moderate exposure, among the various Oghuz languages , which include Turkish , Azerbaijani , Turkmen , Qashqai , Chaharmahali Turkic , Gagauz , and Balkan Gagauz Turkish , as well as Oghuz-influenced Crimean Tatar . Other Turkic languages demonstrate varying amounts of mutual intelligibility within their subgroups as well. Although methods of classification vary,

2664-442: The Turkic language family (about 60 words). Despite being cognates, some of the words may denote a different meaning. Empty cells do not necessarily imply that a particular language is lacking a word to describe the concept, but rather that the word for the concept in that language may be formed from another stem and is not cognate with the other words in the row or that a loanword is used in its place. Also, there may be shifts in

2738-496: The Turkic languages are usually considered to be divided into two branches: Oghur , of which the only surviving member is Chuvash , and Common Turkic , which includes all other Turkic languages. Turkic languages show many similarities with the Mongolic , Tungusic , Koreanic , and Japonic languages. These similarities have led some linguists (including Talât Tekin ) to propose an Altaic language family , though this proposal

2812-593: The West. (See picture in the box on the right above.) For centuries, the Turkic-speaking peoples have migrated extensively and intermingled continuously, and their languages have been influenced mutually and through contact with the surrounding languages, especially the Iranian , Slavic , and Mongolic languages . This has obscured the historical developments within each language and/or language group, and as

2886-520: The air and shouted "O Islam", and advanced towards the damaged side, followed by his unit. The Mongols were pushed back and fled to the vicinity of Beisan , Qutuz's forces quickly followed them, but they managed to gather and returned to the battlefield making a successful counterattack. Qutuz cried loudly three times, "O Islam! O God grant your servant Qutuz a victory against the Mongols". The Mongols with their Christian allies were then defeated by Qutuz's army and fled to Syria where they became prey for

2960-521: The audacity of this young boy would reply, "Are you Crazy?" But Qutuz stood firm and told his teacher, "I saw the messenger of Allah, peace be upon him in a dream and told me that you will possess the Egyptian Lands and defeat the Tatar, and the messenger of Allah, peace be upon him always speaks the truth." Qutuz's determination was reinforced by this dream, giving him the faith and belief to resist

3034-433: The best solution was to save themselves and Syria. Baibars, who was present at the meeting, was upset by the suggestion, and the Mamluks decided to kill an-Nasir Yusuf that night. However, he escaped with his brother to the citadel of Damascus . Baibars and the Mamluks then left Syria, traveling to Egypt where they were warmly welcomed by Sultan Qutuz, who granted Baibars the town of Qalyub . When an-Nasir Yusuf heard that

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3108-436: The border of Egypt while his emirs deserted him and proceeded into the country. Sultan Qutuz ordered the seizing of an-Nasir Yusuf's jewelry and money, which were sent to Egypt with his wife and servants. Sixteen days after the fall of Aleppo to the Mongols, Damascus surrendered without a fight. An-Nasir Yusuf was taken prisoner by the Mamluks and sent to Hulagu. With the centers of Islamic power in Syria and Baghdad conquered,

3182-757: The center of the Islamic power transferred to Egypt and became Hulagu's next target. Hulagu sent messengers to Cairo with a threatening letter, urging Qutuz to surrender and submit to the Mongols. Qutuz's response was to execute the messengers. They were sliced in half, and their heads were mounted on the Bab Zuweila gate in Cairo. Then, rather than waiting for the Mongols to attack, Qutuz decided to raise an army to engage them outside of Egypt. Moroccans who resided in Egypt fled westward, while Yemenis escaped to Yemen and Hejaz . Qutuz went to Al-Salihiyya and assembled his commanders to decide on when to march against

3256-433: The central Turkic languages, while the Northeastern and Khalaj languages are the so-called peripheral languages. Hruschka, et al. (2014) use computational phylogenetic methods to calculate a tree of Turkic based on phonological sound changes . The following isoglosses are traditionally used in the classification of the Turkic languages: Additional isoglosses include: *In the standard Istanbul dialect of Turkish,

3330-496: The child co-sultan al-Ashraf Musa and sent him back to his aunts' house, which was his home before they had made him a co-sultan. Now Aybak was the absolute and sole ruler of Egypt and parts of Syria, but shortly afterwards he settled a new agreement with an-Nasir Yusuf, which limited his power to Egypt only. In 1255 a new rebellion led by his namesake Izz al-Din Aybak al-Afram arose in upper Egypt and forces of an-Nasir Yusuf arrived to

3404-584: The climate, topography, flora, fauna, people's modes of subsistence, Turkologist Peter Benjamin Golden locates the Proto-Turkic Urheimat in the southern, taiga-steppe zone of the Sayan - Altay region. Extensive contact took place between Proto-Turks and Proto-Mongols approximately during the first millennium BC; the shared cultural tradition between the two Eurasian nomadic groups is called

3478-786: The common morphological elements between Korean and Turkic are not less numerous than between Turkic and other Altaic languages, strengthens the possibility that there is a close genetic affinity between Korean and Turkic. Many historians also point out a close non-linguistic relationship between Turkic peoples and Koreans . Especially close were the relations between the Göktürks and Goguryeo . Qutuz Sayf al-Din Qutuz ( Arabic : سيف الدين قطز ; died 24 October 1260), also romanized as Kutuz or Kotuz and fully al-Malik al-Muẓaffar Sayf ad-Dīn Quṭuz ( الملك المظفر سيف الدين قطز lit.   ' The Victorious King , Sword of

3552-612: The course of just a few centuries, spread across Central Asia , from Siberia to the Mediterranean . Various terminologies from the Turkic languages have passed into Persian , Urdu , Ukrainian , Russian , Chinese , Mongolian , Hungarian and to a lesser extent, Arabic . The geographical distribution of Turkic-speaking peoples across Eurasia since the Ottoman era ranges from the North-East of Siberia to Turkey in

3626-725: The defeat of the Mongols at Ain Jalut. Some of the earliest explosive hand cannons ( midfa in Arabic) were employed by the Mamluk Egyptians during the battle to frighten the Mongol horses and cavalry and cause disorder in their ranks. The Mamluks under Qutuz then went on to take back all of the Levant . On his way back to Cairo, Qutuz was assassinated while on a hunting expedition in Salihiyah . According to both modern and medieval Muslim historians such as al-Maqrizi , Baibars

3700-476: The district of Bain al-Qasrain in Cairo . Nevertheless, the actual power in Egypt was still exercised by Aybak, who had returned to his position of atabak (atabeg). An-Nasir Yusuf sent his forces to Gaza to conquer Egypt and overthrow Aybak but his forces were defeated by Emir Faris ad-Din Aktai in October 1250. Then he led a huge army and clashed with Aybak's army near Al-Salihiyya, not far from Cairo, but at

3774-403: The early Turkic language. According to him, words related to nature, earth and ruling but especially to the sky and stars seem to be cognates. The linguist Choi suggested already in 1996 a close relationship between Turkic and Korean regardless of any Altaic connections: In addition, the fact that the morphological elements are not easily borrowed between languages, added to the fact that

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3848-781: The eastern borders of the Islamic world. Before their deaths, Aybak and Shajar al-Durr firmly established the Mamluk Sultanate that would ultimately repulse the Mongols , expel the European Crusaders from the Holy Land , and would remain the most powerful political force in the Middle East until the coming of the Ottomans . Aibak built a Madrasah in Cairo known by the name al-Madrasah al-Mu'izzyah. Turkic languages The Turkic languages are

3922-457: The end of the battle he was forced to flee to Damascus while his son Turanshah, his brother Nosrat ad-Din and al-Malik al-Ashraf the Emir of Aleppo were among the prisoners caught by Aybak's army. Aybak's triumphs over the Ayyobids of Syria consolidated his position as a ruler of Egypt. Through negotiation and mediation of the Abbasid Caliph, Aybak freed the Ayyubid prisoners and gained control over southern Palestine including Gaza and Jerusalem and

3996-417: The family. The Compendium is the first comprehensive dictionary of the Turkic languages and also includes the first known map of the Turkic speakers' geographical distribution. It mainly pertains to the Southwestern branch of the family. The Codex Cumanicus (12th–13th centuries AD) concerning the Northwestern branch is another early linguistic manual, between the Kipchak language and Latin , used by

4070-496: The first millennium. They are characterized as a dialect continuum . Turkic languages are spoken by some 200 million people. The Turkic language with the greatest number of speakers is Turkish , spoken mainly in Anatolia and the Balkans ; its native speakers account for about 38% of all Turkic speakers, followed by Uzbek . Characteristic features such as vowel harmony , agglutination , subject-object-verb order, and lack of grammatical gender , are almost universal within

4144-450: The future of Islam and the Christian west as well depended on the outcome of that battle. Baibars, known to be a swift commander, led the vanguard and succeeded in his maneuver and lured the Mongol army to Ain Jalut, where the Egyptian army led by Qutuz waited. The Egyptians at first failed to counter the Mongol attack and were scattered after the left flank of their army suffered severe damage, but Qutuz stood firm; he threw his helmet into

4218-424: The local population. Qutuz kissed the ground and prayed while the soldiers collected the booty. Kitbuqa, the Commander of the Mongol army, was killed, and his head was sent to Cairo. This was the first defeat suffered by the Mongols since they attacked the Islamic world. They fled from Damascus, then from the whole of the northern Levant. Qutuz entered Damascus with his army and sent Baibars to Homs to liquidate

4292-855: The meaning from one language to another, and so the "Common meaning" given is only approximate. In some cases, the form given is found only in some dialects of the language, or a loanword is much more common (e.g. in Turkish, the preferred word for "fire" is the Persian-derived ateş , whereas the native od is dead). Forms are given in native Latin orthographies unless otherwise noted. (to press with one's knees) Azerbaijani "ǝ" and "ä": IPA /æ/ Azerbaijani "q": IPA /g/, word-final "q": IPA /x/ Turkish and Azerbaijani "ı", Karakhanid "ɨ", Turkmen "y", and Sakha "ï": IPA /ɯ/ Turkmen "ň", Karakhanid "ŋ": IPA /ŋ/ Turkish and Azerbaijani "y",Turkmen "ý" and "j" in other languages: IPA /j/ All "ş" and "š" letters: IPA /ʃ/ All "ç" and "č" letters: IPA /t͡ʃ/ Kyrgyz "c": IPA /d͡ʒ/ Kazakh "j": IPA /ʒ/ The Turkic language family

4366-795: The nearby Tungusic and Mongolic families, as well as the Korean and Japonic families has in more recent years been instead attributed to prehistoric contact amongst the group, sometimes referred to as the Northeast Asian sprachbund . A more recent (circa first millennium BC) contact between "core Altaic" (Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic) is distinguished from this, due to the existence of definitive common words that appear to have been mostly borrowed from Turkic into Mongolic, and later from Mongolic into Tungusic, as Turkic borrowings into Mongolic significantly outnumber Mongolic borrowings into Turkic, and Turkic and Tungusic do not share any words that do not also exist in Mongolic. Turkic languages also show some Chinese loanwords that point to early contact during

4440-422: The new sultan, he promised the emirs that they could install any other sultan after he defeated the Mongols. Qutuz kept Emir Faris ad-Din Aktai al-Mostareb as the Atabeg of the Egyptian army and began to prepare for battle. When Qutuz was a young boy living in Damascus , he confidently proclaimed to his teacher, "I will give you Egypt and it's treasury and I will break the Tatar." His teacher, dumbfounded by

4514-434: The notable exception of Uzbek due to strong Persian-Tajik influence), converbs , extensive agglutination by means of suffixes and postpositions , and lack of grammatical articles , noun classes , and grammatical gender . Subject–object–verb word order is universal within the family. In terms of the level of vowel harmony in the Turkic language family, Tuvan is characterized as almost fully harmonic whereas Uzbek

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4588-404: The power of Emir Aktai and his Mamluks increased and they began to form a new threat to the authority of Aybak. When Aktai asked Aybak to allow him to live inside the citadel with his future wife who was the sister of al-Malik al-Mansour , the Emir of Hama , Aybak became convinced that Aktai and his Mamluks had the intention to overthrow him and, thus, he decided to get rid of them. In 1254, in

4662-405: The remaining Mongols. While Qutuz nominated Alam ad-Din Sonjar as the sultan's deputy in Damascus, Qutuz granted Aleppo to al-Malik al-Said Ala'a ad-Din as the Emir of Mosul; also a new Abbasid Caliph was about to be installed by Qutuz. The Levant region from the border of Egypt to the river Euphrates was freed from the Mongols' control. After this victory, the Mamluks stretched their sovereignty to

4736-464: The result of a sprachbund . The possibility of a genetic relation between Turkic and Korean , independently from Altaic, is suggested by some linguists. The linguist Kabak (2004) of the University of Würzburg states that Turkic and Korean share similar phonology as well as morphology . Li Yong-Sŏng (2014) suggest that there are several cognates between Turkic and Old Korean . He states that these supposed cognates can be useful to reconstruct

4810-453: The time of Proto-Turkic . The first established records of the Turkic languages are the eighth century AD Orkhon inscriptions by the Göktürks , recording the Old Turkic language, which were discovered in 1889 in the Orkhon Valley in Mongolia. The Compendium of the Turkic Dialects ( Divânü Lügati't-Türk ), written during the 11th century AD by Kaşgarlı Mahmud of the Kara-Khanid Khanate , constitutes an early linguistic treatment of

4884-407: The victory over the Mongols, where he became the new sultan. The people at once admired Baibars as he revoked the war taxes that Qutuz had imposed. The coins during the reign of Qutuz are unique in the history of Mamluk coinages as no other names except his names and titles were inscribed on them: al-Malik al-Muzafar Saif al-Donya wa al-Din ("The victorious king, sword of the temporal world and of

4958-482: Was Mahmud ibn Mamdud. His father, Mamdud Al-Khawarazmi, was an Anushtegin Prince who was married to the sister of Jalal al-Din Mangburni . Qutuz was the maternal nephew of Jalal Al-Din and the maternal grandson of Ala ad-Din Muhammad II , both were the last 2 rulers of the Khwarazmian Empire . The name Qutuz, came from a Turkic language and meant "Vicioust Beast." He was the most prominent Mu'izi Mamluk of Sultan Aybak, and then became his vice-sultan in 1253. Aybak

5032-400: Was about 60 years old and had a few sons, among them Nasir ad-Din Khan and al-Mansur Ali . Aybak's 11-year-old son Ali was installed by his loyal Mamluks (Mu'iziyya Mamluks), who were led by Qutuz. The new sultan took the royal name al-Malik al-Mansur Nour ad-Din Ali with Qutuz as a vice-sultan. Aybak was not liked nor respected by the Egyptians though he was remembered by the historian as

5106-403: Was always reminding him of her favour to him by bringing him to power, after her abdication, and she said to him: "Without me, you would have never made it to the sultanate, and you cannot keep it? without me you are nothing". Shajar al-Durr, who had disputes with Aybak felt betrayed by the man who she made sultan, and had him murdered after he had ruled Egypt seven years. On the day of his death he

5180-409: Was assassinated in 1257, and Qutuz remained as vice-sultan for Aybak's son al-Mansur Ali . Qutuz led the Mu'izi Mamluks who had arrested Aybak's widow Shajar al-Durr and installed al-Mansur Ali as the new sultan of Egypt. In November 1257 and April 1258, he defeated raids from the forces of al-Malik al-Mughith of Al-Karak which were supported by the Bahriyya Mamluks . The raids caused a dispute among

5254-407: Was involved in the assassination. Al-Maqrizi further explains that the emirs who struck down Qutuz were Emir Badr ad-Din Baktut, Emir Ons, and Emir Bahadir al-Mu'izzi. Western historians mention that Baibars was in on the conspiracy and assign him direct responsibility. Muslim chroniclers from the Mamluk era stated that Baibars' motivation was either to avenge the killing of his friend, the leader of

5328-525: Was led by Kitbuqa , a Nestorian Christian Naiman Mongol , and accompanied by the Christian king of Cilician Armenia and also by the Christian prince of Antioch . After the fall of Khawarezm , Baghdad and Syria, Egypt was the last citadel of Islam in the Middle East, and the existence of crusade beach-heads along the coast of the Levant presented a serious menace to the Islamic world. Therefore,

5402-492: Was obedient to her in all matters, both private and public. But over time, he started to disagree and move away from her, but he could not divorce her for three main reasons; First, the legitimacy of his reign was due to his marriage with her, second, her influence was very high, third, the threat of the Syrian Ayyubids was still present and he needed someone to manage political affairs in his long absence. Shajar al-Durr

5476-480: Was threatened by the Mongols in 1259, he took control of the military and deposed the reigning sultan, 15-year-old Sultan Al-Mansur Ali . The Mongols conquered the centers of Islamic power in Syria and Baghdad, and the center of the Islamic Empire moved to Egypt, which became their next target. Qutuz led an Egyptian Mamluk army north to confront the Mongols, who had made a pact with Egypt's long-time enemy,

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